David Ricardo

David Ricardo (18 April 1772 – 11 September 1823) was a

The Right Honourable
British political economist, one of the most influential of the
David Ricardo
classical economists along with Thomas Malthus, Adam Smith
and James Mill.[2][3]

Contents
Personal life
Parliamentary record
Death and legacy
Ideas
Value theory
Rent
Ricardo's theories of wages and profits
Ricardian theory of international trade Portrait of David Ricardo by Thomas
Comparative advantage Phillips, circa 1821. This painting
New interpretation shows Ricardo, aged 49, two years
before his death.
Protectionism
Member of Parliament
Technological change for Portarlington
Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade
In office
Ricardian equivalence 20 February 1819 – 11 September
Influence and intellectual legacy 1823
Ricardian socialists Preceded by Richard Sharp
Georgists Succeeded by James Farquhar
Neo-Ricardians
Personal details
Neo-Ricardian trade theory
Evolutionary growth theory Born 18 April 1772
London, England
Contemporary theories
Unequal exchange Died 11 September 1823
(aged 51)
Publications
Gatcombe Park,
References Gloucestershire,
Notes England
Bibliography
Nationality British
External links Political party Whig
Spouse(s) Priscilla Anne
Wilkinson
Personal life (m. 1793–1823)
Born in London, England, Ricardo was the third surviving of the Children 6 children,
17 children of Abigail Delvalle (1753–1801) and her husband including David the
Abraham Israel Ricardo (1733?–1812).[4] His family were Younger
Sephardic Jews of Portuguese origin who had recently relocated Profession Businessman ·
from the Dutch Republic.[5] His father was a successful economist
stockbroker[5] and Ricardo began working with him at the age of
Academic career
14. At the age of 21, Ricardo eloped with a Quaker, Priscilla
Anne Wilkinson, and, against his father's wishes, converted to the School or Classical
Unitarian faith.[6] This religious difference resulted in tradition economics
estrangement from his family, and he was led to adopt a position Influences Smith · Bentham
of independence.[7] His father disowned him and his mother
Contributions Ricardian
apparently never spoke to him again.[8]
equivalence, labour
theory of value,
Following this estrangement he went into business for himself
comparative
with the support of Lubbocks and Forster, an eminent banking
advantage, law of
house. He made the bulk of his fortune as a result of speculation
diminishing returns,
on the outcome of the Battle of Waterloo. The Sunday Times
Ricardian
reported in Ricardo's obituary, published on 14 September 1823,
socialism,
that during the Battle of Waterloo Ricardo "netted upwards of a
Economic rent[1]
million sterling", a huge sum at the time. He immediately retired,
his position on the floor no longer tenable, and subsequently
purchased Gatcombe Park, an estate in Gloucestershire, now owned by Princess Anne, the Princess
Royal and retired to the country. He was appointed High Sheriff of Gloucestershire for 1818–19.[9]

In August 1818 he bought Lord Portarlington's seat in Parliament for £4,000, as part of the terms of a
loan of £25,000. His record in Parliament was that of an earnest reformer. He held the seat until his death
five years later.

Ricardo was a close friend of James Mill. Other notable friends included Jeremy Bentham and Thomas
Malthus, with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role
of landowners in a society. He also was a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of
the King of Clubs. He was one of the original members of The Geological Society.[8] His youngest sister
was author Sarah Ricardo-Porter (e.g., Conversations in Arithmetic).

Parliamentary record
He voted with the opposition in support of the liberal movements in Naples, 21 February, and Sicily, 21
June, and for inquiry into the administration of justice in Tobago, 6 June. He divided for repeal of the
Blasphemous and Seditious Libels Act, 8 May, inquiry into the Peterloo massacre, 16 May, and abolition
of the death penalty for forgery, 25 May, 4 June 1821.

He adamantly supported the implementation of free trade. He voted against renewal of the sugar duties, 9
Feb, and objected to the higher duty on East as opposed to West Indian produce, 4 May 1821. He
opposed the timber duties. He voted silently for parliamentary reform, 25 Apr 3 June, and spoke in its
favour at the Westminster anniversary reform dinner, 23 May 1822. He again voted for criminal law
reform, 4 June.
His friend John Louis Mallett commented: " … he meets you upon every subject that he has studied with
a mind made up, and opinions in the nature of mathematical truths. He spoke of parliamentary reform
and ballot as a man who would bring such things about, and destroy the existing system tomorrow, if it
were in his power, and without the slightest doubt on the result … It is this very quality of the man’s
mind, his entire disregard of experience and practice, which makes me doubtful of his opinions on
political economy."

Death and legacy

Ten years after retiring and four years after entering Parliament Ricardo died from an infection of the
middle ear that spread into his brain and induced septicaemia. He was 51.

He and his wife Priscilla had eight children together including Osman Ricardo (1795–1881; MP for
Worcester 1847–1865), David Ricardo (1803–1864, MP for Stroud 1832–1833) and Mortimer Ricardo,
who served as an officer in the Life Guards and was a deputy lieutenant for Oxfordshire.[10]

Ricardo is buried in an ornate grave in the churchyard of Saint Nicholas in Hardenhuish, now a suburb of
Chippenham, Wiltshire. At the time of his death his assets were estimated at between £675,000–
£775,000.[4]

Ideas
He wrote his first economics article at age 37, firstly in The Morning Chronicle advocating reduction in
the note-issuing of the Bank of England and then publishing The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the
Depreciation of Bank Notes in 1810.[11]

He was also an abolitionist, speaking at a meeting of the Court of the East India Company in March
1823, where he said he regarded slavery as a stain on the character of the nation.[12]

Value theory
Ricardo's most famous work is his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817). He advanced a
labor theory of value:[13]

The value of a commodity, or the quantity of any other commodity for which it will
exchange, depends on the relative quantity of labour which is necessary for its production,
and not on the greater or less compensation which is paid for that labour.

Ricardo's note to Section VI:[14]

Mr. Malthus appears to think that it is a part of my doctrine, that the cost and value of a
thing be the same;—it is, if he means by cost, "cost of production" including profit.

Rent
Ricardo contributed to the development of theories of rent, wages, and profits. He defined rent as "the
difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labor."
Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land utilization and
eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, principally benefited landowners. According to Ricardo,
such premium over "real social value" that is reaped due to ownership constitutes value to an individual
but is at best[15] a paper monetary return to "society". The portion of such purely individual benefit that
accrues to scarce resources Ricardo labels "rent".

Ricardo's theories of wages and profits

In his Theory of Profit, Ricardo stated that as real wages increase, real profits decrease because the
revenue from the sale of manufactured goods is split between profits and wages. He said in his Essay on
Profits, "Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of
necessaries chiefly on the price of food."

Ricardian theory of international trade

Between 1500 and 1750 most economists advocated Mercantilism which promoted the idea of
international trade for the purpose of earning bullion by running a trade surplus with other countries.
Ricardo challenged the idea that the purpose of trade was merely to accumulate gold or silver. With
"comparative advantage" Ricardo argued in favour of industry specialisation and free trade. He suggested
that industry specialization combined with free international trade always produces positive results. This
theory expanded on the concept of absolute advantage.

Ricardo suggested that there is mutual national benefit from trade even if one country is more
competitive in every area than its trading counterpart and that a nation should concentrate resources only
in industries where it has a comparative advantage,[16] that is in those industries in which it has the
greatest competitive edge. Ricardo suggested that national industries which were, in fact, profitable and
internationally competitive should be jettisoned in favour of the most competitive industries, the
assumption being that subsequent economic growth would more than offset any economic dislocation
which would result from closing profitable and competitive national industries.

Ricardo attempted to prove theoretically that international trade is always beneficial.[17] Paul Samuelson
called the numbers used in Ricardo's example dealing with trade between England and Portugal the "four
magic numbers".[18] "In spite of the fact that the Portuguese could produce both cloth and wine with less
amount of labor, Ricardo suggested that both countries would benefit from trade with each other".

As for recent extensions of Ricardian models, see Ricardian trade theory extensions.

Comparative advantage
Ricardo's theory of international trade was reformulated by John Stuart Mill.[19] The term "comparative
advantage" was started by J. S. Mill and his contemporaries.

John Stuart Mill started a neoclassical turn of international trade theory, i.e. his formulation was inherited
by Alfred Marshall and others and contributed to the resurrection of anti-Ricardian concept of law of
supply and demand and induce the arrival neoclassical theory of value.[20]
New interpretation
Ricardo's four magic numbers has long been interpreted as comparison of two ratios of labor input
coefficients. This interpretation is now considered as erroneous. This point was first made by Roy J.
Ruffin[21] in 2002 and examined and explained in detail in Andrea Maneschi[22] in 2004. This is now
known as new interpretation but it has been mentioned by P. Sraffa in 1930 and by Kenzo Yukizawa in
1974.[23] The new interpretation affords totally new reading of Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy
and Taxation with regards to trade theory.[24]

Protectionism
Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for
agriculture. He believed that the British "Corn Laws" – imposing tariffs on agricultural products –
ensured that less-productive domestic land would be cultivated and rents would be driven up (Case &
Fair 1999, pp. 812, 813). Thus, profits would be directed toward landlords and away from the emerging
industrial capitalists. Ricardo believed landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than
invest. He believed the Corn Laws were leading to the stagnation of the British economy.[25] In 1846, his
nephew John Lewis Ricardo, MP for Stoke-upon-Trent, advocated free trade and the repeal of the Corn
Laws.

Modern empirical analysis of the Corn Laws yields mixed results.[26] Parliament repealed the Corn Laws
in 1846.

Technological change
Ricardo was concerned about the impact of technological change on labor in the short-term.[27] In 1821,
he wrote that he had become "convinced that the substitution of machinery for human labour, is often
very injurious to the interests of the class of labourers," and that "the opinion entertained by the labouring
class, that the employment of machinery is frequently detrimental to their interests, is not founded on
prejudice and error, but is conformable to the correct principles of political economy."[27]

Criticism of the Ricardian theory of trade

Ricardo himself was the first to recognize that comparative advantage is a domain-specific theory,
meaning that it applies only when certain conditions are met. Ricardo noted that the theory applies only
in situations where capital is immobile. Regarding his famous example, he wrote:

it would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists [and consumers] of England…

[that] the wine and cloth should both be made in Portugal [and that] the capital and labour
of England employed in making cloth should be removed to Portugal for that purpose.[28]

Ricardo recognized that applying his theory in situations where capital was mobile would result in
offshoring, and thereby economic decline and job loss. To correct for this, he argued that (i) most men of
property [will be] satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek[ing] a more
advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations, and (ii) that capital was functionally
immobile.[28]
Ricardo's argument in favour of free trade has also been attacked by those who believe trade restriction
can be necessary for the economic development of a nation. Utsa Patnaik claims that Ricardian theory of
international trade contains a logical fallacy. Ricardo assumed that in both countries two goods are
producible and actually are produced, but developed and underdeveloped countries often trade those
goods which are not producible in their own country. In these cases, one cannot define which country has
comparative advantage.[29]

Critics also argue that Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage is flawed in that it assumes production
is continuous and absolute. In the real world, events outside the realm of human control (e.g. natural
disasters) can disrupt production. In this case, specialisation could cripple a country that depends on
imports from foreign, naturally disrupted countries. For example, if an industrially based country trades
its manufactured goods with an agrarian country in exchange for agricultural products, a natural disaster
in the agricultural country (e.g. drought) may cause the industrially based country to starve.

As Joan Robinson pointed out, following the opening of free trade with England, Portugal endured
centuries of economic underdevelopment: "the imposition of free trade on Portugal killed off a promising
textile industry and left her with a slow-growing export market for wine, while for England, exports of
cotton cloth led to accumulation, mechanisation and the whole spiralling growth of the industrial
revolution". Robinson argued that Ricardo's example required that economies be in static equilibrium
positions with full employment and that there could not be a trade deficit or a trade surplus. These
conditions, she wrote, were not relevant to the real world. She also argued that Ricardo's math did not
take into account that some countries may be at different levels of development and that this raised the
prospect of 'unequal exchange' which might hamper a country's development, as we saw in the case of
Portugal.[30]

The development economist Ha-Joon Chang challenges the argument that free trade benefits every
country:

Ricardo’s theory is absolutely right—within its narrow confines. His theory correctly says
that, accepting their current levels of technology as given, it is better for countries to
specialize in things that they are relatively better at. One cannot argue with that. His theory
fails when a country wants to acquire more advanced technologies—that is, when it wants to
develop its economy. It takes time and experience to absorb new technologies, so
technologically backward producers need a period of protection from international
competition during this period of learning. Such protection is costly, because the country is
giving up the chance to import better and cheaper products. However, it is a price that has to
be paid if it wants to develop advanced industries. Ricardo’s theory is, thus seen, for those
who accept the status quo but not for those who want to change it.[31]

Ricardian equivalence
Another idea associated with Ricardo is Ricardian equivalence, an argument suggesting that in some
circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (i.e., whether to use tax revenue or
issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. This is due to the fact the public saves
its excess money to pay for expected future tax increases that will be used to pay off the debt. Ricardo
notes that the proposition is theoretically implied in the presence of intertemporal optimisation by
rational tax-payers: but that since tax-payers do not act so rationally, the proposition fails to be true in
practice. Thus, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist
Robert Barro is responsible for its modern prominence.

Influence and intellectual legacy

David Ricardo's ideas had a tremendous influence on later developments in economics. US economists
rank Ricardo as the second most influential economic thinker, behind Adam Smith, prior to the twentieth
century.[32]

Ricardo became the theoretical father of classical political economy. However, Schumpeter coined an
expression Ricardian vice, which indicates that rigorous logic does not provide a good economic
theory.[33] This criticism applies also to most neoclassical theories, which make heavy use of
mathematics, but are, according to him, theoretically unsound, because the conclusion being drawn does
not logically follow from the theories used to defend it.

Ricardian socialists
Ricardo's writings fascinated a number of early socialists in the 1820s, who thought his value theory had
radical implications. They argued that, in view of labor theory of value, labor produces the entire product,
and the profits capitalists get are a result of exploitations of workers.[34] These include Thomas
Hodgskin, William Thompson, John Francis Bray, and Percy Ravenstone.

Georgists
Georgists believe that rent, in the sense that Ricardo used, belongs to the community as a whole. Henry
George was greatly influenced by Ricardo, and often cited him, including in his most famous work,
Progress and Poverty from 1879. In the preface to the fourth edition, he wrote: "What I have done in this
book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth
perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the school of Proudhon and
Lasalle; to show that laissez faire (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble
dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of
many cloud grand and elevating perceptions."[35]

Neo-Ricardians
After the rise of the 'neoclassical' school, Ricardo's influence declined temporarily. It was Piero Sraffa,
the editor of the Collected Works of David Ricardo[36] and the author of seminal Production of
Commodities by Means of Commodities,[37] who resurrected Ricardo as the originator of another strand
of economics thought, which was effaced with the arrival of the neoclassical school. The new
interpretation of Ricardo and Sraffa's criticism against the marginal theory of value gave rise to a new
school, now named neo-Ricardian or Sraffian school. Major contributors to this school includes Luigi
Pasinetti (1930–), Pierangelo Garegnani (1930–2011), Ian Steedman (1941–), Geoffrey Harcourt
(1931–), Heinz Kurz (1946–), Neri Salvadori (1951–), Pier Paolo Saviotti (–) among others. See also
Neo-Ricardianism. The Neo-Ricardian school is sometimes seen to be a component of Post-Keynesian
economics.
Neo-Ricardian trade theory
Inspired by Piero Sraffa, a new strand of trade theory emerged and was named neo-Ricardian trade
theory. The main contributors include Ian Steedman and Stanley Metcalfe. They have criticised
neoclassical international trade theory, namely the Heckscher–Ohlin model on the basis that the notion of
capital as primary factor has no method of measuring it before the determination of profit rate (thus
trapped in a logical vicious circle).[38][39] This was a second round of the Cambridge capital controversy,
this time in the field of international trade.[40] Depoortère and Ravix judge that neo-Ricardian
contribution failed without giving effective impact on neoclassical trade theory, because it could not offer
"a genuine alternative approach from a classical point of view."[41]

Evolutionary growth theory

Several distinctive groups have sprung out of the neo-Ricardian school. One is the evolutionary growth
theory, developed notably by Luigi Pasinetti, J.S. Metcalfe, Pier Paolo Saviotti, and Koen Frenken and
others.[42][43]

Pasinetti[44][45] argued that the demand for any commodity came to stagnate and frequently decline,
demand saturation occurs. Introduction of new commodities (goods and services) is necessary to avoid
economic stagnation.

Contemporary theories
Ricardo's idea was even expanded to the case of continuum of goods by Dornbusch, Fischer, and
Samuelson[46] This formulation is employed for example by Matsuyama[47] and others.

Ricardian trade theory ordinarily assumes that the labour is the unique input. This is a deficiency as
intermediate goods are a great part of international trade. The situation changed after the appearance of
Yoshinori Shiozawa's work of 2007.[48] He has succeeded to incorporate traded input goods in his
model.[49]

Yeats found that 30% of world trade in manufacturing is intermediate inputs.[50] Bardhan and Jafee found
that intermediate inputs occupy 37 to 38% in the imports to the US for the years from 1992 to 1997,
whereas the percentage of intrafirm trade grew from 43% in 1992 to 52% in 1997.[51]

Unequal exchange
Chris Edward includes Emmanuel's unequal exchange theory among variations of neo-Ricardian trade
theory.[52] Arghiri Emmanuel argued that the Third World is poor because of the international
exploitation of labour.[53]

The unequal exchange theory of trade has been influential to the (new) dependency theory.[54]

Publications
Ricardo's publications included:

The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes (1810), which
advocated the adoption of a metallic currency.
 Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the
Profits of Stock (1815), which argued that repealing the
Corn Laws would distribute more wealth to the
productive members of society.
On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
(1817), an analysis that concluded that land rent grows
as population increases. It also clearly laid out the
theory of comparative advantage, which argued that all
nations could benefit from free trade, even if a nation
was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than
its trading partners.
His works and writings were collected in Ricardo, David (1981).
The works and correspondence of David Ricardo (1st paperback
ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521285054. OCLC 10251383 (https://www.worldcat.org/
oclc/10251383).

References
Works, 1852
Notes
1. Miller, Roger LeRoy. Economics Today. Fifteenth Edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
p. 559
2. Sowell, Thomas (2006). On classical economics. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
3. "David Ricardo | Policonomics" (http://www.policonomics.com/david-ricardo/).
4. Matthew, H. C. G.; Harrison, B., eds. (23 September 2004). "The Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography" (http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/23471). Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. ref:odnb/23471.
doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/23471 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F23471). Retrieved
14 December 2019. (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/s
ubscribe#public) required.)
5. Heertje, Arnold (2004). "The Dutch and Portuguese-Jewish background of David Ricardo".
European Journal of the History of Economic Thought. 11 (2): 281–94.
doi:10.1080/0967256042000209288 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0967256042000209288).
6. Francisco Solano Constancio, Paul Henri Alcide Fonteyraud. 1847. Œuvres complètes de
David Ricardo (https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/%C5%92uvres_compl%C3%A8tes_de_David_
Ricardo/Notice), Guillaumin, (pp. v–xlviii): A part sa conversion au Christianisme et son
mariage avec une femme qu'il eut l'audace grande d'aimer malgré les ordres de son père
7. Ricardo, David. 1919. Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. G. Bell, p. lix: "by
reason of a religious difference with his father, to adopt a position of independence at a time
when he should have been undergoing that academic training"
8. Sraffa, Piero; David Ricardo (1955), The Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo:
Volume 10, Biographical Miscellany, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, p. 434,
ISBN 0-521-06075-3
9. "No. 17326" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/17326/page/188). The London
Gazette. 24 January 1818. p. 188.
10. "RICARDO, David (1772–1823), of Gatcombe Park, Minchinhampton, Glos. and 56 Upper
Brook Street, Grosvenor Square, Mdx" (http://www.histparl.ac.uk/volume/1820-1832/membe
r/ricardo-david-1772-1823). History of Parliament Online. Retrieved 18 September 2013.
11. Hayek, Friedrich (1991). "The Restriction Period, 1797–1821, and the Bullion Debate". The
Trend of Economic Thinking (https://archive.org/details/TheTrendOfEconomicThinking).
pp. 199 (https://archive.org/details/TheTrendOfEconomicThinking/page/n209)–200.
ISBN 978-0865977426.
12. King, John (2013). David Ricardo. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 48.
13. Ricardo, David (1817) On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Piero Sraffa
(Ed.) Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, Volume I, Cambridge University Press,
1951, p. 11.
14. Ricardo, David (1817) On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Piero Sraffa
(Ed.) Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, Volume I, Cambridge University Press,
1951, p. 47.
15. On The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation London: John Murray, Albemarle-
Street, by David Ricardo, 1817 (third edition 1821) – Chapter 6, On Profits: paragraph 28,
"Thus, taking the former . . ." and paragraph 33, "There can, however...."
16. Roberts, Paul Craig (28 August 2003), "The Trade Question", The Washington Times
17. Ricardo, David (1817) On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. Piero Sraffa
(Ed.) Works and Correspondence of David Ricardo, Volume I, Cambridge University Press,
1951, p. 135.
18. Samuelson, Paul A. (1972), "The Way of an Economist." Reprinted in The Collected Papers
of Paul A. Samuelson. Ed. R. C. Merton. Cambridge: Cambridge MIT Press. p. 378.
19. Mill, J. S. (1844) Essays on some unsettled questions of political economy. London, John
W. Parker; Mill, J. S. (1848) The principles of political economy. (vol. I and II) Boston:
C.C.Little & J. Brown.
20. Shiozawa, Y. (2017) An Origin of the Neoclassicla Revolutions: Mill's "Reversion" and its
consequences. In Shiozawa, Oka,and Tabuchi (eds.) A New Construction of Ricardian
Theory of International Values, Tokyo: Springer Japan, Chapter 7 pp.191–243.
21. Ruffin, R.J. (2002) David Ricardo's discovery of comparative advantage. History of Political
Economy 34(4): 727–748.
22. Maneschi, A. (2004) The true meaning of David Ricardo's four magic numbers. Journal of
International Economics 62(2): 433–443.
23. Tabuchi, T. (2017) Yukizawa's interpretation of Ricardo's 'theory of comparative cost'. In
Senga, Fujimoto, and Tabuchi (Eds.) Ricardo and International Trade, London and New
York; Routledge, Chapter 4, pp.48–59.
24. Faccarello, G. (2017) A calm investigation into Mr. Ricardo's principle of international trade.
In Senga, Fujimoto, and Tabuchi (Eds.) Ricardo and International Trade, London and New
York; Routledge. Tabuchi, T. (2017) Comparative Advantage in the Light of the Old Value
Theories. In Shiozawa, Oka,and Tabuchi (eds.) A New Construction of Ricardian Theory of
International Values, Tokyo: Springer Japan, Chapter 9 pp.265–280.
25. Letter of Mill cited in The works and correspondence of David Ricardo. : Volume 9, Letters
July 1821–1823 (Cambridge, UK, 1952)
26. Williamson, J. G. (1990). "The impact of the Corn Laws just prior to repeal". Explorations in
Economic History. 27 (2): 123. doi:10.1016/0014-4983(90)90007-L (https://doi.org/10.101
6%2F0014-4983%2890%2990007-L).
27. Hollander, Samuel (2019). "Retrospectives Ricardo on Machinery". Journal of Economic
Perspectives. 33 (2): 229–242. doi:10.1257/jep.33.2.229 (https://doi.org/10.1257%2Fjep.33.
2.229). ISSN 0895-3309 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0895-3309).
28. Ricardo, David (1821). On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. John Murray.
p. 7.19.
29. Patnaik, Uta (2005). "Ricardo's Fallacy/ Mutual Benefit from Trade Based on Comparative
Costs and Specialization?". In Jomo, K. S. (ed.). The Pioneers of Development Economics:
Great Economists on Development. London and New York: Zed books. pp. 31–41. ISBN 81-
85229-99-6.
30. Robinson, Joan (1979). Aspects of Development and Underdevelopment (https://archive.or
g/details/aspectsofdevelop0000robi/page/103). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
p. 103 (https://archive.org/details/aspectsofdevelop0000robi/page/103). ISBN 0521226376.
31. Chang, Ha-Joon (2007), "Bad Samaritans", Chapter 2, pp. 30–31.
32. Davis, William L., Bob Figgins, David Hedengren, and Daniel B. Klein. "Economics
Professors' Favorite Economic Thinkers, Journals and Blogs (along with Party and Policy
Views)," Econ Journal Watch 8(2): 126–46, May 2011 [1] (http://econjwatch.org/articles/eco
nomics-professors-favorite-economic-thinkers-journals-and-blogs-along-with-party-and-polic
y-views).
33. Schumpeter, History of Economic Analysis, (published posthumously, ed. Elisabeth Boody
Schumpeter), 1954. pp. 569, 1171. Schumpeter also criticized J. M. Keynes for committing
the same Ricardian vice.
34. Landreth Colander 1989 History of Economic Thought Second Edition, p.137.
35. George, Henry, Progress and Poverty. Preface to the 4th Edition, November 1880.
36. Piero Sraffa and M.H. Dobb, editors (1951–1973). The Works and Correspondence of
David Ricardo. Cambridge University Press, 11 volumes.
37. Sraffa, Piero 1960, Production of Commodities by Means of Commodities: Prelude to a
Critique of Economic Theory. Cambridge University Press.
38. Steedman, Ian, ed. (1979). Fundamental Issues in Trade Theory. London: MacMillan.
ISBN 0-333-25834-7.
39. Steedman, Ian (1979). Trade Amongst Growing Economies (https://archive.org/details/trade
amongstgrow0000stee). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. . ISBN 0-521-
22671-6.
40. Edwards, Chris (1985). "§ 3.2 The 'Sraffian' Approach to Trade Theory". The Fragmented
World: Competing Perspectives on Trade, Money, and Crisis. London and New York:
Methuen & Co. pp. 48–51. ISBN 0-416-73390-5.
41. Christophe Depoortère, Joël Thomas Ravix 2015 The classical theory of international trade
after Sraffa. Cahiers d'économie Politique / Papers in Political Economy (69): 203–34,
February 2015.
42. Pasinetti, Luisi 1981 Structural change and economic growth, Cambridge University Press.
J.S. Metcalfe and P.P. Saviotti (eds.), 1991, Evolutionary Theories of Economic and
Technological Change, Harwood, 275 pages. J.S. Metcalfe 1998, Evolutionary Economics
and Creative Destruction, Routledge, London. Frenken, K., Van Oort, F.G., Verburg, T.,
Boschma, R.A. (2004). Variety and Regional Economic Growth in the Netherlands – Final
Report (The Hague: Ministry of Economic Affairs), 58 p. (pdf)
43. Saviotti, Pier Paolo; Frenken, Koen (2008), "Export variety and the economic performance
of countries", Journal of Evolutionary Economics, 18 (2): 201–18, doi:10.1007/s00191-007-
0081-5 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00191-007-0081-5)
44. Pasinetti, Luigi L. (1981), Structural change and economic growth: a theoretical essay on
the dynamics of the wealth of nations, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. ,
ISBN 0-521-27410-9
45. Pasinetti, Luigi L. (1993), Structural economic dynamics: a theory of the economic
consequences of human learning, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, pp. ,
ISBN 0-521-43282-0
46. Dornbusch, R.; Fischer, S.; Samuelson, P. A. (1977), "Comparative Advantage, Trade, and
Payments in a Ricardian Model with a Continuum of Goods" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
110516042952/http://www.stanford.edu/~rstaiger/Comparativ-goods.pdf) (PDF), The
American Economic Review, 67 (5): 823–39, JSTOR 1828066 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/
1828066), archived from the original (http://www.stanford.edu/~rstaiger/Comparativ-goods.p
df) (PDF) on 16 May 2011
47. Matsuyama, K. (2000), "A Ricardian Model with a Continuum of Goods under
Nonhomothetic Preferences: Demand Complementarities, Income Distribution, and North–
South Trade" (http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~bruceb/Peter%20W.pdf) (PDF), Journal of
Political Economy, 108 (6): 1093–120, doi:10.1086/317684 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F317
684).
48. Shiozawa, Y. (2007). "A New Construction of Ricardian Trade Theory: A Multi-country, Multi-
commodity Case with Intermediate Goods and Choice of Production Techniques".
Evolutionary and Institutional Economics Review. 3 (2): 141–87. doi:10.14441/eier.3.141 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.14441%2Feier.3.141).
49. Y. Shiozawa (2017) The new theory of international values: An overview. Shiozawa, Oka
and Tabuchi (eds.) A New Construction of Ricardian Theory of International Values.
Singapore: Springer. Chapter 1, pp.3–73.
50. Yeats, A. (2001). "Just How Big is Global Production Sharing?". In Arndt, S.; Kierzkowski, H.
(eds.). Fragmentation: New Production Patterns in the World Economy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-924331-X.
51. Bardhan, Ashok Deo; Jaffee, Dwight (2004). "On Intra-Firm Trade and Multinationals:
Foreign Outsourcing and Offshoring in Manufacturing". In Graham, Monty; Solow, Robert
(eds.). The Role of Foreign Direct Investment and Multinational Corporations in Economic
Development.
52. Chris Edwards 1985 The Fragmented World: Competing Perspectives on Trade, Money and
Crisis, London and New York: Methuen. Chapter 4.
53. Emmanuel, Arghiri (1972), Unequal exchange; a study of the imperialism of trade (https://ar
chive.org/details/unequalexchanges0000emma/page/), New York: Monthly Review Press,
pp. (https://archive.org/details/unequalexchanges0000emma/page/)page&nbsp,
needed&#93, , ISBN 0-85345-188-5
54. Palma, G (1978), "Dependency: A formal theory of underdevelopment or a methodology for
the analysis of concrete situations of underdevelopment?", World Development, 6 (7–8):
881–924, doi:10.1016/0305-750X(78)90051-7 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0305-750X%287
8%2990051-7)

Bibliography
Case, Karl E.; Fair, Ray C. (1999), Principles of Economics (5th ed.), Prentice-Hall, ISBN 0-
13-961905-4
Samuel Hollander (1979). The Economics of David Ricardo. University of Toronto Press.
G. de Vivo (1987). "Ricardo, David," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4,
pp. 183–98
Samuelson, P.A. (2001), "Ricardo, David (1772–1823)", International Encyclopedia of the
Social & Behavioral Sciences, pp. 13330–13334, doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/00324-7 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2FB0-08-043076-7%2F00324-7), ISBN 9780080430768
(in French) Éric Pichet, David RICARDO, le premier théoricien de l'économie (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20071012163459/http://www.lesiecle.fr/economiste_david_riccarddo.html),
Les éditions du siècle, 2004*

External links
 Works by David Ricardo (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Ricardo,+David) at Project
Gutenberg
Works by or about David Ricardo (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3
A%22Ricardo%2C%20David%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22David%20Ricardo%22%20O
R%20creator%3A%22Ricardo%2C%20David%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22David%20Ri
cardo%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Ricardo%2C%20D%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%2
2David%20Ricardo%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Ricardo%2C%20David%22%20O
R%20description%3A%22David%20Ricardo%22%29%20OR%20%28%221772-1823%2
2%20AND%20Ricardo%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet
Archive
Hansard 1803–2005: contributions in Parliament by David Ricardo (https://api.parliament.u
k/historic-hansard/people/mr-david-ricardo-1)
Biography (https://web.archive.org/web/20070315092648/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/pro
files/ricardo.htm) at New School University
Biography (https://web.archive.org/web/20060502201750/http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/
stead.ricardo) at EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History
Ricardo on Value: the Three Chapter Ones (http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/r
icardoindex.htm). A presentation tracing the changes in the Principles' (University of
Southampton).

Parliament of the United Kingdom

Member of Parliament for
Preceded by Succeeded by
Portarlington
Richard Sharp James Farquahar
1819–1823

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Ricardo&oldid=943238468"

This page was last edited on 29 February 2020, at 18:37 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
Jean-Baptiste Say
Jean-Baptiste Say (French: [ʒãbatist sɛ]; 5 January 1767 – 15
Jean-Baptiste Say
November 1832) was a French economist and businessman who
had liberal views and argued in favor of competition, free trade
and lifting restraints on business. He is best known for Say's law
—also known as the law of markets—which he popularized.
Scholars disagree on the surprisingly subtle question of whether it
was Say who first stated what is now called Say's law.[1][2]
Moreover, he was one of the first economists to study
entrepreneurship and conceptualized entrepreneurs as organizers
and leaders of the economy.[3]

Contents Born 5 January 1767

Early life Lyon, Kingdom of
Writings, teaching and entrepreneurship France

Say's law Died 15 November 1832

(aged 65)
Theory of entrepreneurship
Paris, France
Honours
Nationality French
Later years and death
Field Political economy
Personal life
School or French Liberal
References
tradition School
Further reading
Influences Richard Cantillon,
External links Adam Smith, Pietro
Verri
Contributions Say's law,
Early life entrepreneurship
Say was born in Lyon. His father Jean-Etienne Say was born to a
Protestant family which had moved from Nîmes to Geneva for some time in consequence of the
revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Say was intended to follow a commercial career and in 1785 was sent
with his brother Horace to complete his education in England. He lodged for a time in Croydon and
afterwards (following a return visit to France) in Fulham. During the latter period, he was employed
successively by two London-based firms of sugar merchants, James Baillie & Co and Samuel and
William Hibbert.[4][5] At the end of 1786, he accompanied Samuel Hibbert on a voyage to France which
ended in December with Hibbert's death in Nantes. Say returned to Paris, where he found employment in
the office of a life assurance company directed by Étienne Clavière. His brother Louis Auguste (1774–
1840) also became an economist.

Writings, teaching and entrepreneurship

 Say's first literary attempt was a
pamphlet on the liberty of the press,
published in 1789. He later worked under
Mirabeau on the Courrier de Provence.
In 1792, he took part as a volunteer in the
campaign of Champagne. In 1793, he
assumed in keeping with French
Revolutionary fashion the pseudonym
Atticus and became secretary to Étienne
Clavière, the then finance minister.
Map of Croydon, drawn by
From 1794 to 1800, he edited a
the 18-year-old Say in 1785
periodical, entitled La Decade
philosophique, litteraire, et politique, in
which he expounded the doctrines of Adam Smith. He had by this time
Title page of Say's Lettres à
established his reputation as a publicist and when the consular
M. Malthus, sur différens
government was established in 1799 he was selected as one of the 100 sujets d'économie politique,
members of the Tribunat, resigning the editorship of the Decade. In 1800, published in 1820
Say published Olbie, ou essai sur les moyens de réformer les mœurs
d'une nation. In 1803, he published his principal work, the Traité
d'économie politique ou simple exposition de la manière dont se forment, se distribuent et se composent
les richesses. Having proved unwilling to compromise his convictions in the interests of Napoleon, Say
was removed from the office of tribune in 1804. He turned to industrial activities and after having
familiarised himself with the processes of cotton manufacture he established a spinning-mill at Auchy-
lès-Hesdin in the Pas de Calais which employed some 400–500 people, mainly women and children. He
devoted his leisure time to revising his economic treatise which had been out of print for some time, but
the system of state censorship in place prevented him from republishing it.

In 1814, Say availed himself (to use his own words) of the relative liberty arising from the entrance of
the allied powers into France to bring out a second edition of the work dedicated to the emperor
Alexander I of Russia, who had professed himself his pupil. In the same year, the French government
sent him to study the economic condition of the United Kingdom. The results of his observations
appeared in a tract, De l'Angleterre et des Anglais. A third edition of the Traité appeared in 1817.

A chair of industrial economy was established for him in 1819 at the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers.
Also in 1819, he was one of the founders of the École spéciale de commerce et d'industrie, one of the
first business schools in the world, and now (as École supérieure de commerce de Paris - ESCP)
regarded as the world's oldest business school.[6][7] In 1831, he was made professor of political economy
at the Collège de France. In 1828–1830, he published his Cours complet d'economie politique pratique.

Say's law
Say is well known for Say's law, or the law of markets, often controversially summarised as such:

"Aggregate supply creates its own aggregate demand"

"Supply creates its own demand"
Say's law is instead uncontroversially summarized as such:
 "Supply constitutes its own demand"
"Inherent in supply is the wherewithal for its own consumption" (direct translation from
French Traité d'économie politique)
The exact phrase "supply creates its own demand" was coined by John Maynard Keynes, who criticized
it as in the former two, equating all four of these statements to mean the same thing. Some economists,
including some advocates of Say's law who dispute this characterization as a misrepresentation,[8] have
disputed his interpretation, claiming that Say's law can actually be summarized more accurately as
"production precedes consumption" and that Say was claiming that in order to consume one must
produce something of value so that one can trade this (either in the form of money or barter) in order to
consume later.[9]

Similar sentiments through different wordings appear in the work of John Stuart Mill (1848) and his
father James Mill (1808). The Scottish classical economist James Mill restates Say's law in 1808, writing
that "production of commodities creates, and is the one and universal cause which creates a market for
the commodities produced".[10]

In Say's language, "products are paid for with products" (1803, p. 153) or "a glut can take place only
when there are too many means of production applied to one kind of product and not enough to another"
(1803, pp. 178–179). Explaining his point at length, he wrote the following:[11]

It is worthwhile to remark that a product is no sooner created than it, from that instant,
affords a market for other products to the full extent of its own value. When the producer
has put the finishing hand to his product, he is most anxious to sell it immediately, lest its
value should diminish in his hands. Nor is he less anxious to dispose of the money he may
get for it; for the value of money is also perishable. But the only way of getting rid of money
is in the purchase of some product or other. Thus the mere circumstance of creation of one
product immediately opens a vent for other products.[12]

Say also wrote that it is not the abundance of money, but the abundance of other products in general that
facilitates sales:[13]

Money performs but a momentary function in this double exchange; and when the
transaction is finally closed, it will always be found, that one kind of commodity has been
exchanged for another.

Say's law may also have been culled from Ecclesiastes 5:11 – "When goods increase, they are increased
that eat them: and what good is there to the owners thereof, saving the beholding of them with their
eyes?" (KJV). Say's law has been considered by John Kenneth Galbraith as "the most distinguished
example of the stability of economic ideas, including when they are wrong".[14]

Theory of entrepreneurship
In the Treatise, his main economic work, Say stated that any production process required effort,
knowledge and the "application" of the entrepreneur. According to him, entrepreneurs are intermediaries
in the production process who combine productive agents such as land, capital and labor in order to meet
the demand of consumers. As a result, they play a central role in the economy and fulfil a coordinating
role.[3]
Besides studying large-scale entrepreneurs, Say looked at people working for themselves:

When a workman carries on an enterprise on his own account, as the knife grinder in the
streets, he is both workman and entrepreneur.[15]

Say also thought about which qualities are essential for successful entrepreneurs and highlighted the
quality of judgement. To his mind, entrepreneurs have to continuously assess market needs and the
means which could meet them, which requires an "unerring market sense".[3]

As he emphasized the coordinating function of entrepreneurs, Say viewed entrepreneurial income

primarily as high wages that are paid in compensation for the skills and expert knowledge of
entrepreneurs. He did so by making a distinction between the enterprise function and the supply-of-
capital-function which allowed him to look at the earnings of the entrepreneur on the one hand and the
remuneration of capital on the other hand. This clearly differentiates his theory from that of Joseph
Schumpeter, who described entrepreneurial rent as short-term profits that compensate for high risk
(Schumpeterian rent).[3] Say also touched upon risk and uncertainty as well as innovation when
discussing entrepreneurship, although he never deeply investigated their relationships. However, Say
stated:

[In any enterprise activity] there is an abundance of obstacles to be surmounted, of anxieties

to be repressed, of misfortunes to be repaired, and of expedients to be devised [...] [and]
there is always a degree of risk attending such undertakings.[16]

Sometimes a manufacturer discovers a process, calculated either to introduce a new product,

to increase the beauty of an old one, or to produce with greater economy.[17]

Honours
In 1826, Say was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Later years and death

In his later years, Say became subject to attacks of nervous
apoplexy. He lost his wife in January 1830 and from that time his
health declined. When the revolution of that year broke out, Say
was named a member of the council-general of the department of
the Seine, but he found it necessary to resign.

Say died in Paris on 15 November 1832 and was buried in the

Père Lachaise Cemetery.
Say's tomb in the Père Lachaise
Cemetery in Paris
Personal life
In 1793, Say married Mlle Deloche, daughter of a former lawyer.

References
 1. Thweatt, William O. "Early Formulators of Say's Law". In Wood, John Cunningham (editor);
Kates, Steven (editor) (2000). Jean-Baptiste Say: Critical Assessments. V. London:
Routledge. pp. 78–93 (https://books.google.com/books?id=EcaDC1q_eaAC&pg=PA78).
2. Braudel, Fernand (1979). The Wheels of Commerce: Civilisation and Capitalism 15th–18th
Century. p. 181 (https://books.google.com/books?id=WPDbSXQsvGIC&pg=PA181).
3. Koolman, G. (1971). "Say's Conception of the Role of the Entrepreneur". Economica. 38
(151): 269–286. doi:10.2307/2552843 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2552843).
JSTOR 2552843 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2552843).
4. Lancaster, Brian (March 2012), "Jean-Baptiste Say's 1785 Croydon street plan", Croydon
Natural History & Scientific Society Bulletin, 144: 2–5
5. Lancaster, Brian (2015). "Jean-Baptiste Say's First Visit to England (1785/6)". History of
European Ideas. 41 (7): 922–930. doi:10.1080/01916599.2014.989676 (https://doi.org/10.1
080%2F01916599.2014.989676).
6. Kaplan, Andreas (2014). "European management and European business schools: Insights
from the history of business schools". European Management Journal. 32 (4): 529–534.
doi:10.1016/j.emj.2014.03.006 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.emj.2014.03.006).
7. "First into the Future" (https://www.escpeurope.eu/bicentenary). Retrieved 17 August 2019.
8. (Clower 2004, p. 92 (https://books.google.com/books?id=tzzClShefiYC&pg=PA92))
9. Bylund, Per. "Say's Law (the Law of Markets)" (https://twitter.com/perbylund/status/8836927
95583746049).
10. Mill, James (1808). Commerce Defended. "Chapter VI: Consumption" (http://oll.libertyfund.o
rg/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1668&layout=html). p. 81.
11. "Information on Jean-Baptiste Say"
(http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm).Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2009
0326021523/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/say.htm) 26 March 2009 at the
Wayback Machine
12. Say, Jean-Baptiste (1803). A Treatise on Political Economy. pp. 138–139.
13. Say, Jean-Baptiste (1803). A Treatise on Political Economy. Translated from the fourth
edition of the French in 2001. Batoche Books Kitchener. p. 57.
14. Galbraith, John Kenneth (1975), Money: Whence It Came, Where It Went, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0-395-19843-7.
15. Say, Jean-Baptiste (1821). "Catechism of Political Economy" (https://mises.org/library/catec
hism-political-economy). Mises Institute. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
16. Say, Jean-Baptiste (1880). A Treatise on Political Economy. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen
& Haffelfinger. p. 331.
17. Say, Jean-Baptiste (1880). A Treatise on Political economy. Philadelphia: Claxton, Remsen
& Haffelfinger. p. 329.

Further reading
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Say, Jean Baptiste" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Ency
clop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Say,_Jean_Baptiste). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
Hart, David (2008). "Say, Jean-Baptiste (1767–1832)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The
Encyclopedia of Libertarianism (https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC). The
Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 449–450.
doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n274 (https://doi.org/10.4135%2F9781412965811.n274).
ISBN 978-1412965804. LCCN 2008009151 (https://lccn.loc.gov/2008009151).
OCLC 750831024 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/750831024).
 Hollander, Samuel (2005), Jean-Baptiste Say and the Classical Canon in Economics: the
British Connection in French Classicism, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-
32338-X.
Garello, Jacques Garello (29 January 2011). "Portrait: J.B. Say (1767–1832)" (http://www.lib
res.org/portraits/509-jean-baptiste-say-1767-1832.html). La nouvelle lettre. 1064: 8.
Schoorl, Evert (2012). Jean-Baptiste Say: Revolutionary, Entrepreneur, Economist (https://b
ooks.google.com/?id=XS2x66XO4eoC). London: London. ISBN 9781135104108.
Sowell, Thomas (1973), Say's Law: An Historical Analysis, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 0-691-04166-0.
Teilhac, Ernest (1927). L'oeuvre économique de Jean-Baptiste Say. Paris.
Whatmore, Richard (2001), Republicanism and the French Revolution: An Intellectual
History of Jean-Baptiste Say's Political Economy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-
924115-5.

External links
Works by or about Jean-Baptiste Say (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subje
ct%3A%22Say%2C%20Jean-Baptiste%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Jean-Baptiste%20S
ay%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Say%2C%20Jean-Baptiste%22%20OR%20creator%3
A%22Jean-Baptiste%20Say%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Say%2C%20J%2E%22%20O
R%20title%3A%22Jean-Baptiste%20Say%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Say%2C%20
Jean-Baptiste%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Jean-Baptiste%20Say%22%29%20O
R%20%28%221767-1832%22%20AND%20Say%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:soft
ware%29) at Internet Archive
Say's Law and Economic Growth (http://www.benbest.com/polecon/sayslaw.html)
Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Economic Insights article (Volume 11, Number 1) (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20060712043848/http://www.dallasfed.org/research/ei/ei0601.html)
A Treatise on Political Economy (http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/say/tr
eatise.pdf) at McMaster University Archive for the History of Economic Thought
Letters to Malthus on Several Subjects of Political Economy (1821) (http://socserv2.socsci.
mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/say/letter.html) at McMaster University Archive for the History
of Economic Thought

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Baptiste_Say&oldid=941765042"

This page was last edited on 20 February 2020, at 15:05 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using
this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia
Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873),[8] usually cited
John Stuart Mill
as J. S. Mill, was a British philosopher, political economist, and
civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in the history of
classical liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory,
political theory, and political economy. Dubbed "the most
influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth
century",[9] Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of
the individual in opposition to unlimited state and social
control.[10]

Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory

developed by his predecessor Jeremy Bentham. He contributed to
the investigation of scientific methodology, though his
knowledge of the topic was based on the writings of others,
notably William Whewell, John Herschel, and Auguste Comte,
and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain. Mill Mill c. 1870
engaged in written debate with Whewell.[11]
Member of Parliament
for City and Westminster
A member of the Liberal Party and author of the early feminist
In office
work The Subjection of Women, he was also the second Member
25 July 1865 – 17 November 1868
of Parliament to call for women's suffrage after Henry Hunt in
1832.[12][13] Serving with Robert Grosvenor
Preceded by De Lacy Evans
Succeeded by William Henry
Smith
Contents
Personal details
Biography
Born 20 May 1806
Works Pentonville,
A System of Logic London, England
Theory of liberty
Died 7 May 1873
Social liberty and tyranny of majority
(aged 66)
Liberty
Avignon, France
Freedom of speech
Political party Liberal
Harm principle
Spouse(s) Harriet Taylor
Colonialism
(m. 1851;
Slavery died 1858)
Women's rights Alma mater University College,
Utilitarianism London
Economic philosophy
Economic democracy Philosophy career
Political democracy
Era 19th-century
The environment
 Rate of profit philosophy
Classical
In popular culture
economics
Major publications
Region Western philosophy
See also
School Empiricism
Notes Utilitarianism
References Consequentialism
Further reading Psychologism
Classical liberalism
External links
Mill's works Main interests Political philosophy,
Secondary works ethics, economics,
Further information inductive logic
Notable ideas Public/private
sphere, social
Biography liberty, hierarchy of
pleasures in
John Stuart Mill was born at 13 Rodney Street in Pentonville, utilitarianism, rule
Middlesex, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian utilitarianism,
and economist James Mill, and Harriet Barrow. John Stuart was classical liberalism,
educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy early liberal
Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous feminism, harm
upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with principle, Mill's
children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower Methods, direct
of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit reference theory,
aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of Millian theory of
utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had proper names
died.[14]
Influences
Mill was a notably precocious child. He describes his education Plato · Aristotle · Socrates ·
in his autobiography. At the age of three he was taught Greek.[15] Demosthenes · Epicurus · Aquinas ·
By the age of eight, he had read Aesop's Fables, Xenophon's Hobbes · Locke · Hume · Babbage[1]
Anabasis,[15] and the whole of Herodotus,[15] and was acquainted · Berkeley · Bentham · Francis Place
with Lucian, Diogenes Laërtius, Isocrates and six dialogues of · James Mill · Harriet Taylor Mill ·
Plato.[15] He had also read a great deal of history in English and Smith · Senior · Ricardo ·
had been taught arithmetic, physics and astronomy. Tocqueville · W. von Humboldt ·
Goethe · Bain · Guizot[2] · Auguste
At the age of eight, Mill began studying Latin, the works of Comte · Saint-Simon (Utopian
Euclid, and algebra, and was appointed schoolmaster to the Socialists)[3] · Marmontel[4] ·
younger children of the family. His main reading was still history, Wordsworth[4] · Coleridge[4] ·
but he went through all the commonly taught Latin and Greek Herder[5] · Sismondi
authors and by the age of ten could read Plato and Demosthenes
Influenced
with ease. His father also thought that it was important for Mill to
Social liberalism[6] · Karl Marx ·
study and compose poetry. One of Mill's earliest poetic
Charles Darwin · Sigmund Freud ·
compositions was a continuation of the Iliad. In his spare time he
Friedrich Nietzsche · William James
also enjoyed reading about natural sciences and popular novels,
· John Rawls · Bertrand Russell ·
such as Don Quixote and Robinson Crusoe.
Isaiah Berlin · Karl Popper · Ronald
His father's work, The History of British India was published in Dworkin · H. L. A. Hart · Peter
1818; immediately thereafter, at about the age of twelve, Mill Singer · Wilhelm Dilthey · Roger
began a thorough study of the scholastic logic, at the same time Crisp · Henry George · John
reading Aristotle's logical treatises in the original language. In the Maynard Keynes · Milton Friedman ·
following year he was introduced to political economy and William MacAskill · Max Weber[7] ·
studied Adam Smith and David Ricardo with his father, José Ortega y Gasset
ultimately completing their classical economic view of factors of Signature
production. Mill's comptes rendus of his daily economy lessons
helped his father in writing Elements of Political Economy in
1821, a textbook to promote the ideas of Ricardian economics;
however, the book lacked popular support.[16] Ricardo, who was a close friend of his father, used to
invite the young Mill to his house for a walk in order to talk about political economy.

At the age of fourteen, Mill stayed a year in France with the family of Sir Samuel Bentham, brother of
Jeremy Bentham. The mountain scenery he saw led to a lifelong taste for mountain landscapes. The
lively and friendly way of life of the French also left a deep impression on him. In Montpellier, he
attended the winter courses on chemistry, zoology, logic of the Faculté des Sciences, as well as taking a
course in higher mathematics. While coming and going from France, he stayed in Paris for a few days in
the house of the renowned economist Jean-Baptiste Say, a friend of Mill's father. There he met many
leaders of the Liberal party, as well as other notable Parisians, including Henri Saint-Simon.

Mill went through months of sadness and pondered suicide at twenty years of age. According to the
opening paragraphs of Chapter V of his autobiography, he had asked himself whether the creation of a
just society, his life's objective, would actually make him happy. His heart answered "no", and
unsurprisingly he lost the happiness of striving towards this objective. Eventually, the poetry of William
Wordsworth showed him that beauty generates compassion for others and stimulates joy.[17] With
renewed joy he continued to work towards a just society, but with more relish for the journey. He
considered this one of the most pivotal shifts in his thinking. In fact, many of the differences between
him and his father stemmed from this expanded source of joy.

Mill had been engaged in a pen-friendship with Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism and sociology,
since Mill first contacted Comte in November 1841. Comte's sociologie was more an early philosophy of
science than we perhaps know it today, and the positive philosophy aided in Mill's broad rejection of
Benthamism.[18]

As a nonconformist who refused to subscribe to the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England, Mill
was not eligible to study at the University of Oxford or the University of Cambridge.[19] Instead he
followed his father to work for the East India Company, and attended University College, London, to
hear the lectures of John Austin, the first Professor of Jurisprudence.[20] He was elected a Foreign
Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1856.[21]

Mill's career as a colonial administrator at the British East India Company spanned from when he was 17
years old in 1823 until 1858, when the Company was abolished in favor of direct rule by the British
crown over India.[22] In 1836, he was promoted to the Company's Political Department, where he was
responsible for correspondence pertaining to the Company's relations with the princely states, and in
1856, was finally promoted to the position of Examiner of Indian Correspondence. In On Liberty, A Few
Words on Non-Intervention, and other works, Mill defended British imperialism by arguing that a
fundamental distinction existed between civilized and barbarous peoples.[23] Mill viewed countries such
as India and China as having once been progressive, but that were now stagnant and barbarous, thus
legitimizing British rule as benevolent despotism, "provided the end is [the barbarians']
improvement."[24] When the crown proposed to take direct control over the colonies in India, he was
tasked with defending Company rule, penning Memorandum on the Improvements in the Administration
of India during the Last Thirty Years among other petitions.[25] He was offered a seat on the Council of
India, the body created to advise the new Secretary of State for India, but declined, citing his disapproval
of the new system of rule.[25]

In 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of intimate friendship. Taylor was married when they
met, and their relationship was close but generally believed to be chaste during the years before her first
husband died in 1849. The couple waited two years before marrying in 1851. Brilliant in her own right,
Taylor was a significant influence on Mill's work and ideas during both friendship and marriage. His
relationship with Harriet Taylor reinforced Mill's advocacy of women's rights. J. S. Mill said that in his
stand against domestic violence, and for women's rights he was “chiefly an amanuensis to my wife”. He
called her mind a “perfect instrument”, and said she was “the most eminently qualified of all those
known to the author”. He cites her influence in his final revision of On Liberty, which was published
shortly after her death. Taylor died in 1858 after developing severe lung congestion, after only seven
years of marriage to Mill.

Between the years 1865 and 1868 Mill served as Lord Rector of the University of St. Andrews. During
the same period, 1865–68, he was a Member of Parliament for City and Westminster.[26][27] He was
sitting for the Liberal Party. During his time as an MP, Mill advocated easing the burdens on Ireland. In
1866, Mill became the first person in the history of Parliament to call for women to be given the right to
vote, vigorously defending this position in subsequent debate. Mill became a strong advocate of such
social reforms as labour unions and farm cooperatives. In Considerations on Representative Government,
Mill called for various reforms of Parliament and voting, especially proportional representation, the
single transferable vote, and the extension of suffrage. In April 1868, Mill favoured in a Commons
debate the retention of capital punishment for such crimes as aggravated murder; he termed its abolition
"an effeminacy in the general mind of the country."[28]

He was godfather to the philosopher Bertrand Russell.

In his views on religion, Mill was an agnostic and a skeptic.[29][30][31][32]

Mill died in 1873 of erysipelas in Avignon, France, where his body was buried alongside his wife's.

Works

A System of Logic
Mill joined the debate over scientific method which followed on from John Herschel's 1830 publication
of A Preliminary Discourse on the study of Natural Philosophy, which incorporated inductive reasoning
from the known to the unknown, discovering general laws in specific facts and verifying these laws
empirically. William Whewell expanded on this in his 1837 History of the Inductive Sciences, from the
Earliest to the Present Time followed in 1840 by The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded
Upon their History, presenting induction as the mind superimposing concepts on facts. Laws were self-
evident truths, which could be known without need for empirical verification. Mill countered this in 1843
in A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive, Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence,
 and the Methods of Scientific Investigation. In Mill's Methods of
induction, like Herschel's, laws were discovered through observation
and induction, and required empirical verification.[33]

Theory of liberty
Mill's On Liberty addresses the nature and limits of the power that
can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual.
However Mill is clear that his concern for liberty does not extend to
all individuals and all societies. He states that "Despotism is a
legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians".[34]

Mill states that it is not a crime to harm oneself as long as the person
Portrait of Mill by George Frederic doing so is not harming others. He favors the harm principle: "The
Watts (1873)
only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any
member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent
harm to others." [35] Mill excuses those who are "incapable of self-
government" from this principle, such as young children or those living in "backward states of society".

Though this principle seems clear, there are a number of complications. For example, Mill explicitly
states that "harms" may include acts of omission as well as acts of commission. Thus, failing to rescue a
drowning child counts as a harmful act, as does failing to pay taxes, or failing to appear as a witness in
court. All such harmful omissions may be regulated, according to Mill. By contrast, it does not count as
harming someone if – without force or fraud – the affected individual consents to assume the risk: thus
one may permissibly offer unsafe employment to others, provided there is no deception involved. (Mill
does, however, recognise one limit to consent: society should not permit people to sell themselves into
slavery). In these and other cases, it is important to bear in mind that the arguments in On Liberty are
grounded on the principle of Utility, and not on appeals to natural rights.

The question of what counts as a self-regarding action and what actions, whether of omission or
commission, constitute harmful actions subject to regulation, continues to exercise interpreters of Mill. It
is important to emphasise that Mill did not consider giving offence to constitute "harm"; an action could
not be restricted because it violated the conventions or morals of a given society.[36]

On Liberty involves an impassioned defense of free speech. Mill argues that free discourse is a necessary
condition for intellectual and social progress. We can never be sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion
does not contain some element of the truth. He also argues that allowing people to air false opinions is
productive for two reasons. First, individuals are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are
engaged in an open exchange of ideas. Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm
their beliefs in the process of debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma. It is not
enough for Mill that one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand
why the belief in question is the true one. Along those same lines Mill wrote, "unmeasured vituperation,
employed on the side of prevailing opinion, really does deter people from expressing contrary opinions,
and from listening to those who express them."[37]

Social liberty and tyranny of majority

Mill believed that "the struggle between Liberty and
Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of
history".[38] For him, liberty in antiquity was a "contest ...
between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the
government."[38] Mill defined "social liberty" as protection
from "the tyranny of political rulers". He introduced a
number of different concepts of the form tyranny can take,
referred to as social tyranny, and tyranny of the majority.

Social liberty for Mill meant putting limits on the ruler's

power so that he would not be able to use that power to
further his own wishes and thus make decisions that could
harm society. In other words, people should have the right to
have a say in the government's decisions. He said that social
liberty was "the nature and limits of the power which can be
legitimately exercised by society over the individual". It was
attempted in two ways: first, by obtaining recognition of John Stuart Mill and Helen Taylor. Helen
certain immunities (called political liberties or rights) and was the daughter of Harriet Taylor and
second, by establishment of a system of "constitutional collaborated with Mill for fifteen years after
checks". her mother's death in 1858.

However, in Mill's view, limiting the power of government

was not enough. He stated: "Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong
mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practices
a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually
upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into
the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself."[39]

Liberty
John Stuart Mill's view on liberty, which was influenced by Joseph Priestley and Josiah Warren, is that
the individual ought to be free to do as she/he wishes unless she/he harms others. Individuals are rational
enough to make decisions about their well being. Government should interfere when it is for the
protection of society. Mill explained:

The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering
with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for
which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against
his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not
sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be
better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others,
to do so would be wise, or even right ... The only part of the conduct of anyone, for which he
is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns him,
his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the
individual is sovereign.[40]

Freedom of speech
An influential advocate of freedom of speech, Mill objected to censorship. He says:

I choose, by preference the cases which are least favourable to me – In which the argument
opposing freedom of opinion, both on truth and that of utility, is considered the strongest.
Let the opinions impugned be the belief of God and in a future state, or any of the
commonly received doctrines of morality ... But I must be permitted to observe that it is not
the feeling sure of a doctrine (be it what it may) which I call an assumption of infallibility. It
is the undertaking to decide that question for others, without allowing them to hear what can
be said on the contrary side. And I denounce and reprobate this pretension not the less if it is
put forth on the side of my most solemn convictions. However positive anyone's persuasion
may be, not only of the faculty but of the pernicious consequences, but (to adopt expressions
which I altogether condemn) the immorality and impiety of opinion. – yet if, in pursuance of
that private judgement, though backed by the public judgement of his country or
contemporaries, he prevents the opinion from being heard in its defence, he assumes
infallibility. And so far from the assumption being less objectionable or less dangerous
because the opinion is called immoral or impious, this is the case of all others in which it is
most fatal.[41]

Mill outlines the benefits of 'searching for and discovering the truth' as a way to further knowledge. He
argued that even if an opinion is false, the truth can be better understood by refuting the error. And as
most opinions are neither completely true nor completely false, he points out that allowing free
expression allows the airing of competing views as a way to preserve partial truth in various opinions.[42]
Worried about minority views being suppressed, Mill also argued in support of freedom of speech on
political grounds, stating that it is a critical component for a representative government to have in order
to empower debate over public policy.[42] Mill also eloquently argued that freedom of expression allows
for personal growth and self-realization. He said that freedom of speech was a vital way to develop
talents and realise a person's potential and creativity. He repeatedly said that eccentricity was preferable
to uniformity and stagnation.[42]

Harm principle
The belief that the freedom of speech will advance the society was formed with trust of the public's
ability to filter. If any argument is really wrong or harmful, the public will judge it as wrong or harmful,
and then those arguments cannot be sustained and will be excluded. Mill argued that even any arguments
which are used in justifying murder or rebellion against the government shouldn't be politically
suppressed or socially persecuted. According to him, if rebellion is really necessary, people should rebel;
if murder is truly proper, it should be allowed. But, the way to express those arguments should be a
public speech or writing, not in a way that causes actual harm to others. This is the harm principle.

That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a
civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.[43]

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. made the standard
of "clear and present danger" based on Mill's idea. In the majority opinion, Holmes writes:
 The question in every case is whether the words used are used in such circumstances and are
of such a nature as to create a clear and present danger that they will bring about the
substantive evils that Congress has a right to prevent.[44]

Holmes suggested that shouting out "Fire!" in a dark theatre, which makes people panic and gets them
injured, would be such a case of speech that creates an illegal danger.[45] But if the situation allows
people to reason by themselves and decide to accept it or not, any argument or theology should not be
blocked.

Nowadays, Mill's argument is generally accepted by many democratic countries, and they have laws at
least guided by the harm principle. For example, in American law some exceptions limit free speech such
as obscenity, defamation, breach of peace, and "fighting words".[46]

Colonialism
Mill, an employee for the British East India Company from 1823 to 1858,[47] argued in support of what
he called a "benevolent despotism" with regard to the colonies.[48] Mill argued that "To suppose that the
same international customs, and the same rules of international morality, can obtain between one
civilized nation and another, and between civilized nations and barbarians, is a grave error. ... To
characterize any conduct whatever towards a barbarous people as a violation of the law of nations, only
shows that he who so speaks has never considered the subject."[49] Mill justified the British colonization
of India but he was concerned with the way that British rule of India was conducted.[50]

Slavery
In 1850, Mill sent an anonymous letter (which came to be known under the title "The Negro
Question"),[51] in rebuttal to Thomas Carlyle's anonymous letter to Fraser's Magazine for Town and
Country in which Carlyle argued for slavery. Mill supported abolition in the United States.

In Mill's essay from 1869, "The Subjection of Women", he expressed his opposition to slavery:

This absolutely extreme case of the law of force, condemned by those who can tolerate
almost every other form of arbitrary power, and which, of all others, presents features the
most revolting to the feeling of all who look at it from an impartial position, was the law of
civilized and Christian England within the memory of persons now living: and in one half of
Anglo-Saxon America three or four years ago, not only did slavery exist, but the slave trade,
and the breeding of slaves expressly for it, was a general practice between slave states. Yet
not only was there a greater strength of sentiment against it, but, in England at least, a less
amount either of feeling or of interest in favour of it, than of any other of the customary
abuses of force: for its motive was the love of gain, unmixed and undisguised: and those
who profited by it were a very small numerical fraction of the country, while the natural
feeling of all who were not personally interested in it, was unmitigated abhorrence.[52]

Women's rights
Mill's view of history was that right up until his time "the whole
of the female" and "the great majority of the male sex" were
simply "slaves". He countered arguments to the contrary, arguing
that relations between sexes simply amounted to "the legal
subordination of one sex to the other – [which] is wrong itself,
and now one of the chief hindrances to human improvement; and
that it ought to be replaced by a principle of perfect equality."
With this, Mill can be considered among the earliest male
proponents of gender equality. His book The Subjection of
Women (1861, published 1869) is one of the earliest written on
this subject by a male author.[53] In The Subjection of Women
Mill attempts to make a case for perfect equality.[54] He talks
about the role of women in marriage and how it needed to be
changed. There, Mill comments on three major facets of women's
lives that he felt are hindering them: society and gender
construction, education, and marriage. He argued that the
oppression of women was one of the few remaining relics from
"A Feminine Philosopher". Caricature
ancient times, a set of prejudices that severely impeded the by Spy published in Vanity Fair in
progress of humanity.[52][55] 1873.

As a Member of Parliament, Mill introduced an unsuccessful

amendment to the Reform Bill to substitute the word "person" in place of "man".[56]

Utilitarianism
The canonical statement of Mill's utilitarianism can be found in Utilitarianism. This philosophy has a
long tradition, although Mill's account is primarily influenced by Jeremy Bentham and Mill's father
James Mill.

John Stuart Mill believed in the philosophy of Utilitarianism. He would describe Utilitarianism as the
principle that holds "that actions are right in the proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as
they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." By happiness he means, "intended pleasure, and the
absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure".[57] It is clear that we do not all
value virtues as a path to happiness and that we sometimes only value them for selfish reasons. However,
Mill asserts that upon reflection, even when we value virtues for selfish reasons we are in fact cherishing
them as a part of our happiness.

Jeremy Bentham's famous formulation of utilitarianism is known as the "greatest-happiness principle". It

holds that one must always act so as to produce the greatest aggregate happiness among all sentient
beings, within reason. In a similar vein, Mill's method of determining the best utility is that a moral
agent, when given the choice between two or more actions, ought to choose the action that contributes
most to (maximizes) the total happiness in the world. Happiness in this context is understood as the
production of pleasure or privation of pain. Given that determining the action that produces the most
utility is not always so clear cut, Mill suggests that the utilitarian moral agent, when attempting to rank
the utility of different actions, should refer to the general experience of persons. That is, if people
generally experience more happiness following action X than they do action Y, the utilitarian should
conclude that action X produces more utility than, and is thus favorable to, action Y.[58]
Utilitarianism is built upon the basis of consequentialism, that is, the means are justified based solely off
the result of one's actions. The overarching goal of Utilitarianism – the ideal consequence – is to achieve
the "greatest good for the greatest number as the end result of human action".[59] Mill states in his
writings on Utilitarianism that "happiness is the sole end of human action."[28] This statement brought
about a bit of controversy, which is why Mill took it a step further, explaining how the very nature of
humans wanting happiness, and who "take it to be reasonable under free consideration", demands that
happiness is indeed desirable.[9] In other words, free will leads everyone to make actions inclined on
their own happiness, unless reasoned that it would improve the happiness of others, in which case, the
greatest utility is still being achieved. To that extent, the Utilitarianism that Mill is describing is a default
lifestyle that he believes is what people who have not studied a specific opposing field of ethics would
naturally and subconsciously utilize when faced with decision. Utilitarianism is thought of by some of its
activists to be a more developed and overarching ethical theory of Kant's belief in good will however,
and not just some default cognitive process of humans. Where Kant would argue that reason can only be
used properly by good will, Mill would say that the only way to universally create fair laws and systems
would be to step back to the consequences, whereby Kant's ethical theories become based around the
ultimate good – utility.[60] By this logic the only valid way to discern what is proper reason would be to
view the consequences of any action and weigh the good and the bad, even if on the surface, the ethical
reasoning seems to indicate a different train of thought.

Mill's major contribution to utilitarianism is his argument for the qualitative separation of pleasures.
Bentham treats all forms of happiness as equal, whereas Mill argues that intellectual and moral pleasures
(higher pleasures) are superior to more physical forms of pleasure (lower pleasures). Mill distinguishes
between happiness and contentment, claiming that the former is of higher value than the latter, a belief
wittily encapsulated in the statement that "it is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;
better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are of a different
opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question."[58]

This made Mill believe that "our only ultimate end" [61] is happiness. One unique part of Mill's
Utilitarian view, that is not seen in others, is the idea of higher and lower pleasures. Mill explains the
different pleasures as:

If I am asked, what I mean by difference of quality in pleasures, or what makes one pleasure
more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure, except its being greater in amount, there is
but one possible answer. Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who
have experience of both give a decided preference […] that is the more desirable
pleasure.[62]

He defines higher pleasures as mental, moral, and aesthetic pleasures, and lower pleasures as being more
sensational. He believed that higher pleasures should be seen as preferable to lower pleasures since they
have a greater quality in virtue. He holds that pleasures gained in activity are of a higher quality than
those gained passively.[63]

Mill defines the difference between higher and lower forms of pleasure with the principle that those who
have experienced both tend to prefer one over the other. This is, perhaps, in direct contrast with
Bentham's statement that "Quantity of pleasure being equal, push-pin is as good as poetry",[64] that, if a
simple child's game like hopscotch causes more pleasure to more people than a night at the opera house,
it is more imperative upon a society to devote more resources to propagating hopscotch than running
opera houses. Mill's argument is that the "simple pleasures" tend to be preferred by people who have no
experience with high art, and are therefore not in a proper position to judge. Mill also argues that people
who, for example, are noble or practice philosophy, benefit society more than those who engage in
individualist practices for pleasure, which are lower forms of happiness. It is not the agent's own greatest
happiness that matters "but the greatest amount of happiness altogether".[65]

Mill separated his explanation of Utilitarianism into five different sections; General Remarks, What
Utilitarianism Is, Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility, Of What Sort of Proof the Principle
of Utility is Susceptible, and Of the Connection between Justice and Utility. In the General Remarks
portion of his essay he speaks how next to no progress has been made when it comes to judging what is
right and what is wrong of morality and if there is such a thing as moral instinct (which he argues that
there may not be). However he agrees that in general "Our moral faculty, according to all those of its
interpreters who are entitled to the name of thinkers, supplies us only with the general principles of moral
judgments".[66] In the second chapter of his essay he focuses no longer on background information but
Utilitarianism itself. He quotes Utilitarianism as "The greatest happiness principle" And defines this
theory by saying that pleasure and no pain are the only inherently good things in the world and expands
on it by saying that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend
to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by
unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure."[67] He views it not as an animalistic concept because
he sees seeking out pleasure as a way of using our higher facilities. He also says in this chapter that the
happiness principle is based not exclusively on the individual but mainly on the community.

Mill also defends the idea of a "strong utilitarian conscience (i.e. a strong feeling of obligation to the
general happiness)"[68] He argued that humans have a desire to be happy and that that desire causes us to
want to be in unity with other humans. This causes us to care about the happiness of others, as well as the
happiness of complete strangers. But this desire also causes us to experience pain when we perceive harm
to other people. He believes in internal sanctions that make us experience guilt and appropriate our
actions. These internal sanctions make us want to do good because we do not want to feel guilty for our
actions. Happiness is our ultimate end because it is our duty. He argues that we do not need to be
constantly motivated by the concern of people's happiness because the most of the actions done by
people are done out of good intention, and the good of the world is made up of the good of the people.

In Mill's fourth chapter he speaks of what proofs of Utility are affected. He starts this chapter off by
saying that all of his claims cannot be backed up by reasoning. He claims that the only proof that
something brings one pleasure is if someone finds it pleasurable. Next he talks about how morality is the
basic way to achieve happiness. He also discusses in this chapter that Utilitarianism is beneficial for
virtue. He says that "it maintains not only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired
disinterestedly, for itself."[69] In his final chapter Mill looks at the connection between Utilitarianism and
justice. He contemplates the question of whether justice is something distinct from Utility or not. He
reasons this question in several different ways and finally comes to the conclusion that in certain cases
justice is essential for Utility, but in others social duty is far more important than justice. Mill believes
that "justice must give way to some other moral principle, but that what is just in ordinary cases is, by
reason of that other principle, not just in the particular case."[70]

The qualitative account of happiness that Mill advocates thus sheds light on his account presented in On
Liberty. As Mill suggests in that text, utility is to be conceived in relation to humanity "as a progressive
being", which includes the development and exercise of rational capacities as we strive to achieve a
"higher mode of existence". The rejection of censorship and paternalism is intended to provide the
necessary social conditions for the achievement of knowledge and the greatest ability for the greatest
number to develop and exercise their deliberative and rational capacities.

Mill redefines the definition of happiness as; "the ultimate end, for the sake of which all other things are
desirable (whether we are considering our own good or that of other people) is an existence as free as
possible from pain and as rich as possible in enjoyments".[71] He firmly believed that moral rules and
obligations could be referenced to promoting happiness, which connects to having a noble character.
While John Stuart Mill is not a standard act or rule utilitarian, he is a minimizing utilitarian, which
"affirms that it would be desirable to maximize happiness for the greatest number, but not that we are not
morally required to do so".[72]

Mill's thesis distinguishes between higher and lower pleasures. He frequently discusses the importance of
acknowledgement of higher pleasures. "To suppose that life has (as they express it) no higher end than
pleasure- no better and nobler object of desire and pursuit they designate as utterly mean and groveling;
as a doctrine worthy only of swine".[73] When he says higher pleasures, he means the pleasures that
access higher abilities and capacities in humans such as intellectual prosperity, whereas lower pleasures
would mean bodily or temporary pleasures. "But it must be admitted that when utilitarian writers have
said that mental pleasures are better than bodily ones they have mainly based this on mental pleasures
being more permanent, safer, less costly and so on – i.e. from their circumstantial advantages rather than
from their intrinsic nature".[74] All of this factors into John Mill's own definition of utilitarianism, and
shows why it differs from other definitions.

Economic philosophy
Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets.
However, he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax
on alcohol, if there were sufficient utilitarian grounds. He also
accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose
of animal welfare.[75] Mill originally believed that "equality of
taxation" meant "equality of sacrifice" and that progressive
taxation penalised those who worked harder and saved more and
was therefore "a mild form of robbery".[76]

Given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that

inheritance should be taxed. A utilitarian society would agree that
everyone should be equal one way or another. Therefore,
receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed
on the inheritance. Those who donate should consider and choose
carefully where their money goes – some charities are more
deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as
a government will disburse the money equally. However, a
Essays on Economics and Society,
private charity board like a church would disburse the monies 1967
fairly to those who are in more need than others.[77]

Later he altered his views toward a more socialist bent, adding chapters to his Principles of Political
Economy in defence of a socialist outlook, and defending some socialist causes.[78] Within this revised
work he also made the radical proposal that the whole wage system be abolished in favour of a co-
operative wage system. Nonetheless, some of his views on the idea of flat taxation remained,[79] albeit
altered in the third edition of the Principles of Political Economy to reflect a concern for differentiating
restrictions on "unearned" incomes, which he favoured, and those on "earned" incomes, which he did not
favour.[80]

Mill's Principles, first published in 1848, was one of the most widely read of all books on economics in
the period.[81] As Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations had during an earlier period, Mill's Principles
dominated economics teaching. In the case of Oxford University it was the standard text until 1919,
when it was replaced by Marshall's Principles of Economics.

Economic democracy
His main objection of socialism was on that of what he saw its destruction of competition stating, "I
utterly dissent from the most conspicuous and vehement part of their teaching – their declamations
against competition." Mill was an egalitarian, but he argued more so for equal opportunity and placed
meritocracy above all other ideals in this regard. According to Mill, a socialist society would only be
attainable through the provision of basic education for all, promoting economic democracy instead of
capitalism, in the manner of substituting capitalist businesses with worker cooperatives. He says:

The form of association, however, which if mankind continue to improve, must be expected
in the end to predominate, is not that which can exist between a capitalist as chief, and work-
people without a voice in the management, but the association of the labourers themselves
on terms of equality, collectively owning the capital with which they carry on their
operations, and working under managers elected and removable by themselves.[82][83]

Political democracy
Mill's major work on political democracy, Considerations on Representative Government, defends two
fundamental principles: extensive participation by citizens and enlightened competence of rulers.[84] The
two values are obviously in tension, and some readers have concluded that he is an elitist democrat,[85]
while others count him as an earlier participatory democrat.[86] In one section he appears to defend plural
voting, in which more competent citizens are given extra votes (a view he later repudiated). But in
chapter 3 he presents what is still one of the most eloquent cases for the value of participation by all
citizens. He believed that the incompetence of the masses could eventually be overcome if they were
given a chance to take part in politics, especially at the local level.

Mill is one of the few political philosophers ever to serve in government as an elected official. In his
three years in Parliament, he was more willing to compromise than the "radical" principles expressed in
his writing would lead one to expect.[87]

The environment
Mill demonstrated an early insight into the value of the natural world – in particular in Book IV, chapter
VI of Principles of Political Economy: "Of the Stationary State"[88][89] in which Mill recognised wealth
beyond the material, and argued that the logical conclusion of unlimited growth was destruction of the
environment and a reduced quality of life. He concluded that a stationary state could be preferable to
unending economic growth:
 I cannot, therefore, regard the stationary states of capital and wealth with the unaffected
aversion so generally manifested towards it by political economists of the old school.

If the earth must lose that great portion of its pleasantness which it owes to things that the
unlimited increase of wealth and population would extirpate from it, for the mere purpose of
enabling it to support a larger, but not a better or a happier population, I sincerely hope, for
the sake of posterity, that they will be content to be stationary, long before necessity compel
them to it.

Rate of profit
According to Mill, the ultimate tendency in an economy is for the rate of profit to decline due to
diminishing returns in agriculture and increase in population at a Malthusian rate [90]

In popular culture
Mill is the subject of a 1905 clerihew by E. C. Bentley:[91]

John Stuart Mill,

By a mighty effort of will,
Overcame his natural bonhomie
And wrote Principles of Political Economy.

Mill is mentioned in Monty Python's "Bruces' Philosophers

Song" (1973) in the lines:[92]

John Stuart Mill, of his own free will,

On half a pint of shandy was particularly ill.

Statue of Mill by Thomas

Major publications Woolner in Victoria
Embankment Gardens,
London
 Title Date Source
"Two Letters on the Measure of Value" 1822 "The Traveller"
"Questions of Population" 1823 "Black Dwarf"
Westminster
"War Expenditure" 1824
Review
Westminster
"Quarterly Review – Political Economy" 1825
Review
"Review of Miss Martineau's Tales" 1830 Examiner
"The Spirit of the Age" 1831 Examiner
"Use and Abuse of Political Terms" 1832
1833,
"What is Poetry"
1859
"Rationale of Representation" 1835
"De Tocqueville on Democracy in America [i]" 1835
"State of Society In America" 1836
"Civilization" 1836
"Essay on Bentham" 1838
"Essay on Coleridge" 1840
"Essays On Government" 1840
"De Tocqueville on Democracy in America [ii]" 1840
A System of Logic 1843
Essays on Some Unsettled Questions of Political Economy 1844
"Claims of Labour" 1845 Edinburgh Review
The Principles of Political Economy: with some of their applications to social
1848
philosophy
"The Negro Question" 1850 Fraser's Magazine
"Reform of the Civil Service" 1854
Dissertations and Discussions 1859
A Few Words on Non-intervention 1859
On Liberty 1859
Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform 1859
Considerations on Representative Government 1861
"Centralisation" 1862 Edinburgh Review
Harper's
"The Contest in America" 1862
Magazine
Utilitarianism 1863
An Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy 1865
Auguste Comte and Positivism 1865
Inaugural Address at St. Andrews Concerning the value of culture 1867

"Speech In Favour of Capital Punishment"[93][94] 1868

England and Ireland 1868
"Thornton on Labour and its Claims" 1869 Fortnightly Review
The Subjection of Women 1869
Chapters and Speeches on the Irish Land Question 1870
Nature, the Utility of Religion, and Theism 1874
Autobiography (https://archive.org/stream/autobiographymil00milluoft#page/n7/m
1873
ode/2up)
Three Essays on Religion (https://archive.org/stream/threeessaysonrel00mill#pa
1874
ge/n7/mode/2up)
Belfords, Clarke &
Socialism (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/38138/38138-h/38138-h.htm) 1879
Co.
Economica N.S.
"Notes on N. W. Senior's Political Economy" 1945
12

See also
John Stuart Mill Institute
Mill's methods
John Stuart Mill Library
List of liberal theorists
On Social Freedom
Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom

Notes
1. Hyman, Anthony (1982). Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer. Princeton University
Press. pp. 120–121. "What effect did Babbages Economy of Machinery and Manufacturers
have? Generally his book received little attention as it not greatly concerned with such
traditional problems of economics as the nature of 'value'. Actually the effect was
considerable, his discussion of factories and manufactures entering the main currents of
economic thought. Here it must suffice to look briefly at its influence on two major figures;
John Stuart Mill and Adam Smith"
2. Varouxakis, Georgios (1999). "Guizot's historical works and J.S. Mill's reception of
Tocqueville". History of Political Thought. 20 (2): 292–312. JSTOR 26217580 (https://www.js
tor.org/stable/26217580).
3. Friedrich Hayek (1941). "The Counter-Revolution of Science". Economica. 8 (31): 281–320.
doi:10.2307/2549335 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2549335). JSTOR 2549335 (https://www.j
stor.org/stable/2549335).
4. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of Autobiography, by John Stuart Mill" (http://www.gutenber
g.org/cache/epub/10378/pg10378.html) gutenberg.org. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
5. Michael N. Forster, After Herder: Philosophy of Language in the German Tradition, Oxford
University Press, 2010, p. 9.
6. Ralph Raico (27 January 2018). Mises Institute (ed.). "John Stuart Mill and the New
Liberalism" (https://mises.org/library/john-stuart-mill-and-new-liberalism).
7. Mommsen, Wolfgang J. (2013). Max Weber and His Contempories. Routledge. pp. 8–10.
8. Thouverez, Emile (1908), Stuart Mill. 4.ed. Paris: Bloud & Cie, p. 23.
 9. Macleod, Christopher (14 November 2017). Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2017/entries/mill/).
Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University – via Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
10. "John Stuart Mill's On Liberty" (http://www.victorianweb.org/philosophy/mill/liberty.html).
victorianweb. Retrieved 23 July 2009. "On Liberty is a rational justification of the freedom of
the individual in opposition to the claims of the state to impose unlimited control and is thus
a defense of the rights of the individual against the state."
11. "John Stuart Mill (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mi
ll/#SciMet). plato.stanford.edu. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
12. "Orator Hunt and the first suffrage petition 1832" (https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heri
tage/transformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/parliamentary-collections/1866-suffrag
e-petition/the-first-petition/). UK Parliament.
13. "John Stuart Mill and the 1866 petition" (https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/tran
sformingsociety/electionsvoting/womenvote/parliamentary-collections/1866-suffrage-petitio
n/john-stuart-mill/). UK Parliament.
14. Halevy, Elie (1966). The Growth of Philosophic Radicalism. Beacon Press. pp. 282–284.
ISBN 978-0191010200.
15. "Cornell University Library Making of America Collection" (http://collections.library.cornell.ed
u/moa_new/index.html?c=nwng;cc=nwng;rgn=full+text;idno=nwng0033-4;didno=nwng0033-
4;view=image;seq=620;node=nwng0033-4:1;page=root;size=s;frm=frameset).
collections.library.cornell.edu.
16. Murray N. Rothbard (1 February 2006). An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic
Thought (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MCcWhLmRo-cC). Ludwig von Mises Institute.
p. 105 (https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_MCcWhLmRo-cC/page/n121). ISBN 978-
0945466482. Retrieved 21 January 2011.
17. John Stuart Mill's Mental Breakdown, Victorian Unconversions, and Romantic Poetry (http://
www.victorianweb.org/philosophy/mill/crisis.html)
18. Pickering, Mary (1993), Auguste Comte: an intellectual biography, Cambridge University
Press, p. 540
19. Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. p. 33, Cambridge, 2004,
ISBN 0521620244.
20. "Cornell University Library Making of America Collection" (http://collections.library.cornell.ed
u/moa_new/index.html?c=nwng&cc=nwng&idno=nwng0033-4&node=nwng0033-4:1&frm=fr
ameset&view=image&seq=623). collections.library.cornell.edu.
21. "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter M" (http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMe
mbers/ChapterM.pdf) (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 15 April
2011.
22. Mill, John Stuart. Writings on India. Edited by John M. Robson, Martin Moir and Zawahir
Moir. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; London: Routledge, c. 1990.
23. Klausen, Jimmy Casas (7 January 2016). "Violence and Epistemology J. S. Mill's Indians
after the "Mutiny" " (http://prq.sagepub.com/content/early/2016/01/07/1065912915623379).
Political Research Quarterly. 69: 96–107. doi:10.1177/1065912915623379 (https://doi.org/1
0.1177%2F1065912915623379). ISSN 1065-9129 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1065-912
9).
24. Harris, Abram L. (1 January 1964). "John Stuart Mill: Servant of the East India Company".
The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science. 30 (2): 185–202.
doi:10.2307/139555 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F139555). JSTOR 139555 (https://www.jstor.
org/stable/139555).
25. Lal, Vinay. "'John Stuart Mill and India', a review-article". New Quest, no. 54 (January–
February 1998): 54–64.
26. "No. 22991" (https://www.thegazette.co.uk/London/issue/22991/page/3528). The London
Gazette. 14 July 1865. p. 3528.
27. Capaldi, Nicholas. John Stuart Mill: A Biography. pp. 321–322, Cambridge, 2004,
ISBN 0521620244.
28. John Stuart Mill: Utilitarianism and the 1868 Speech on Capital Punishment. (Sher, ed.
Hackett Publishing Co, 2001)
29. "Editorial Notes" (https://books.google.com/books?id=mbxCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA203).
Secular Review. 16 (13): 203. 28 March 1885. "It has always seemed to us that this is one
of the instances in which Mill approached, out of deference to conventional opinion, as near
to the borderland of Cant as he well could without compromising his pride of place as a
recognised thinker and sceptic"
30. Linda C. Raeder (2002). "Spirit of the Age". John Stuart Mill and the Religion of Humanity.
University of Missouri Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0826263278. "Comte welcomed the prospect
of being attacked publicly for his irreligion, he said, as this would permit him to clarify the
nonatheistic nature of his and Mill's "atheism"."
31. Larsen, Timothy (2018). John Stuart Mill: A Secular Life (https://books.google.ca/books?id=
EP9eDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false). Oxford University Press. p. 14.
ISBN 9780198753155. "A letter John wrote from Forde Abbey when he was eight years old
casually mentions in his general report of his activities that he too had been to Thorncombe
parish church, so even when Bentham had home-field advantage, the boy was still
receiving a Christian spiritual formation. Indeed, Mill occasionally attended Christian
worship services during his teen years and thereafter for the rest of his life. The sea of faith
was full and all around"
32. Larsen, Timothy. "A surprisingly religious John Stuart Mill" (https://blog.oup.com/2018/12/su
rprisingly-religious-john-stuart-mill/). "TL: Mill decided that strictly in terms of proof the right
answer to that question of God’s existence is that it is “a very probable hypothesis.” He also
thought it was perfectly rational and legitimate to believe in God as an act of hope or as the
result of one’s efforts to discern the meaning of life as a whole."
33. Shermer, Michael (15 August 2002). In Darwin's Shadow: The Life and Science of Alfred
Russel Wallace: A Biographical Study on the Psychology of History (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=eu9Uu3PbdcgC&pg=PP212). Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-
0199923854.
34. On Liberty by John Stuart Mill (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34901). 10 January 2011 –
via www.gutenberg.org.
35. Mill, John Stuart "On Liberty" Penguin Classics, 2006
36. https://socialsciences.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/mill/liberty.pdf
37. Mill, John Stuart, On Liberty, Harvard Classics: Volume 25, p. 258, PF Collier & Sons
Company New York 1909
38. "I. Introductory. Mill, John Stuart. 1869. On Liberty" (https://www.bartleby.com/130/1.html).
www.bartleby.com. Retrieved 16 July 2018.
39. Mill, John Stuart, "On Liberty" Penguin Classics, 2006 ISBN 978-0141441474 pp. 10–11
40. Mill, On Liberty, p. 13. Cornell.edu (http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?
c=harp;cc=harp;rgn=full%20text;idno=harp0024-5;didno=harp0024-5;view=image;seq=006
93;node=harp0024-5%3A1)
41. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) "On Liberty" 1859. ed. Gertrude Himmelfarb, UK: Penguin,
1985, pp. 83–84
42. Freedom of Speech, Volume 21, by Ellen Frankel Paul, Fred Dycus Miller, Jeffrey Paul
43. John Stuart Mill. (1863 [1859]). On Liberty. Ticknor and Fields. p. 23
44. Schenck v. United States, 249 US 47 – Supreme Court 1919
45. George & Kline 2006, p. 409.
46. George & Kline 2006, p. 410.
47. "J. S. Mill's Career at the East India Company" (http://www.victorianweb.org/philosophy/mill/
career.html). www.victorianweb.org.
48. Theo Goldberg, David (2000). " "Liberalism's limits: Carlyle and Mill on "the negro question".
Nineteenth-Century Contexts: An Interdisciplinary Journal. 22 (2): 203–216.
doi:10.1080/08905490008583508 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08905490008583508).
49. John Stuart Mill, Dissertations and Discussions: Political, Philosophical, and Historical (New
York 1874) Vol. 3, pp. 252–253.
50. Williams, David (7 February 2020). "John Stuart Mill and the practice of colonial rule in
India" (http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1755088220903349). Journal of
International Political Theory: 175508822090334. doi:10.1177/1755088220903349 (https://d
oi.org/10.1177%2F1755088220903349). ISSN 1755-0882 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/17
55-0882).
51. The Negro Question, pp. 130–137. by John Stuart Mill.
52. Mill, J. S. (1869) The Subjection of Women (http://www.constitution.org/jsm/women.htm),
Chapter 1
53. Divinity, Jone Johnson Lewis Jone Johnson Lewis has a Master of; Member, Is a Humanist
Clergy; late 1960s, certified transformational coach She has been involved in the women's
movement since the. "About Male Feminist John Stuart Mill" (https://www.thoughtco.com/joh
n-stuart-mill-male-feminist-3530510). ThoughtCo. Retrieved 9 July 2019.
54. John Stuart Mill: critical assessments, Volume 4, By John Cunningham Wood
55. Mill, John Stuart (2005), "The subjection of women", in Cudd, Ann E.; Andreasen, Robin O.
(eds.), Feminist theory: a philosophical anthology, Oxford, UK; Malden, Massachusetts:
Blackwell Publishing, pp. 17–26, ISBN 978-1405116619.
56. West, Henry R. (13 September 2015). "J. S. Mill". In Crisp, Roger (ed.). The Oxford
handbook of the history of ethics. Oxford. p. 528. ISBN 9780198744405. OCLC 907652431
(https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/907652431).
57. Mill, John (2002). The Basic Writings Of John Stuart Mill. The Modern Library. p. 239.
58. Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill (http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11224). February 2004
– via www.gutenberg.org.
59. Freeman, Stephen J., Dennis W. Engels, and Michael K. Altekruse. "Foundations for Ethical
Standards and Codes: The Role of Moral Philosophy and Theory in Ethics." Counseling and
Values, vol. 48, no. 3, 2004, pp. 163–173, eLibrary.
60. Davis, G. Scott. "Introduction." Introduction to Utilitarianism, by John Stuart Mill, VII–XIV.
Barnes & Noble Library of Essential Reading. Barnes and Noble, 2005.
61. Heydt, Colin. "John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/milljs). Internet
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62. Mill, John (1961). Utilitarianism. Doubleday. p. 211.
63. Driver, Julia. "The History of Utilitarianism" (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2014/entri
es/utilitarianism-history). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
64. Bronfenbrenner, Martin (1977). "Poetry, Pushpin, and Utility". Economic Inquiry. 15: 95–110.
doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.1977.tb00452.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1465-7295.1977.tb00
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65. Mill 1863, p. 16 (https://archive.org/stream/a592840000milluoft#page/16).
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69. Mill 1863, p. 24.
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73. Mill 1863.
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94. His speech against the abolition of capital punishment was commented upon in an editorial
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Carole Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory (Cambridge University Press, 1970).
ISBN 978-0521290043
Richard Reeves, John Stuart Mill: Victorian Firebrand, Atlantic Books (2007), paperback
2008. ISBN 978-1843546443
Robinson, Dave & Groves, Judy (2003). Introducing Political Philosophy. Icon Books.
ISBN 184046450X.
Frederick Rosen, Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill (Routledge Studies in Ethics &
Moral Theory), 2003. ISBN 0415220947
Spiegel, H. W. (1991). The Growth of Economic Thought (https://books.google.com/books?i
d=oXJkjfVCOLoC&pg=PA390). Economic history. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-
0822309734.
 Strasser, Mark Philip (1991). The Moral Philosophy of John Stuart Mill: Toward
Modifications of Contemporary Utilitarianism (https://books.google.com/books?id=GDXXAA
AAMAAJ). Wakefield, New Hampshire: Longwood Academic. ISBN 978-0893416812.
Chin Liew Ten, Mill on Liberty, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1980, full-text online at Contents (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20070605032456/http://www.victorianweb.org/philosophy/mill/te
n/contents.html) Victorianweb.org (National University of Singapore)
Dennis Thompson, John Stuart Mill and Representative Government (Princeton University
Press, 1976). ISBN 978-0691021874
Dennis Thompson, "Mill in Parliament: When Should a Philosopher Compromise?" in J. S.
Mill's Political Thought, eds. N. Urbinati and A. Zakaras (Cambridge University Press,
2007). ISBN 978-0521677561
Brink, David, "Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy" (https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2
016/entries/mill-moral-political/), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016
Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
Stuart Mill, Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, ed. J. M. Robson (Toronto: University of
Toronto Press, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963–1991), 33 vols. 3/14/2017.
Walker, Francis Amasa (1876). The Wages Question: A Treatise on Wages and the Wages
Class (https://archive.org/details/wagesquestiontre00walkiala). Henry Holt.

Further reading
Alican, Necip Fikri (1994). Mill's Principle of Utility: A Defense of John Stuart Mill's Notorious
Proof. Amsterdam and Atlanta: Editions Rodopi B. V. ISBN 978-9051837483.
Bayles, M. D. (1968). Contemporary Utilitarianism. Anchor Books, Doubleday.
Bentham, Jeremy (2009). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (Dover
Philosophical Classics). Dover Publications Inc. ISBN 978-0486454528.
Brandt, Richard B. (1979). A Theory of the Good and the Right (https://archive.org/details/th
eoryofgood00bran). Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198245506.
Lee, Sidney, ed. (1894). "Mill, John Stuart" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Mill,_John_Stuart
_(DNB00)). Dictionary of National Biography. 37. London: Smith, Elder & Co.
López, Rosario (2016). Contexts of John Stuart Mill's Liberalism: Politics and the Science of
Society in Victorian Britain. Baden-Baden, Nomos. ISBN 978-3848736959.
Lyons, David (1965). Forms and Limits of Utilitarianism. Oxford University Press (UK).
ISBN 978-0198241973.
Mill, John Stuart (2011). A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (Classic Reprint).
Forgotten Books. ISBN 978-1440090820.
Mill, John Stuart (1981). "Autobiography". In Robson, John (ed.). Collected Works, volume
XXXI. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0710007186.
Moore, G. E. (1903). Principia Ethica. Prometheus Books UK. ISBN 978-0879754983.
Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge.
Scheffler, Samuel (August 1994). The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical
Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions, Second Edition.
Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0198235118.
Smart, J. J. C.; Williams, Bernard (January 1973). Utilitarianism: For and Against (https://arc
hive.org/details/utilitarianismfo00smar). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-
0521098229.
Francisco Vergara, « Bentham and Mill on the "Quality" of Pleasures (http://www.fvergara.c
om/QUALITY.doc)», Revue d'études benthamiennes, Paris, 2011.
 Francisco Vergara, « A Critique of Elie Halévy; refutation of an important distortion of British
moral philosophy (http://fvergara.com/Halevy.pdf) », Philosophy, Journal of The Royal
Institute of Philosophy, London, 1998.

External links

Mill's works
A System of Logic, University Press of the Pacific, Honolulu, 2002, ISBN 1410202526
Works by John Stuart Mill (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Mill,+John+Stuart) at Project
Gutenberg
Works by or about John Stuart Mill (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subjec
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tuart%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Mill%2C%20John%20S%2E%22%20OR%20desc
ription%3A%22John%20Mill%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Mill%2C%20John%22%2
9%20OR%20%28%221806-1873%22%20AND%20Mill%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediaty
pe:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by John Stuart Mill (https://librivox.org/author/2881) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
The Online Books Page (http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=
Mill+John+Stuart&amode=words&title=&tmode=words) lists works on various sites
Works (https://web.archive.org/web/20111024213145/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/m/mill/j
ohn_stuart/), readable and downloadable
Primary and secondary works (https://web.archive.org/web/20120515050039/http://www.ef
m.bris.ac.uk/het/mill/)
More easily readable versions of On Liberty, Utilitarianism, Three Essays on Religion, The
Subjection of Women, A System of Logic, and Autobiography (http://www.earlymoderntexts.
com/)
Of the Composition of Causes (http://isnature.org/Files/Mill1859-Composition_of_Causes.ht
m), Chapter VI of System of Logic (1859)
John Stuart Mill's diary of a walking tour at Mount Holyoke College (http://asteria.fivecollege
s.edu/findaids/mountholyoke/mshm189_main.html)

Secondary works
 Macleod, Christopher. "John Stuart Mill" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill/). In Zalta,
Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
John Stuart Mill (http://www.iep.utm.edu/milljs/) in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Bendle, Mervyn F. (December 2009). "On liberty: Isaiah Berlin, John Stuart Mill and the
ends of life" (http://www.quadrant.org.au/magazine/issue/2009/12/on-liberty). Quadrant. 53
(12): 36–43. Retrieved 8 August 2011.

Further information
Minto, William; Mitchell, John Malcolm (1911). "MILL, JOHN STUART". The Encyclopaedia
Britannica; A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, Literature and General Information (https://archiv
e.org/stream/encyclopaediabri18chisrich#page/454/mode/2up). XVIII (MEDAL to MUMPS)
(11th ed.). Cambridge, England and New York: At the University Press. pp. 454–459.
Retrieved 9 September 2019 – via Internet Archive.
Catalogue of Mill's correspondence and papers (http://archives.lse.ac.uk/TreeBrowse.aspx?
src=CalmView.Catalog&field=RefNo&key=MILL-TAYLOR) held at the Archives Division (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20070618035533/http://www.lse.ac.uk/library/archive/Default.htm)
of the London School of Economics. View the Archives Catalogue of the contents of this
important holding, which also includes letters of James Mill and Helen Taylor.
John Stuart Mill's library (http://www.some.ox.ac.uk/library-it/special-collections/), Somerville
College Library in Oxford holds ≈ 1700 volumes owned by John Stuart Mill and his father
James Mill, many containing their marginalia
"John Stuart Mill (Obituary Notice, Tuesday, November 4, 1873)" (https://hdl.handle.net/202
7/uc2.ark:/13960/t6n011x45?urlappend=%3Bseq=206). Eminent Persons: Biographies
reprinted from The Times. I (1870–1875). Macmillan & Co. 1892. pp. 195–224. Retrieved
28 February 2019 – via HathiTrust.
John Stuart Mill (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/8534586) at Find a Grave
Mill (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003c1cx), BBC Radio 4 discussion with A. C.
Grayling, Janet Radcliffe Richards & Alan Ryan (In Our Time, 18 May 2006)
Portraits of John Stuart Mill (https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=
mp03080) at the National Portrait Gallery, London
John Stuart Mill (https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=1hKAITgAAAAJ) on Google
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Karl Marx

Karl Marx[note 1] (German: [ˈkaʁl ˈmaʁks];[12][13] 5 May 1818 –

Karl Marx
14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian,
FRSA[1]
sociologist, political theorist, journalist and socialist
revolutionary.

Born in Trier, Germany, Marx studied law and philosophy at

university. He married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Due to his
political publications, Marx became stateless and lived in exile
with his wife and children in London for decades, where he
continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German
thinker Friedrich Engels and publish his writings, researching in
the reading room of the British Museum. His best-known titles
are the 1848 pamphlet, The Communist Manifesto, and the three-
volume Das Kapital. His political and philosophical thought had
enormous influence on subsequent intellectual, economic and
political history, and his name has been used as an adjective, a
noun and a school of social theory. Karl Marx in 1875

Marx's critical theories about society, economics and politics – Born 5 May 1818
collectively understood as Marxism – hold that human societies Trier, Prussia,
develop through class struggle. In capitalism, this manifests itself German
in the conflict between the ruling classes (known as the Confederation
bourgeoisie) that control the means of production and the Died 14 March 1883
working classes (known as the proletariat) that enable these (aged 64)
means by selling their labour power in return for wages.[14] London, England
Employing a critical approach known as historical materialism, Buried Tomb of Karl Marx,
Marx predicted that, like previous socio-economic systems, Highgate Cemetery,
capitalism produced internal tensions which would lead to its London, England
self-destruction and replacement by a new system known as
Nationality Prussian (1818–1845)
socialism.
Stateless (after 1845)
For Marx, class antagonisms under capitalism, owing in part to
Spouse(s) Jenny von
its instability and crisis-prone nature, would eventuate the Westphalen
working class' development of class consciousness, leading to (m. 1843; died 1881)
their conquest of political power and eventually the establishment Children 7, including Jenny,
of a classless, communist society constituted by a free association Laura, and Eleanor
of producers.[15] Marx actively pressed for its implementation,
Parents Heinrich Marx (father)
arguing that the working class should carry out organised
revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio- Henriette Pressburg
economic emancipation.[16] (mother)
Relatives Louise Juta (sister)
Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in Jean Longuet
human history, and his work has been both lauded and (grandson)
criticised.[17] His work in economics laid the basis for much of
the current understanding of labour and its relation to capital, and Philosophy career
subsequent economic thought.[18][19][20] Many intellectuals,
Alma mater University of Bonn
labour unions, artists and political parties worldwide have been
influenced by Marx's work, with many modifying or adapting his University of Berlin
ideas. Marx is typically cited as one of the principal architects of University of Jena
modern social science.[21][22] (PhD)[2]

Era 19th-century
philosophy
Contents Region Western philosophy

Biography School Dialectical materialism

Childhood and early education: 1818–1836 Historical materialism
Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843 Marxism
Paris: 1843–1845
Main Philosophy,
Brussels: 1845–1848 interests economics, history,
Cologne: 1848–1849
politics
Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860
Notable Marxist terminology,
New-York Daily Tribune and journalism ideas surplus value,
The First International and Capital
contributions to the
Personal life labour theory of value,
Family class struggle,
Health alienation and
Death exploitation of the
Thought worker, materialist
Influences conception of history
Philosophy and social thought Influences
Human nature G.W.F. Hegel • Ludwig Feuerbach •
Labour, class struggle and false consciousness Charles Darwin • Charles
Economy, history and society Babbage[3] • Aristotle • Epicurus •
International relations Jean-Jacques Rousseau • Baruch
Legacy Spinoza • Jean Charles Léonard de
Sismondi[4] • Friedrich Wilhelm
Selected bibliography
Schulz[5][6] • David Ricardo • Adam
See also Smith • Adam Ferguson[7] • Friedrich
Notes Engels • Pierre-Joseph Proudhon •
References Constantin Pecqueur[8] • Henri de
Bibliography Saint-Simon • Robert Owen •
William Thompson[9] • Charles
Further reading
Fourier • Baron d'Holbach[10] •
Biographies
Justus von Liebig[11] • Ludwig von
Commentaries on Marx
Westphalen • Max Stirner •
Fiction works
François-Noël Babeuf • Voltaire •
Medical articles
Giambattista Vico • Maximilien
 External links Robespierre • William
Shakespeare • Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe • Claude Adrien
Biography Helvétius • François Guizot • Moses
Hess

Influenced
Childhood and early education: 1818–1836
List of Marxists
Marx was born on 5 May 1818 to Heinrich Marx (1777–1838)
Signature
and Henriette Pressburg (1788–1863). He was born at
Brückengasse 664 in Trier, a town then part of the Kingdom of
Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.[23] Marx was ethnically
Jewish. His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi, while his
paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis since 1723, a role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi
Marx.[24] His father, as a child known as Herschel, was the first in the line to receive a secular education.
He became a lawyer with a comfortably Upper middle class income; in addition to his income as an
attorney, the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards. Prior to his son's birth, and after the
abrogation of Jewish emancipation in the Rhineland,[25] Herschel converted from Judaism to join the
state Evangelical Church of Prussia, taking on the German forename Heinrich over the Yiddish
Herschel.[26]

Largely non-religious, Heinrich was a man of the Enlightenment,

interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and
Voltaire. A classical liberal, he took part in agitation for a
constitution and reforms in Prussia, at that time being an absolute
monarchy.[29] In 1815, Heinrich Marx began working as an
attorney and in 1819 moved his family to a ten-room property
near the Porta Nigra.[30] His wife, Henriette Pressburg, was a
Dutch Jewish woman from a prosperous business family that later
founded the company Philips Electronics. Her sister Sophie
Pressburg (1797–1854) married Lion Philips (1794–1866) and
was the grandmother of both Gerard and Anton Philips and great- Marx's birthplace, now
grandmother to Frits Philips. Lion Philips was a wealthy Dutch Brückenstraße 10, in Trier. The
tobacco manufacturer and industrialist, upon whom Karl and family occupied two rooms on the
Jenny Marx would later often come to rely for loans while they ground floor and three on the first
were exiled in London.[31] floor.[27] Purchased by the Social
Democratic Party of Germany in
Little is known of Marx's childhood.[32] The third of nine 1928, it now houses a museum
devoted to him.[28]
children, he became the eldest son when his brother Moritz died
in 1819.[33] Marx and his surviving siblings, Sophie, Hermann,
Henriette, Louise, Emilie and Caroline, were baptised into the
Lutheran Church in August 1824 and their mother in November 1825.[34] Marx was privately educated
by his father until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster, Hugo Wyttenbach, was a
friend of his father. By employing many liberal humanists as teachers, Wyttenbach incurred the anger of
the local conservative government. Subsequently, police raided the school in 1832 and discovered that
literature espousing political liberalism was being distributed among the students. Considering the
distribution of such material a seditious act, the authorities instituted reforms and replaced several staff
during Marx's attendance.[35]
In October 1835 at the age of 17, Marx travelled to the University of Bonn wishing to study philosophy
and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field.[36] Due to a condition referred to as
a "weak chest",[37] Marx was excused from military duty when he turned 18. While at the University at
Bonn, Marx joined the Poets' Club, a group containing political radicals that were monitored by the
police.[38] Marx also joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (German: Landsmannschaft der
Treveraner), at one point serving as club co-president.[39] Additionally, Marx was involved in certain
disputes, some of which became serious: in August 1836 he took part in a duel with a member of the
university's Borussian Korps.[40] Although his grades in the first term were good, they soon deteriorated,
leading his father to force a transfer to the more serious and academic University of Berlin.[41]

Hegelianism and early journalism: 1836–1843

Spending summer and autumn 1836 in Trier, Marx became more serious about his studies and his life. He
became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, an educated baroness of the Prussian ruling class who had
known Marx since childhood. As she had broken off her engagement with a young aristocrat to be with
Marx, their relationship was socially controversial owing to the differences between their religious and
class origins, but Marx befriended her father Ludwig von Westphalen (a liberal aristocrat) and later
dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.[42] Seven years after their engagement, on 19 June 1843, they
married in a Protestant church in Kreuznach.[43]

In October 1836, Marx arrived in Berlin, matriculating in the university's faculty of law and renting a
room in the Mittelstrasse.[44] During the first term, Marx attended lectures of Eduard Gans (who
represented the progressive Hegelian standpoint, elaborated on rational development in history by
emphasizing particularly its libertarian aspects, and the importance of social question) and of Karl von
Savigny (who represented the Historical School of Law).[45] Although studying law, he was fascinated
by philosophy and looked for a way to combine the two, believing that "without philosophy nothing
could be accomplished".[46] Marx became interested in the recently deceased German philosopher Georg
Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, whose ideas were then widely debated among European philosophical
circles.[47] During a convalescence in Stralau, he joined the Doctor's Club (Doktorklub), a student group
which discussed Hegelian ideas, and through them became involved with a group of radical thinkers
known as the Young Hegelians in 1837. They gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, with
Marx developing a particularly close friendship with Adolf Rutenberg. Like Marx, the Young Hegelians
were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but adopted his dialectical method to criticise
established society, politics and religion from a leftist perspective.[48] Marx's father died in May 1838,
resulting in a diminished income for the family.[49] Marx had been emotionally close to his father and
treasured his memory after his death.[50]

By 1837, Marx was writing both fiction and non-fiction, having completed a short novel, Scorpion and
Felix, a drama, Oulanem, as well as a number of love poems dedicated to Jenny von Westphalen, though
none of this early work was published during his lifetime.[51] Marx soon abandoned fiction for other
pursuits, including the study of both English and Italian, art history and the translation of Latin
classics.[52] He began co-operating with Bruno Bauer on editing Hegel's Philosophy of Religion in 1840.
Marx was also engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Difference Between the Democritean and
Epicurean Philosophy of Nature,[53] which he completed in 1841. It was described as "a daring and
original piece of work in which Marx set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of
philosophy".[54] The essay was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the
University of Berlin. Marx decided instead to submit his thesis to the more liberal University of Jena,
whose faculty awarded him his PhD in April 1841.[55][2] As Marx and Bauer were both atheists, in
 March 1841 they began plans for a journal entitled Archiv des Atheismus
(Atheistic Archives), but it never came to fruition. In July, Marx and
Bauer took a trip to Bonn from Berlin. There they scandalised their class
by getting drunk, laughing in church and galloping through the streets on
donkeys.[56]

Marx was considering an academic career, but this path was barred by the
government's growing opposition to classical liberalism and the Young
Hegelians.[57] Marx moved to Cologne in 1842, where he became a
journalist, writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung
(Rhineland News), expressing his early views on socialism and his
developing interest in economics. Marx criticised right-wing European
governments as well as figures in the liberal and socialist movements,
Jenny von Westphalen in whom he thought ineffective or counter-productive.[58] The newspaper
the 1830s attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked
every issue for seditious material before printing, as Marx lamented:
"Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if
the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear".[59]
After the Rheinische Zeitung published an article strongly criticising the Russian monarchy, Tsar
Nicholas I requested it be banned and Prussia's government complied in 1843.[60]

Paris: 1843–1845
In 1843, Marx became co-editor of a new, radical leftist Parisian newspaper, the Deutsch-Französische
Jahrbücher (German-French Annals), then being set up by the German socialist Arnold Ruge to bring
together German and French radicals[61] and thus Marx and his wife moved to Paris in October 1843.
Initially living with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, they found the living conditions
difficult, so moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.[62] Although intended to
attract writers from both France and the German states, the Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter and
the only non-German writer was the exiled Russian anarchist collectivist Mikhail Bakunin.[63] Marx
contributed two essays to the paper, "Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy
of Right"[64] and "On the Jewish Question",[65] the latter introducing his belief that the proletariat were a
revolutionary force and marking his embrace of communism.[66] Only one issue was published, but it
was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King
Ludwig of Bavaria, leading the German states to ban it and seize imported copies (Ruge nevertheless
refused to fund the publication of further issues and his friendship with Marx broke down).[67] After the
paper's collapse, Marx began writing for the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper left,
Vorwärts! (Forward!). Based in Paris, the paper was connected to the League of the Just, a utopian
socialist secret society of workers and artisans. Marx attended some of their meetings, but did not
join.[68] In Vorwärts!, Marx refined his views on socialism based upon Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas
of dialectical materialism, at the same time criticising liberals and other socialists operating in
Europe.[69]

On 28 August 1844, Marx met the German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence,
beginning a lifelong friendship.[70] Engels showed Marx his recently published The Condition of the
Working Class in England in 1844,[71][72] convincing Marx that the working class would be the agent
and instrument of the final revolution in history.[73][74] Soon, Marx and Engels were collaborating on a
criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, Bruno Bauer. This work was published in
1845 as The Holy Family.[75][76] Although critical of Bauer, Marx was
increasingly influenced by the ideas of the Young Hegelians Max Stirner
and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually Marx and Engels abandoned
Feuerbachian materialism as well.[77]

During the time that he lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris (from October
1843 until January 1845),[78] Marx engaged in an intensive study of
political economy (Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Mill, etc.),[79] the
French socialists (especially Claude Henri St. Simon and Charles
Fourier)[80] and the history of France.[81] The study of political economy
is a study that Marx would pursue for the rest of his life[82] and would
result in his major economic work—the three-volume series called Friedrich Engels, whom
Marx met in 1844; the two
Capital.[83] Marxism is based in large part on three influences: Hegel's
became lifelong friends and
dialectics, French utopian socialism and English economics. Together collaborators.
with his earlier study of Hegel's dialectics, the studying that Marx did
during this time in Paris meant that all major components of "Marxism"
were in place by the autumn of 1844.[84] Marx was constantly being pulled away from his study of
political economy—not only by the usual daily demands of the time, but additionally by editing a radical
newspaper and later by organising and directing the efforts of a political party during years of potentially
revolutionary popular uprisings of the citizenry. Still Marx was always drawn back to his economic
studies: he sought "to understand the inner workings of capitalism".[85]

An outline of "Marxism" had definitely formed in the mind of Karl Marx by late 1844. Indeed, many
features of the Marxist view of the world's political economy had been worked out in great detail, but
Marx needed to write down all of the details of his economic world view to further clarify the new
economic theory in his own mind.[86] Accordingly, Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical
Manuscripts.[87] These manuscripts covered numerous topics, detailing Marx's concept of alienated
labour.[88] However, by the spring of 1845 his continued study of political economy, capital and
capitalism had led Marx to the belief that the new political economic theory that he was espousing –
scientific socialism – needed to be built on the base of a thoroughly developed materialistic view of the
world.[89]

The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844 had been written between April and August 1844,
but soon Marx recognised that the Manuscripts had been influenced by some inconsistent ideas of
Ludwig Feuerbach. Accordingly, Marx recognised the need to break with Feuerbach's philosophy in
favour of historical materialism, thus a year later (in April 1845) after moving from Paris to Brussels,
Marx wrote his eleven "Theses on Feuerbach".[90] The "Theses on Feuerbach" are best known for Thesis
11, which states that "philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways, the point is to change
it".[88][91] This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for
reducing practice to theory) overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical
world.[88] It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world
is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.[88][92] In 1845, after
receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government shut down Vorwärts!, with the interior
minister, François Guizot, expelling Marx from France.[93] At this point, Marx moved from Paris to
Brussels, where Marx hoped to once again continue his study of capitalism and political economy.

Brussels: 1845–1848
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to
emigrate to Brussels in Belgium in February 1845. However, to stay in
Belgium he had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of
contemporary politics.[93] In Brussels, Marx associated with other exiled
socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and
Joseph Weydemeyer. In April 1845, Engels moved from Barmen in
Germany to Brussels to join Marx and the growing cadre of members of
the League of the Just now seeking home in Brussels.[93][94] Later, Mary
Burns, Engels' long-time companion, left Manchester, England to join
Engels in Brussels.[95]

In mid-July 1845, Marx and Engels left Brussels for England to visit the
leaders of the Chartists, a socialist movement in Britain. This was Marx's
first trip to England and Engels was an ideal guide for the trip. Engels
had already spent two years living in Manchester from November
1842[96] to August 1844.[97] Not only did Engels already know the The first edition of The
English language,[98] he had also developed a close relationship with Manifesto of the Communist
Party, published in German
many Chartist leaders.[98] Indeed, Engels was serving as a reporter for
in 1848
many Chartist and socialist English newspapers.[98] Marx used the trip as
an opportunity to examine the economic resources available for study in
various libraries in London and Manchester.[99]

In collaboration with Engels, Marx also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment
of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology.[100] In this work, Marx broke with
Ludwig Feuerbach, Bruno Bauer, Max Stirner and the rest of the Young Hegelians, while he also broke
with Karl Grun and other "true socialists" whose philosophies were still based in part on "idealism". In
German Ideology, Marx and Engels finally completed their philosophy, which was based solely on
materialism as the sole motor force in history.[101] German Ideology is written in a humorously satirical
form, but even this satirical form did not save the work from censorship. Like so many other early
writings of his, German Ideology would not be published in Marx's lifetime and would be published only
in 1932.[88][102][103]

After completing German Ideology, Marx turned to a work that was intended to clarify his own position
regarding "the theory and tactics" of a truly "revolutionary proletarian movement" operating from the
standpoint of a truly "scientific materialist" philosophy.[104] This work was intended to draw a distinction
between the utopian socialists and Marx's own scientific socialist philosophy. Whereas the utopians
believed that people must be persuaded one person at a time to join the socialist movement, the way a
person must be persuaded to adopt any different belief, Marx knew that people would tend on most
occasions to act in accordance with their own economic interests, thus appealing to an entire class (the
working class in this case) with a broad appeal to the class's best material interest would be the best way
to mobilise the broad mass of that class to make a revolution and change society. This was the intent of
the new book that Marx was planning, but to get the manuscript past the government censors he called
the book The Poverty of Philosophy (1847)[105] and offered it as a response to the "petty bourgeois
philosophy" of the French anarchist socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon as expressed in his book The
Philosophy of Poverty (1840).[106]
These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most
famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be
commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. While residing
in Brussels in 1846, Marx continued his association with the
secret radical organisation League of the Just.[107] As noted
above, Marx thought the League to be just the sort of radical
organisation that was needed to spur the working class of Europe
toward the mass movement that would bring about a working
class revolution.[108] However, to organise the working class into
a mass movement the League had to cease its "secret" or
"underground" orientation and operate in the open as a political
party.[109] Members of the League eventually became persuaded
in this regard. Accordingly, in June 1847 the League was
reorganised by its membership into a new open "above ground"
political society that appealed directly to the working classes.[110]
This new open political society was called the Communist Marx, Engels and Marx's daughters
League.[111] Both Marx and Engels participated in drawing up
the programme and organisational principles of the new
Communist League.[112]

In late 1847, Marx and Engels began writing what was to become their most famous work – a
programme of action for the Communist League. Written jointly by Marx and Engels from December
1847 to January 1848, The Communist Manifesto was first published on 21 February 1848.[113] The
Communist Manifesto laid out the beliefs of the new Communist League. No longer a secret society, the
Communist League wanted to make aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding its
beliefs as the League of the Just had been doing.[114] The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the
principal basis of Marxism: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class
struggles".[115] It goes on to examine the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising in the clashes of
interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy capitalist class) and the proletariat (the industrial working
class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as
opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the
interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and to replace it with socialism.[116]

Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions and often violent upheavals that
became known as the Revolutions of 1848.[117] In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the
monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.[117] Marx was supportive of such
activity and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle
Lionel Philips since his father's death in 1838) of either 6,000[118] or 5,000 francs[119][120] he allegedly
used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.[120] Although the
veracity of these allegations is disputed,[118][121] the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused Marx of it,
subsequently arresting him and he was forced to flee back to France, where with a new republican
government in power he believed that he would be safe.[120][122]

Cologne: 1848–1849
Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to
the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.[123] Hoping
to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne where he began issuing a
handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany,[124] in which he argued for only four
of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that time the bourgeoisie
must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the
bourgeoisie.[125] On 1 June, Marx started publication of a daily newspaper, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung,
which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news
from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, the newspaper featured Marx as a
primary writer and the dominant editorial influence. Despite contributions by fellow members of the
Communist League, according to Friedrich Engels it remained "a simple dictatorship by
Marx".[126][127][128]

Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the
police and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting
the Chief Public Prosecutor, committing a press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax
boycotting,[129][130][131][132] although each time he was acquitted.[130][132][133] Meanwhile, the
democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet
of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and
other revolutionary elements from the country.[129] Consequently, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon
suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.[128][134] Marx returned to Paris, which
was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a cholera epidemic and was soon
expelled by the city authorities, who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting
their fourth child and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in
London.[135][136]

Move to London and further writing: 1850–1860

Marx moved to London in early June 1849 and would remain based in the city for the rest of his life. The
headquarters of the Communist League also moved to London. However, in the winter of 1849–1850 a
split within the ranks of the Communist League occurred when a faction within it led by August Willich
and Karl Schapper began agitating for an immediate uprising. Willich and Schapper believed that once
the Communist League had initiated the uprising, the entire working class from across Europe would rise
"spontaneously" to join it, thus creating revolution across Europe. Marx and Engels protested that such
an unplanned uprising on the part of the Communist League was "adventuristic" and would be suicide for
the Communist League.[137] Such an uprising as that recommended by the Schapper/Willich group
would easily be crushed by the police and the armed forces of the reactionary governments of Europe.
Marx maintained that this would spell doom for the Communist League itself, arguing that changes in
society are not achieved overnight through the efforts and will power of a handful of men.[137] They are
instead brought about through a scientific analysis of economic conditions of society and by moving
toward revolution through different stages of social development. In the present stage of development
(circa 1850), following the defeat of the uprisings across Europe in 1848 he felt that the Communist
League should encourage the working class to unite with progressive elements of the rising bourgeoisie
to defeat the feudal aristocracy on issues involving demands for governmental reforms, such as a
constitutional republic with freely elected assemblies and universal (male) suffrage. In other words, the
working class must join with bourgeois and democratic forces to bring about the successful conclusion of
the bourgeois revolution before stressing the working class agenda and a working class revolution.

After a long struggle which threatened to ruin the Communist League, Marx's opinion prevailed and
eventually the Willich/Schapper group left the Communist League. Meanwhile, Marx also became
heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society.[138] The Society held their
meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.[139][140] This
organisation was also racked by an internal struggle between its members, some of whom followed Marx
while others followed the Schapper/Willich faction. The issues in this internal split were the same issues
raised in the internal split within the Communist League, but Marx lost the fight with the
Schapper/Willich faction within the German Workers' Educational Society and on 17 September 1850
resigned from the Society.[141]

New-York Daily Tribune and journalism

In the early period in London, Marx committed himself almost exclusively to revolutionary activities,
such that his family endured extreme poverty.[142][143] His main source of income was Engels, whose
own source was his wealthy industrialist father.[143] In Prussia as editor of his own newspaper, and
contributor to others ideologically aligned, Marx could reach his audience, the working classes. In
London, without finances to run a newspaper themselves, he and Engels turned to international
journalism. At one stage they were being published by six newspapers from England, the United States,
Prussia, Austria and South Africa.[144] Marx's principal earnings came from his work as European
correspondent, from 1852 to 1862, for the New-York Daily Tribune,[145]:17 and from also producing
articles for more "bourgeois" newspapers. Marx had his articles translated from German by Wilhelm
Pieper, until his proficiency in English had become adequate.[146]

The New-York Daily Tribune had been founded in April 1841 by Horace Greeley.[147] Its editorial board
contained progressive bourgeois journalists and publishers, among them George Ripley and the journalist
Charles Dana, who was editor-in-chief. Dana, a fourierist and an abolitionist, was Marx's contact.

The Tribune was a vehicle for Marx to reach a transatlantic public to make a "hidden war" to Henry
Charles Carey.[148] The journal had wide working-class appeal from its foundation; at two cents, it was
inexpensive;[149] and, with about 50,000 copies per issue, its circulation was the widest in the United
States.[145]:14 Its editorial ethos was progressive and its anti-slavery stance reflected Greeley's.[145]:82
Marx's first article for the paper, on the British parliamentary elections, was published on 21 August
1852.[150]

On 21 March 1857 Dana informed Marx that, due to the economic recession, only one article a week
would be paid for, published or not; the others would be paid for only if published. Marx had sent his
articles on Tuesdays and Fridays, but, that October, the Tribune discharged all its correspondents in
Europe except Marx and B. Taylor, and reduced Marx to a weekly article. Between September and
November 1860, only five were published. After a six-month interval, Marx resumed contributions in
September 1861 until March 1862, when Dana wrote to inform him that there was no longer space in the
Tribune for reports from London, due to American domestic affairs.[151] In 1868, Dana set up a rival
newspaper, the New York Sun, at which he was editor-in-chief.[152]

In April 1857, Dana invited Marx to contribute articles, mainly on military history, to the New American
Cyclopedia, an idea of George Ripley, Dana's friend and literary editor of the Tribune. In all, 67 Marx-
Engels articles were published, of which 51 were written by Engels, although Marx did some research for
them in the British Museum.[153]

By the late 1850s, American popular interest in European affairs waned and Marx's articles turned to
topics such as the "slavery crisis" and the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, in the "War
Between the States".[154] Between December 1851 and March 1852, Marx worked on his theoretical
work about the French Revolution of 1848, titled The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon.[155] In
this he explored concepts in historical materialism, class struggle, dictatorship of the proletariat, and
victory of the proletariat over the bourgeois state.[156]

The 1850s and 1860s may be said to mark a philosophical boundary distinguishing the young Marx's
Hegelian idealism and the more mature Marx's[157][158][159][160] scientific ideology associated with
structural Marxism;[160] however, not all scholars accept this distinction.[159][161] For Marx and Engels,
their experience of the Revolutions of 1848 to 1849 were formative in the development of their theory of
economics and historical progression. After the "failures" of 1848, the revolutionary impetus appeared
spent and not to be renewed without an economic recession. Contention arose between Marx and his
fellow communists, whom he denounced as "adventurists". Marx deemed it fanciful to propose that "will
power" could be sufficient to create the revolutionary conditions when in reality the economic
component was the necessary requisite.

Recession in the United States' economy in 1852 gave Marx and Engels grounds for optimism for
revolutionary activity. Yet, this economy was seen as too immature for a capitalist revolution. Open
territories on America's western frontier dissipated the forces of social unrest. Moreover, any economic
crisis arising in the United States would not lead to revolutionary contagion of the older economies of
individual European nations, which were closed systems bounded by their national borders. When the so-
called "Panic of 1857" in the United States spread globally, it broke all economic theory models,[162] and
was the first truly global economic crisis.

Financial necessity had forced Marx to abandon economic studies in 1844 and give thirteen years to
working on other projects. He had always sought to return to economics.

The First International and Capital

Marx continued to write articles for the New York Daily Tribune as long
as he was sure that the Tribune's editorial policy was still progressive.
However, the departure of Charles Dana from the paper in late 1861 and
the resultant change in the editorial board brought about a new editorial
policy.[163] No longer was the Tribune to be a strong abolitionist paper
dedicated to a complete Union victory. The new editorial board supported
an immediate peace between the Union and the Confederacy in the Civil
War in the United States with slavery left intact in the Confederacy. Marx
strongly disagreed with this new political position and in 1863 was
forced to withdraw as a writer for the Tribune.[164]

In 1864, Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's

Association (also known as the First International),[130] to whose General
Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.[165] In that organisation,
Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred on The first volume of Das
Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).[143] Although Marx won this contest, the Kapital
transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in
1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.[166]
The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of
1871, when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. In
response to the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, "The
Civil War in France", a defence of the Commune.[167][168]

Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to
understand capitalism and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying
and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data.[169] By 1857, Marx had
accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state
and foreign trade and the world market, though this work did not appear in print until 1939 under the title
Outlines of the Critique of Political Economy.[170][171][172]

Finally in 1859, Marx published A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy,[173] his first
serious economic work. This work was intended merely as a preview of his three-volume Das Kapital
(English title: Capital: Critique of Political Economy), which he intended to publish at a later date. In A
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Marx expands on the labour theory of value advocated
by David Ricardo. The work was enthusiastically received, and the edition sold out quickly.[174]

The successful sales of A Contribution to the Critique of Political

Economy stimulated Marx in the early 1860s to finish work on the three
large volumes that would compose his major life's work – Das Kapital
and the Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of
political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.[143]
Theories of Surplus Value is often referred to as the fourth volume of Das
Kapital and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the
history of economic thought.[175] In 1867, the first volume of Das
Kapital was published, a work which analysed the capitalist process of
production.[176] Here Marx elaborated his labour theory of value, which
had been influenced by Thomas Hodgskin. Marx acknowledged
Hodgskin's "admirable work" Labour Defended against the Claims of
Capital at more than one point in Capital.[177] Indeed, Marx quoted
Hodgskin as recognising the alienation of labour that occurred under
Marx in the 1870s
modern capitalist production. No longer was there any "natural reward of
individual labour. Each labourer produces only some part of a whole, and
each part having no value or utility of itself, there is nothing on which the labourer can seize, and say:
'This is my product, this will I keep to myself'".[178] In this first volume of Capital, Marx outlined his
conception of surplus value and exploitation, which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of
profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.[179] Demand for a Russian language edition of Capital
soon led to the printing of 3,000 copies of the book in the Russian language, which was published on 27
March 1872. By the autumn of 1871, the entire first edition of the German language edition of Capital
had been sold out and a second edition was published.

Volumes II and III of Capital remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the
rest of his life. Both volumes were published by Engels after Marx's death.[143] Volume II of Capital was
prepared and published by Engels in July 1893 under the name Capital II: The Process of Circulation of
Capital.[180] Volume III of Capital was published a year later in October 1894 under the name Capital
III: The Process of Capitalist Production as a Whole.[181] Theories of Surplus Value derived from the
sprawling Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863, a second draft for Capital, the latter spanning volumes
30–34 of the Collected Works of Marx and Engels. Specifically, Theories of Surplus Value runs from the
latter part of the Collected Works' thirtieth volume through the end of their thirty-second
volume;[182][183][184] meanwhile, the larger Economic Manuscripts of 1861–1863 run from the start of
the Collected Works' thirtieth volume through the first half of their thirty-fourth volume. The latter half of
the Collected Works' thirty-fourth volume consists of the surviving fragments of the Economic
Manuscripts of 1863–1864, which represented a third draft for Capital, and a large portion of which is
included as an appendix to the Penguin edition of Capital, volume I.[185] A German language abridged
edition of Theories of Surplus Value was published in 1905 and in 1910. This abridged edition was
translated into English and published in 1951 in London, but the complete unabridged edition of Theories
of Surplus Value was published as the "fourth volume" of Capital in 1963 and 1971 in Moscow.[186]

During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became
incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous
work.[143] He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary
politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha
Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht
and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand
Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.[143] This work is also
notable for another famous Marx quote: "From each according to his
ability, to each according to his need".[187]

In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx contemplated the

possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and
building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land Marx in 1882
characteristic of the village mir.[143][188] While admitting that Russia's
rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx
also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage
without a preceding capitalist stage it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences
which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides".[189] Given the elimination of these pernicious
influences, Marx allowed that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune
could exist.[189] However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich he points out that "at the core of the
capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production".[189] In
one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief
that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He
wrote that "the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in
the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its
destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type – collective
production and appropriation". He added that "the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably
greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist
societies".[190] Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884
under the title The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.

Personal life

Family
Marx and von Westphalen had seven children together, but partly owing
to the poor conditions in which they lived whilst in London, only three
survived to adulthood.[191] The children were: Jenny Caroline (m.
Longuet; 1844–1883); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar
(1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline
Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–1852); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–1898) and
one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are
allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,[192] out of wedlock by
his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.[193] Although it has been claimed since
1962 that Marx was the father of Helene Demuth's illegitimate son,
according to Terrell Carver, "this [claim] is not well founded on the
documentary materials available".[194]
Jenny Carolina and Jenny
Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, Laura Marx (1869): all the
apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While Marx daughters were named
Jenny in honour of their
in Paris, he used that of "Monsieur Ramboz", whilst in London he signed
mother, Jenny von
off his letters as "A. Williams". His friends referred to him as "Moor", Westphalen.
owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, while he encouraged
his children to call him "Old Nick" and "Charley".[195] He also bestowed
nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as "General",
his housekeeper Helene as "Lenchen" or "Nym", while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to
as "Qui Qui, Emperor of China" and another, Laura, was known as "Kakadou" or "the Hottentot".[195]

Health
Marx was afflicted by poor health (what he himself described as "the wretchedness of existence")[196]
and various authors have sought to describe and explain it. His biographer Werner Blumenberg attributed
it to liver and gall problems which Marx had in 1849 and from which he was never afterwards free,
exacerbated by an unsuitable lifestyle. The attacks often came with headaches, eye inflammation,
neuralgia in the head and rheumatic pains. A serious nervous disorder appeared in 1877 and protracted
insomnia was a consequence, which Marx fought with narcotics. The illness was aggravated by excessive
nocturnal work and faulty diet. Marx was fond of highly seasoned dishes, smoked fish, caviare, pickled
cucumbers, "none of which are good for liver patients", but he also liked wine and liqueurs and smoked
an enormous amount "and since he had no money, it was usually bad-quality cigars". From 1863, Marx
complained a lot about boils: "These are very frequent with liver patients and may be due to the same
causes".[197] The abscesses were so bad that Marx could neither sit nor work upright. According to
Blumenberg, Marx's irritability is often found in liver patients:

The illness emphasised certain traits in his character. He argued cuttingly, his biting satire
did not shrink at insults, and his expressions could be rude and cruel. Though in general
Marx had a blind faith in his closest friends, nevertheless he himself complained that he was
sometimes too mistrustful and unjust even to them. His verdicts, not only about enemies but
even about friends, were sometimes so harsh that even less sensitive people would take
offence ... There must have been few whom he did not criticize like this ... not even Engels
was an exception.[198]
According to Princeton historian J.E. Seigel, in his late teens Marx may have had pneumonia or pleurisy,
the effects of which led to his being exempted from Prussian military service. In later life whilst working
on Capital (which he never completed),[199] Marx suffered from a trio of afflictions. A liver ailment,
probably hereditary, was aggravated by overwork, bad diet and lack of sleep. Inflammation of the eyes
was induced by too much work at night. A third affliction, eruption of carbuncles or boils, "was probably
brought on by general physical debility to which the various features of Marx's style of life – alcohol,
tobacco, poor diet, and failure to sleep – all contributed. Engels often exhorted Marx to alter this
dangerous regime". In Professor Siegel's thesis, what lay behind this punishing sacrifice of his health
may have been guilt about self-involvement and egoism, originally induced in Karl Marx by his
father.[200]

In 2007, a retrodiagnosis of Marx's skin disease was made by dermatologist Sam Shuster of Newcastle
University and for Shuster the most probable explanation was that Marx suffered not from liver
problems, but from hidradenitis suppurativa, a recurring infective condition arising from blockage of
apocrine ducts opening into hair follicles. This condition, which was not described in the English medical
literature until 1933 (hence would not have been known to Marx's physicians), can produce joint pain
(which could be misdiagnosed as rheumatic disorder) and painful eye conditions. To arrive at his
retrodiagnosis, Shuster considered the primary material: the Marx correspondence published in the 50
volumes of the Marx/Engels Collected Works. There, "although the skin lesions were called 'furuncles',
'boils' and 'carbuncles' by Marx, his wife and his physicians, they were too persistent, recurrent,
destructive and site-specific for that diagnosis". The sites of the persistent 'carbuncles' were noted
repeatedly in the armpits, groins, perianal, genital (penis and scrotum) and suprapubic regions and inner
thighs, "favoured sites of hidradenitis suppurativa". Professor Shuster claimed the diagnosis "can now be
made definitively".[201]

Shuster went on to consider the potential psychosocial effects of the disease, noting that the skin is an
organ of communication and that hidradenitis suppurativa produces much psychological distress,
including loathing and disgust and depression of self-image, mood and well-being, feelings for which
Shuster found "much evidence" in the Marx correspondence. Professor Shuster went on to ask himself
whether the mental effects of the disease affected Marx's work and even helped him to develop his theory
of alienation.[202]

Death
Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx
developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15
months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and
pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883, dying a
stateless person at age 64.[203] Family and friends in London
buried his body in Highgate Cemetery (East), London, on 17
March 1883 in an area reserved for agnostics and atheists
(George Eliot's grave is nearby). There were between nine and
eleven mourners at his funeral.[204][205] Research from Tomb of Karl Marx, East Highgate
contemporary sources identifies thirteen named individuals Cemetery, London
attending the funeral. They were, Friedrich Engels, Eleanor
Marx, Edward Aveling, Paul Lafargue, Charles Longuet, Helene
Demuth, Wilhelm Liebknecht, Gottlieb Lemke, Frederick Lessner, G Lochner, Sir Ray Lankester, Carl
Schorlemmer and Ernest Radford.[206] A contemporary newspaper account claims that 25 to 30 relatives
and friends attended the funeral.[207] A writer in The Graphic noted that, 'By a strange blunder ... his
death was not announced for two days, and then as having taken place at Paris. Next day the correction
came from Paris; and when his friends and followers hastened to his house in Haverstock Hill, to learn
the time and place of burial, they learned that he was already in the cold ground. But for this secresy [sic]
and haste, a great popular demonstration would undoubtedly have been held over his grave'.[208]

Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels.
Engels' speech included the passage:

On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased
to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found
him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep – but forever.[209]

Marx's surviving daughters Eleanor and Laura, as well as Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's
two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.[205] He had been predeceased by his wife and
his eldest daughter, the latter dying a few months earlier in January 1883. Liebknecht, a founder and
leader of the German Social Democratic Party, gave a speech in German and Longuet, a prominent figure
in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.[205] Two telegrams from
workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.[205] Together with Engels's speech, this
constituted the entire programme of the funeral.[205] Non-relatives attending the funeral included three
communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne
Communist Trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist
League"; and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society
and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.[205] Another attendee of the funeral was
Sir Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.[205]

Upon his own death in 1895, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his
considerable estate (valued in 2011 at US$4.8 million).[192]

Marx and his family were reburied on a new site nearby in November 1954. The tomb at the new site,
unveiled on 14 March 1956,[210] bears the carved message: "Workers of All Lands Unite", the final line
of The Communist Manifesto; and, from the 11th "Thesis on Feuerbach" (as edited by Engels), "The
philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it".[211]
The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monument with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw
erected and Marx's original tomb had only humble adornment.[211]

The Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked: "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because although
he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an
impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within 25 years of his death, the continental
European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining
between 15 and 47 per cent in those countries with representative democratic elections.[212]

Thought

Influences
Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers including, but not limited to:
 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy[213]
The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo,[214] as well
as Jean Charles Léonard de Sismondi's critique of laissez-faire economics and analysis of
the precarious state of the proletariat[4]
French socialist thought,[214] in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de
Saint-Simon, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Charles Fourier[215][216]
Earlier German philosophical materialism among the Young Hegelians, particularly that of
Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer,[77] as well as the French materialism of the late 18th
century, including Diderot, Claude Adrien Helvétius and d'Holbach
The working class analysis by Friedrich Engels,[73] as well as the early descriptions of class
provided by French liberals and Saint-Simonians such as François Guizot and Augustin
Thierry
Marx's Judaic legacy has been identified as formative to both his moral outlook[217] and his
materialist philosophy.[218]
Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the
philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin), certainly shows the influence of Hegel's
claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.[213] However, Hegel had thought in idealist
terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms,
arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.[88][213] Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history,
Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions
shaping the world.[213] He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that
one needed to set it upon its feet.[213] Despite his dislike of mystical terms, Marx used Gothic language
in several of his works: in The Communist Manifesto he proclaims "A spectre is haunting Europe – the
spectre of communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this
spectre", and in The Capital he refers to capital as "necromancy that surrounds the products of
labour".[219]

Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,[214] Marx criticised utopian socialists,
arguing that their favoured small-scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and
poverty and that only a large-scale change in the economic system can bring about real change.[216]

The other important contributions to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The
Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical
dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for
revolution,[73] as well as from the social democrat Friedrich Wilhelm Schulz, who in Die Bewegung der
Produktion described the movement of society as "flowing from the contradiction between the forces of
production and the mode of production."[5][6]

Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and
the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx therefore concluded that a communist
revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his "Theses on
Feuerbach" that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to
change it" and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.[16][211]

Philosophy and social thought

Marx's polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique and thus he has been called "the first
great user of critical method in social sciences".[213][214] He criticised speculative philosophy, equating
metaphysics with ideology.[220] By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from
ideological biases.[214] This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.[16]

Human nature

The philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx

Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with no identifiable despot,[221]
Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and with Montesquieu, who
discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to analyse "the despotism of capital".[222]
Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which
encompasses both human beings and material objects.[223] Humans recognise that they possess both
actual and potential selves.[224][225] For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an
experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual
self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended.[225] Marx further
argues that by moulding nature[226] in desired ways[227] the subject takes the object as its own and thus
permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, the human nature – Gattungswesen, or
species-being – exists as a function of human labour.[224][225][227] Fundamental to Marx's idea of
meaningful labour is the proposition that for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object it must
first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.[228] Marx acknowledges that
Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result
of his own work",[229] but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and
abstract.[230] Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual,
sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature
as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects".[228]
Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour" and in the context of human capacity
to transform nature the term "labour power".[88]

Labour, class struggle and false consciousness

The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.

— Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[231]

Marx had a special concern with how people relate to their own labour
power.[232] He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of
alienation.[233] As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion
of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.[232]
Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among
workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities,
including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.[232] For Marx,
the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour –
one's capacity to transform the world – is tantamount to being alienated
from one's own nature and it is a spiritual loss.[232] Marx described this
loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce,
commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which
humans and their behaviour merely adapt.[234]

Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false A monument dedicated to
consciousness", [235] which relates closely to the understanding of Marx and Engels in
Shanghai, China
ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the
interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which
contemporaries see as universal and eternal.[236] Marx and Engels's point
was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths, as they serve an important political function. Put
another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the
production of food or manufactured goods, but also the production of ideas (this provides one possible
explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own
interests).[88][237] An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in
a passage from the preface[238] to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right:

Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a
protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a
heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The
abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real
happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them
to give up a condition that requires illusions.[239]

Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis at the Gymnasium zu Trier argued that religion had as its primary
social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of
highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.[240]

Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour,[241] saying that British industries "could but live by
sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of
children".[219][242]

Economy, history and society

Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining
the society's past, present and future (see also economic determinism).[213][216][243] Accumulation of
capital shapes the social system.[216] For Marx, social change was about conflict between opposing
interests, driven in the background by economic forces.[213] This became the inspiration for the body of
works known as the conflict theory.[243] In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human
history began with free, productive and creative work that was
over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under
capitalism.[213] Marx noted that this was not an intentional
process, rather no individual or even state can go against the
forces of economy.[216]

The organisation of society depends on means of production. The

means of production are all things required to produce material
goods, such as land, natural resources and technology but not
human labor. The relations of production are the social Mural by Diego Rivera showing Karl
Marx, in the National Palace in
relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means
Mexico City
of production.[243] Together, these compose the mode of
production and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of
modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, where the base (or
substructure) is the economic system and superstructure is the cultural and political system.[243] Marx
regarded this mismatch between economic base and social superstructure as a major source of social
disruption and conflict.[243]

Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should
replace it, his explicit critique is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones
(slavery and feudalism).[88] Marx never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, but scholars
agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.[88]

Marx's view of capitalism was two-sided.[88][158] On one hand, in

the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of
this system he noted that defining features of capitalism include
alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions
leading to mass unemployment. On the other hand, he
characterized capitalism as "revolutionising, industrialising and
universalising qualities of development, growth and
progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation,
urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and
growth, rationality and scientific revolution) that are responsible Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow,
for progress. [88][158][213] Marx considered the capitalist class to whose inscription reads:
"Proletarians of all countries, unite!"
be one of the most revolutionary in history because it constantly
improved the means of production, more so than any other class
in history and was responsible for the overthrow of
feudalism.[216][244] Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist has an incentive
to reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.[232]

According to Marx, capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market
for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful
industry, input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value"
and argued that it was based on surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive
and what they can produce.[88] Although Marx describes capitalists as vampires sucking worker's
blood,[213] he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"[88] and that capitalists cannot go
against the system.[216] The problem is the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or
equipment, but the relations between workers and owners – the economic system in general.[216]
At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable and prone to periodic crises.[102] He
suggested that over time capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies and less and less in
labour.[88] Since Marx believed that profit derived from surplus value appropriated from labour, he
concluded that the rate of profit would fall as the economy grows.[179] Marx believed that increasingly
severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth and collapse.[179] Moreover, he believed that in the
long-term, this process would enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the
proletariat.[179][216] In section one of The Communist Manifesto, Marx describes feudalism, capitalism
and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:

We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie
built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of
these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society
produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible
with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be
burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition,
accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and
political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own
eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the
development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too
powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome
these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of
bourgeois property.[14]

Marx believed that those structural contradictions within

capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-
capitalistic, communist society:

The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts

from under its feet the very foundation on which the
bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products.
What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all,
are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of
Outside a factory in Oldham. Marx
the proletariat are equally inevitable.[14]
believed that industrial workers (the
proletariat) would rise up around the
world.
Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as
urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in
numbers and develop class consciousness, in time realising that they can and must change the
system.[213][216] Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would
encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class and introduce
a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.[213] Marx argued in The German Ideology that
capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class:

Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which

reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the
present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in
existence.[245]
In this new society, the alienation would end and humans would be free to act without being bound by
the labour market.[179] It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.[216] In such
a utopian world, there would also be little need for a state, whose goal was previously to enforce the
alienation.[179] Marx theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist
system, would exist a period of dictatorship of the proletariat – where the working class holds political
power and forcibly socialises the means of production.[216] As he wrote in his Critique of the Gotha
Program, "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary
transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in
which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat".[246] While he
allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional
structures (such as Britain, the United States and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries in
which workers cannot "attain their goal by peaceful means" the "lever of our revolution must be
force".[247]

International relations
Marx viewed Russia as the main counter-revolutionary threat to
European revolutions.[248] During the Crimean War, Marx backed
the Ottoman Empire and its allies Britain and France against
Russia.[248] He was absolutely opposed to Pan-Slavism, viewing it
as an instrument of Russian foreign policy.[248] Marx had considered
the Slavic nations except Poles as 'counter-revolutionary'. Marx and
Engels published in the Neue Rheinische Zeitung in February 1849:

To the sentimental phrases about brotherhood which we

are being offered here on behalf of the most counter-
revolutionary nations of Europe, we reply that hatred of
Russians was and still is the primary revolutionary
passion among Germans; that since the revolution [of
Karl Marx Monument in Chemnitz
1848] hatred of Czechs and Croats has been added, and
(renamed Karl-Marx-Stadt from
that only by the most determined use of terror against 1953 to 1990)
these Slav peoples can we, jointly with the Poles and
Magyars, safeguard the revolution. We know where the
enemies of the revolution are concentrated, viz. in
Russia and the Slav regions of Austria, and no fine
phrases, no allusions to an undefined democratic future
for these countries can deter us from treating our
enemies as enemies. Then there will be a struggle, an
"inexorable life-and-death struggle", against those Slavs
who betray the revolution; an annihilating fight and
ruthless terror – not in the interests of Germany, but in
the interests of the revolution!"[249]

Marx and Engels sympathised with the Narodnik revolutionaries of the 1860s and 1870s. When the
Russian revolutionaries assassinated Tsar Alexander II of Russia, Marx expressed the hope that the
assassination foreshadowed ‘the formation of a Russian commune’.[250] Marx supported the Polish
uprisings against tsarist Russia.[248] He said in a speech in London in 1867:

In the first place the policy of Russia is changeless... Its methods, its tactics, its manoeuvres
may change, but the polar star of its policy – world domination – is a fixed star. In our times
only a civilised government ruling over barbarian masses can hatch out such a plan and
execute it. ... There is but one alternative for Europe. Either Asiatic barbarism, under
Muscovite direction, will burst around its head like an avalanche, or else it must re-establish
Poland, thus putting twenty million heroes between itself and Asia and gaining a breathing
spell for the accomplishment of its social regeneration.[251]

Marx supported the cause of Irish independence. In 1867, he wrote

Engels: "I used to think the separation of Ireland from England
impossible. I now think it inevitable. The English working class will
never accomplish anything until it has got rid of Ireland. ... English
reaction in England had its roots ... in the subjugation of Ireland."[252]

Marx spent some time in French Algeria, which had been invaded and
made a French colony in 1830, and had opportunity to observe life in
colonial North Africa. He wrote about the colonial justice system, in
which "a form of torture has been used (and this happens ‘regularly’) to
extract confessions from the Arabs; naturally it is done (like the English
in India) by the ‘police’; the judge is supposed to know nothing at all
CPI(M) mural in Kerala,
about it."[253] Marx was surprised by the arrogance of many European
India
settlers in Algiers and wrote in a letter: "when a European colonist dwells
among the ‘lesser breeds,’ either as a settler or even on business, he
generally regards himself as even more inviolable than handsome William I [a Prussian king]. Still, when
it comes to bare-faced arrogance and presumptuousness vis-à-vis the ‘lesser breeds,’ the British and
Dutch outdo the French."[253]

According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Marx's analysis of colonialism as a progressive

force bringing modernization to a backward feudal society sounds like a transparent rationalization for
foreign domination. His account of British domination, however, reflects the same ambivalence that he
shows towards capitalism in Europe. In both cases, Marx recognizes the immense suffering brought
about during the transition from feudal to bourgeois society while insisting that the transition is both
necessary and ultimately progressive. He argues that the penetration of foreign commerce will cause a
social revolution in India."[254]

Marx discussed British colonial rule in India in the New York Herald Tribune in June 1853:

There cannot remain any doubt but that the misery inflicted by the British on Hindostan
[India] is of an essentially different and infinitely more intensive kind than all Hindostan had
to suffer before. England has broken down the entire framework of Indian society, without
any symptoms of reconstitution yet appearing... [however], we must not forget that these
idyllic village communities, inoffensive though they may appear, had always been the solid
foundation of Oriental despotism, that they restrained the human mind within the smallest
possible compass, making it the unresisting tool of superstition.[253][255]
Legacy
Marx's ideas have had a profound impact on world politics and
intellectual thought.[16][17][256][257] Followers of Marx have
often debated among themselves over how to interpret Marx's
writings and apply his concepts to the modern world.[258] The
legacy of Marx's thought has become contested between
numerous tendencies, each of which sees itself as Marx's most
accurate interpreter. In the political realm, these tendencies
include Leninism, Marxism–Leninism, Trotskyism, Maoism,
Luxemburgism and libertarian Marxism.[258] Various currents
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
have also developed in academic Marxism, often under influence monument in Marx-Engels Forum,
of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Berlin-Mitte, Germany
Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, analytical Marxism and
Hegelian Marxism.[258]

From an academic perspective, Marx's work contributed to the birth of modern sociology. He has been
cited as one of the 19th century's three masters of the "school of suspicion" alongside Friedrich Nietzsche
and Sigmund Freud[259] and as one of the three principal architects of modern social science along with
Émile Durkheim and Max Weber.[260] In contrast to other philosophers, Marx offered theories that could
often be tested with the scientific method.[16] Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop
scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the
philosophies of history and science. Working in the Hegelian tradition, Marx rejected Comtean
sociological positivism in an attempt to develop a science of society.[261] Karl Löwith considered Marx
and Søren Kierkegaard to be the two greatest Hegelian philosophical successors.[262] In modern
sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. Isaiah
Berlin considers Marx the true founder of modern sociology "in so far as anyone can claim the title".[263]
Beyond social science, he has also had a lasting legacy in philosophy, literature, the arts and the
humanities.[264][265][266][267]

Social theorists of the 20th and 21st centuries have

pursued two main strategies in response to Marx.
One move has been to reduce it to its analytical core,
known as analytical Marxism. Another, more
common, move has been to dilute the explanatory
claims of Marx's social theory and emphasise the
"relative autonomy" of aspects of social and
economic life not directly related to Marx's central
Map of countries that declared themselves to be narrative of interaction between the development of
socialist states under the Marxist–Leninist or the "forces of production" and the succession of
Maoist definition between 1979 and 1983, which
"modes of production". Such has been for example
marked the greatest territorial extent of socialist
states
the neo-Marxist theorising adopted by historians
inspired by Marx's social theory, such as E. P.
Thompson and Eric Hobsbawm. It has also been a
line of thinking pursued by thinkers and activists like Antonio Gramsci who have sought to understand
the opportunities and the difficulties of transformative political practice, seen in the light of Marxist
social theory.[268][269][270][271] Marx's ideas would also have a profound influence on subsequent artists
and art history, with avant-garde movements across literature, visual art, music, film and theater.[272]
Politically, Marx's legacy is more complex. Throughout the 20th century, revolutions in dozens of
countries labelled themselves "Marxist"—most notably the Russian Revolution, which led to the
founding of the Soviet Union.[273] Major world leaders including Vladimir Lenin,[273] Mao Zedong,[274]
Fidel Castro,[275] Salvador Allende,[276] Josip Broz Tito,[277] Kwame Nkrumah,[278] Jawaharlal
Nehru,[279] Nelson Mandela,[280] Xi Jinping,[281] Jean-Claude Juncker[281][282] and Thomas Sankara
have all cited Marx as an influence. Beyond where Marxist revolutions took place, Marx's ideas have
informed political parties worldwide.[283] In countries associated with some Marxist claims, some events
have led political opponents to blame Marx for millions of deaths,[284] but the fidelity of these varied
revolutionaries, leaders and parties to Marx's work is highly contested and has been rejected by many
Marxists.[285] It is now common to distinguish between the legacy and influence of Marx specifically and
the legacy and influence of those who have shaped his ideas for political purposes.[286]

Marx remains both relevant and controversial. In May 2018, to mark the
bicentenary of his birth, a 4.5m statue of him by leading Chinese sculptor
Wu Weishan and donated by the Chinese government was unveiled in his
birthplace of Trier. European Commission President Jean-Claude Juncker
defended Marx's memory, saying that today Marx "stands for things
which he is not responsible for and which he didn't cause because many
of the things he wrote down were redrafted into the opposite".[287][282] In
2017 a feature film, The Young Karl Marx, featuring Marx, his wife
Jenny Marx, and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, among other
revolutionaries and intellectuals prior to the revolutions of 1848, received
good reviews for both its historical accuracy and its brio in dealing with
intellectual life.[288]

Selected bibliography
The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law,
1842
Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843
"On the Jewish Question", 1843
"Notes on James Mill", 1844 Karl Marx statue in Trier,
Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 1844 Germany

The Holy Family, 1845

"Theses on Feuerbach", 1845
The German Ideology, 1845
The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847 Karl Marx statue inscription
"Wage Labour and Capital", 1847
Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848
The Class Struggles in France, 1850
The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852
Grundrisse, 1857
A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859
Writings on the U.S. Civil War, 1861
Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862
"Value, Price and Profit", 1865
Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital), 1867
 "The Civil War in France", 1871
"Critique of the Gotha Program", 1875
"Notes on Adolph Wagner", 1883
Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894

See also
Criticisms of Marxism
Karl Marx House
Karl Marx Monument
Karl Marx in film
Marxian class theory
Marxian economics
Marx Memorial Library
Marx's method
Marx Reloaded
Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx
Political Economy
Pre-Marx socialists
Timeline of Karl Marx
Giovanni Gentile
Adam Smith

Notes
1. The name "Karl Heinrich Marx", used in various lexicons, is based on an error. His birth
certificate says "Carl Marx", while elsewhere "Karl Marx" is used. "K.H. Marx" is used only in
his poetry collections and the transcript of his dissertation; since Marx wanted to honour his
father, who had died in 1838, he called himself "Karl Heinrich" in three documents.The
article (https://archive.org/stream/handwrterbuchder04conr#page/1130/mode/1up) by
Friedrich Engels "Marx, Karl Heinrich" in Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (Jena,
1892, column 1130 to 1133 see MECW Volume 22, pp. 337–45) does not justify assigning
Marx a middle name. See Heinz Monz: Karl Marx. Grundlagen zu Leben und Werk. NCO-
Verlag, Trier 1973, p. 214 and 354, respectively.

References
1. Marx became a Fellow (http://www.calmview2.eu/RSA/CalmViewA/Record.aspx?src=Calm
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77. Several authors elucidated this long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical
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Stedman Jones, Gareth (2016). Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion. London: Allen Lane.
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Further reading

Biographies
Barnett, Vincent. Marx (Routledge, 2009)
Berlin, Isaiah. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press, 1963) ISBN 0-
19-520052-7
Blumenberg, Werner (2000). Karl Marx: An Illustrated Biography. trans. Douglas Scott.
London; New York: Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-254-6.
Gemkow, Heinrich. Karl Marx: A Biography. Dresden: Verlag Zeit im Bild. 1968.
Heinrich, Michael (2019). Karl Marx and the Birth of Modern Society: the Life of Marx and
the Development of His Work. Volume I: 1818–1841. New York: Monthly Review P.
ISBN 978-1-58367-735-3.
Hobsbawm, E.J. (2004). "Marx, Karl Heinrich". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
(online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/39021 (https://doi.org/10.1093%
2Fref%3Aodnb%2F39021). (Subscription or UK public library membership (https://www.oxforddnb.co
m/help/subscribe#public) required.)
Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of
Marxism (https://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm). Peking:
Foreign Languages Press.
Liedman, Sven-Eric. A World to Win: The Life and Works of Karl Marx. [2015] Jeffrey N.
Skinner, trans. London: Verso, 2018.
McLellan, David. Karl Marx: his Life and Thought Harper & Row, 1973 ISBN 978-0-06-
012829-6
Mehring, Franz. Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003)
McLellan, David. Marx before Marxism (1980), Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6
Rubel, Maximilien. Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work
(Blackwell, 1975) ISBN 0-631-15780-8
Segrillo, Angelo. Two Centuries of Karl Marx Biographies: An Overview (LEA Working
Paper Series, nº 4, March 2019).
 Sperber, Jonathan. Karl Marx: A Nineteenth-Century Life. New York: W.W. Norton &
Company, 2013.
Stedman Jones, Gareth. Karl Marx: Greatness and Illusion (Allen Lane, 2016). ISBN 978-0-
7139-9904-4.
Walker, Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography. (bj.publications),
2009.
Wheen, Francis. Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3

Commentaries on Marx
Althusser, Louis. For Marx. London: Verso, 2005.
Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: Verso, 2009.
Attali, Jacques. Karl Marx or the thought of the world. 2005
Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (Cambridge University
Press, 1968) ISBN 0-521-09619-7
Axelos, Kostas. Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx (translated by
Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
Blackledge, Paul. Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (Manchester University
Press, 2006)
Blackledge, Paul. Marxism and Ethics (SUNY Press, 2012)
Bottomore, Tom, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
Callinicos, Alex (2010) [1983]. The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London:
Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
Cleaver, Harry. Reading Capital Politically (AK Press, 2000)
G.A. Cohen. Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton University Press, 1978)
ISBN 0-691-07068-7
Collier, Andrew. Marx (Oneworld, 2004)
Draper, Hal, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press
Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin. (editors) Marx Refuted, (Bath, UK, 1987) ISBN 0-
906798-71-X
Eagleton, Terry. Why Marx Was Right (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2011).
Fine, Ben. Marx's Capital. 5th ed. London: Pluto, 2010.
Foster, John Bellamy. Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review
Press, 2000.
Gould, Stephen Jay. A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester, p. 1,
Find Articles.com (1999)
Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010.
Harvey, David. The Limits of Capital. London: Verso, 2006.
Henry, Michel. Marx I and Marx II. 1976
Holt, Justin P. The Social Thought of Karl Marx. Sage, 2015.
Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."
(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
Little, Daniel. The Scientific Marx, (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-
5
Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly
Review Press, 1977.
 Mészáros, István. Marx's Theory of Alienation (The Merlin Press, 1970)
Miller, Richard W. Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton
University Press, 1984.
Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical
Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume II:
Classical Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) ISBN 0-945466-48-X
Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism.
London: Routledge, 2002.
Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx. London: NLB, 1971.
Seigel, J.E. (1973). "Marx's Early Development: Vocation, Rebellion and Realism". The
Journal of Interdisciplinary History. 3 (3): 475–508. doi:10.2307/202551 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F202551). JSTOR 202551 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/202551).
Seigel, Jerrold. Marx's fate: the shape of a life (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-
271-00935-7
Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
Uno, Kozo. Principles of Political Economy. Theory of a Purely Capitalist Society, Brighton,
Sussex: Harvester; Atlantic Highlands, N.J.: Humanities, 1980.
Vianello, F. [1989], "Effective Demand and the Rate of Profits: Some Thoughts on Marx,
Kalecki and Sraffa", in: Sebastiani, M. (ed.), Kalecki's Relevance Today, London, Macmillan,
ISBN 978-0-312-02411-6.
Wendling, Amy. Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
Wheen, Francis. Marx's Das Kapital, (Atlantic Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8
Wilson, Edmund. To the Finland Station: A Study in the Writing and Acting of History,
Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1940

Fiction works
Barker, Jason. Marx Returns, Winchester, UK: Zero Books, 2018, ISBN 978-1-78535-660-5.

Medical articles
Shuster, Sam (January 2008). "The nature and consequence of Karl Marx's skin disease".
British Journal of Dermatology. 158 (1): 071106220718011––. doi:10.1111/j.1365-
2133.2007.08282.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2133.2007.08282.x).
PMID 17986303 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17986303).

External links
Works by Karl Marx (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Marx,+Karl) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Karl Marx (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%
22Marx%2C%20Karl%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Karl%20Marx%22%20OR%20creato
r%3A%22Marx%2C%20Karl%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Karl%20Marx%22%20OR%2
0creator%3A%22Marx%2C%20K%2E%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Karl%20Marx%22%20
OR%20description%3A%22Marx%2C%20Karl%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Karl%2
0Marx%22%29%20OR%20%28%221818-1883%22%20AND%20Marx%29%29%20AND%
20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Karl Marx (https://librivox.org/author/2426) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
 Works by Karl Marx (http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Marx,%20Karl) (in German) at
Zeno.org
Karl Marx (https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/367265) at the Encyclopædia
Britannica
Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). "Karl Marx" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/). Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Marxists.org (https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/), homepage of the Marxists Internet
Archive
Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1989). Karl
Marx: a Biography (https://archive.org/details/KarlMarxABiography) (4 ed.). Moscow:
Progress Publishers.
Krader, Lawrence, ed. (1974). The Ethnological Notebooks of Karl Marx (https://www.marxis
ts.org/archive/marx/works/1881/ethnographical-notebooks/notebooks.pdf) (PDF) (2 ed.).
Assen: Van Gorcum.
Archive of Karl Marx / Friedrich Engels Papers (https://search.socialhistory.org/Record/ARC
H00860) at the International Institute of Social History
The Collected Works of Marx and Engels, in English translation and in 50 volumes, are
published in London by Lawrence & Wishart and in New York by International Publishers.
(These volumes were at one time put online by the Marxists Internet Archive, until the
original publishers objected on copyright grounds: "Marx/Engels Collected Works" (https://w
ww.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/index.htm). Marxists Internet Archive. Retrieved
3 March 2018.) They are available online and searchable, for purchase or through
subscribing libraries, in the "Social Theory (https://alexanderstreet.com/products/social-theo
ry)" collection published by Alexander Street Press (https://alexanderstreet-com.simsrad.ne
t.ocs.mq.edu.au/page/history-imprints) in collaboration with the University of Chicago.
Marx (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9jg), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Anthony
Grayling, Francis Wheen & Gareth Stedman Jones (In Our Time, 14 July 2005)
Newspaper clippings about Karl Marx (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/011971) in
the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

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Thomas Robert Malthus
Thomas Robert Malthus FRS (/ˈmælθəs/; 13/14 February 1766
Thomas Robert Malthus
– 23 December 1834)[1] was an English cleric, scholar and
FRS
influential economist in the fields of political economy and
demography.[2]

In his 1798 book An Essay on the Principle of Population,

Malthus observed that an increase in a nation's food production
improved the well-being of the populace, but the improvement
was temporary because it led to population growth, which in turn
restored the original per capita production level. In other words,
humans had a propensity to utilize abundance for population
growth rather than for maintaining a high standard of living, a
view that has become known as the "Malthusian trap" or the
"Malthusian spectre". Populations had a tendency to grow until
the lower class suffered hardship, want and greater susceptibility
to famine and disease, a view that is sometimes referred to as a
Malthusian catastrophe. Malthus wrote in opposition to the Portrait by John Linnell
popular view in 18th-century Europe that saw society as Born 13/14 February
improving and in principle as perfectible.[3] 1766
Westcott, Surrey,
Malthus saw population growth as being inevitable whenever England
conditions improved, thereby precluding real progress towards a
Died 23 December 1834
utopian society: "The power of population is indefinitely greater
(aged 68)
than the power in the earth to produce subsistence for man".[4] As
Bath, Somerset,
an Anglican cleric, he saw this situation as divinely imposed to
England
teach virtuous behaviour.[5] Malthus wrote that "the increase of
population is necessarily limited by the means of subsistence"; Nationality British
"population does invariably increase when the means of Field Demography,
subsistence increase"; and "the superior power of population is macroeconomics
repressed by moral restraint, vice and misery".[6]
School or Classical
tradition economics
Malthus criticized the Poor Laws for leading to inflation rather
than improving the well-being of the poor.[7] He supported taxes Alma mater Jesus College,
on grain imports (the Corn Laws).[8] His views became Cambridge
influential and controversial across economic, political, social Influences David Ricardo,
and scientific thought. Pioneers of evolutionary biology read him, Jean Charles
notably Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.[9][10] He Léonard de
remains a much-debated writer. Sismondi
Contributions Malthusian growth
model
Contents
 Early life and education
Population growth
Travel and further career
Malthus–Ricardo debate on political economy
Later life
Family
An Essay on the Principle of Population
Editions and versions
Other works
1800: The present high price of provisions
1814: Observations on the effects of the Corn Laws
1820: Principles of political economy
Other publications
Reception and influence
In popular culture
Epitaph
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links

Early life and education

The sixth[11] child of Henrietta Catherine Graham and Daniel Malthus,[12][13] Robert Malthus grew up in
The Rookery, a country house in Westcott, near Dorking in Surrey. William Petersen describes Daniel
Malthus as "a gentleman of good family and independent means [...] [and] a friend of David Hume and
Jean-Jacques Rousseau".[14] The young Malthus received his education at home in Bramcote,
Nottinghamshire, and then at the Warrington Academy from 1782. Warrington was a dissenting academy,
which closed in 1783. Malthus continued for a period to be tutored by Gilbert Wakefield, who had taught
him there.[15]

Malthus entered Jesus College, Cambridge in 1784. While there, he took prizes in English declamation,
Latin and Greek, and graduated with honours, Ninth Wrangler in mathematics. His tutor was William
Frend.[15][16] He took the MA degree in 1791, and was elected a Fellow of Jesus College two years
later.[17] In 1789, he took orders in the Church of England, and became a curate at Oakwood Chapel (also
Okewood) in the parish of Wotton, Surrey.[18]

Population growth
Malthus was a demographer before he was ever considered an economist. He first came to prominence
for his 1798 publication, An Essay on the Principle of Population. In it, he raised the question of how
population growth related to the economy. He affirmed that there were many events, good and bad, that
affected the economy in ways no one had ever deliberated upon
before. The main point of his essay was that population multiplies
geometrically and food arithmetically, therefore whenever the
food supply increases, population will rapidly grow to eliminate
the abundance. Eventually in the future, there would not be
enough food for the whole of humanity to consume and people
would starve. Until that point, the more food made available, the
more the population would increase. He also stated that there was
a fight for survival amongst humans and that only the strong who
could attain food and other needs would survive, unlike the
impoverished population he saw during his time period.

Malthus wrote the original text in reaction to the optimism of his

father and his father's associates (notably Jean-Jaques Rousseau)
regarding the future improvement of society. He also constructed
his case as a specific response to writings of William Godwin
(1756–1836) and of the Marquis de Condorcet (1743–1794). His
assertions evoked questions and criticism, and between 1798 and
1826 he published six more versions of An Essay on the Principle
of Population, updating each edition to incorporate new material,
Essay on the principle of population,
to address criticism, and to convey changes in his own 1826
perspectives on the subject. Even so, the propositions made in An
Essay were shocking to the public and largely disregarded during
the 19th century. The negativity surrounding his essay created a space filled with opinions on population
growth, connected with either praise or criticism of ideas about contraception and the future of
agriculture.

The Malthusian controversy to which the Essay gave rise in the decades following its publication
tended to focus attention on the birth rate and marriage rates. The neo-Malthusian controversy,
comprising related debates of many years later, has seen a similar central role assigned to the numbers of
children born.[19] On the whole it may be said that Malthus's revolutionary ideas in the sphere of
population growth remain relevant to economic thought even today and continue to make economists
ponder about the future.

Travel and further career

In 1799, Malthus made a European tour with William Otter, a close college friend, travelling part of the
way with Edward Daniel Clarke and John Marten Cripps, visiting Germany, Scandinavia and Russia.
Malthus used the trip to gather population data. Otter later wrote a Memoir of Malthus for the second
(1836) edition of his Principles of Political Economy.[20][21] During the Peace of Amiens of 1802 he
travelled to France and Switzerland, in a party that included his relation and future wife Harriet.[22]

In 1803, he became rector of Walesby, Lincolnshire.[17]

In 1805, Malthus became Professor of History and Political Economy at the East India Company College
in Hertfordshire.[23] His students affectionately referred to him as "Pop", "Population", or "web-toe"
Malthus.
Near the end of 1817, the proposed appointment of Graves Champney Haughton to the College was
made a pretext by Randle Jackson and Joseph Hume to launch an attempt to close it down. Malthus wrote
a pamphlet defending the College, which was reprieved by the East India Company within the same year,
1817.[24]

In 1818, Malthus became a Fellow of the Royal Society.

Malthus–Ricardo debate on political economy

During the 1820s, there took place a setpiece intellectual discussion among the exponents of political
economy, often called the Malthus–Ricardo debate after its leading figures, Malthus and theorist of free
trade David Ricardo, both of whom had written books with the title Principles of Political Economy.
Under examination were the nature and methods of political economy itself, while it was simultaneously
under attack from others.[25] The roots of the debate were in the previous decade. In The Nature of Rent
(1815), Malthus had dealt with economic rent, a major concept in classical economics. Ricardo defined a
theory of rent in his Principles of Political Economy and Taxation (1817): he regarded rent as value in
excess of real production—something caused by ownership rather than by free trade. Rent therefore
represented a kind of negative money that landlords could pull out of the production of the land, by
means of its scarcity.[26] Contrary to this concept, Malthus proposed rent to be a kind of economic
surplus.[27]

The debate developed over the economic concept of a general glut, and the possibility of failure of Say's
Law. Malthus laid importance on economic development and the persistence of disequilibrium.[28] The
context was the post-war depression; Malthus had a supporter in William Blake, in denying that capital
accumulation (saving) was always good in such circumstances, and John Stuart Mill attacked Blake on
the fringes of the debate.[29]

Ricardo corresponded with Malthus from 1817 about his Principles. He was drawn into considering
political economy in a less restricted sense, which might be adapted to legislation and its multiple
objectives, by the thought of Malthus. In Principles of Political Economy (1820) and elsewhere, Malthus
addressed the tension, amounting to conflict he saw between a narrow view of political economy and the
broader moral and political plane.[30] Leslie Stephen wrote:

If Malthus and Ricardo differed, it was a difference of men who accepted the same first
principles. They both professed to interpret Adam Smith as the true prophet, and represented
different shades of opinion rather than diverging sects.[31]

After Ricardo's death in 1823, Malthus became isolated among the younger British political economists,
who tended to think he had lost the debate. It is now considered that the different purposes seen by
Malthus and Ricardo for political economy affected their technical discussion, and contributed to the lack
of compatible definitions.[28] For example, Jean-Baptiste Say used a definition of production based on
goods and services and so queried the restriction of Malthus to "goods" alone.[32]

In terms of public policy, Malthus was a supporter of the protectionist Corn Laws from the end of the
Napoleonic Wars. He emerged as the only economist of note to support duties on imported grain.[33] By
encouraging domestic production, Malthus argued, the Corn Laws would guarantee British self-
sufficiency in food.[34]
Later life
Malthus was a founding member in 1821 of the Political Economy Club, where John Cazenove tended to
be his ally against Ricardo and Mill.[35] He was elected in the beginning of 1824 as one of the ten royal
associates of the Royal Society of Literature. He was also one of the first fellows of the Statistical
Society, founded in March 1834. In 1827 he gave evidence to a committee of the House of Commons on
emigration.[36]

In 1827, he published Definitions in Political Economy[37] The first chapter put forth "Rules for the
Definition and Application of Terms in Political Economy". In chapter 10, the penultimate chapter, he
presented 60 numbered paragraphs putting forth terms and their definitions that he proposed should be
used in discussing political economy following those rules. This collection of terms and definitions is
remarkable for two reasons: first, Malthus was the first economist to explicitly organize, define, and
publish his terms as a coherent glossary of defined terms; and second, his definitions were for the most
part well-formed definitional statements. Between these chapters, he criticized several contemporary
economists—Jean-Baptiste Say, David Ricardo, James Mill, John Ramsay McCulloch, and Samuel
Bailey—for sloppiness in choosing, attaching meaning to, and using their technical terms.[38]

McCulloch was the editor of The Scotsman of Edinburgh and replied cuttingly in a review printed on the
front page of his newspaper in March 1827.[39] He implied that Malthus wanted to dictate terms and
theories to other economists. McCulloch clearly felt his ox gored, and his review of Definitions is largely
a bitter defence of his own Principles of Political Economy,[40] and his counter-attack "does little credit
to his reputation", being largely "personal derogation" of Malthus.[41] The purpose of Malthus's
Definitions was terminological clarity, and Malthus discussed appropriate terms, their definitions, and
their use by himself and his contemporaries. This motivation of Malthus's work was disregarded by
McCulloch, who responded that there was nothing to be gained "by carping at definitions, and quibbling
about the meaning to be attached to" words. Given that statement, it is not surprising that McCulloch's
review failed to address the rules of chapter 1 and did not discuss the definitions of chapter 10; he also
barely mentioned Malthus's critiques of other writers.[38]

In spite of this and in the wake of McCulloch's scathing review, the reputation of Malthus as economist
dropped away for the rest of his life.[42] On the other hand, Malthus did have supporters, including
Thomas Chalmers, some of the Oriel Noetics, Richard Jones and William Whewell from Cambridge.[43]

Malthus died suddenly of heart disease on 23 December 1834 at his father-in-law's house. He was buried
in Bath Abbey.[36] His portrait,[44] and descriptions by contemporaries, present him as tall and good-
looking, but with a cleft lip and palate.[45] The cleft palate affected his speech: such birth defects had
occurred before amongst his relatives.[46]

Family
On 13 March 1804, Malthus married Harriet, daughter of John Eckersall of Claverton House, near Bath.
They had a son and two daughters. His first born Henry became vicar of Effingham, Surrey in 1835 and
of Donnington, Sussex in 1837; he married Sofia Otter (1807–1889), daughter of Bishop William Otter
and died in August 1882, aged 76. His middle child Emily died in 1885, outliving her parents and
siblings. The youngest Lucille died unmarried and childless in 1825, months before her 18th birthday.[36]

An Essay on the Principle of Population

Malthus argued in his Essay (1798) that population growth generally expanded in times and in regions of
plenty until the size of the population relative to the primary resources caused distress:

Yet in all societies, even those that are most vicious, the tendency to a virtuous attachment
[i.e., marriage] is so strong that there is a constant effort towards an increase of population.
This constant effort as constantly tends to subject the lower classes of the society to distress
and to prevent any great permanent amelioration of their condition.

— Malthus, T. R. 1798. An Essay on the Principle of Population. Chapter II, p. 18 in

Oxford World's Classics reprint.

Malthus argued that two types of checks hold population within resource limits: positive checks, which
raise the death rate; and preventive ones, which lower the birth rate. The positive checks include hunger,
disease and war; the preventive checks: birth control, postponement of marriage and celibacy.[47]

The rapid increase in the global population of the past century exemplifies Malthus's predicted
population patterns; it also appears to describe socio-demographic dynamics of complex pre-industrial
societies. These findings are the basis for neo-malthusian modern mathematical models of long-term
historical dynamics.[48]

Malthus wrote that in a period of resource abundance, a population could double in 25 years. However,
the margin of abundance could not be sustained as population grew, leading to checks on population
growth:

If the subsistence for man that the earth affords was to be increased every twenty-five years
by a quantity equal to what the whole world at present produces, this would allow the power
of production in the earth to be absolutely unlimited, and its ratio of increase much greater
than we can conceive that any possible exertions of mankind could make it ... yet still the
power of population being a power of a superior order, the increase of the human species
can only be kept commensurate to the increase of the means of subsistence by the constant
operation of the strong law of necessity acting as a check upon the greater power.

— Malthus T. R. 1798. An Essay on the Principle of Population. Chapter 2, p. 8[49]

In later editions of his essay, Malthus clarified his view that if society relied on human misery to limit
population growth, then sources of misery (e.g., hunger, disease, and war) would inevitably afflict
society, as would volatile economic cycles. On the other hand, "preventive checks" to population that
limited birthrates, such as later marriages, could ensure a higher standard of living for all, while also
increasing economic stability.[50] Regarding possibilities for freeing man from these limits, Malthus
argued against a variety of imaginable solutions, such as the notion that agricultural improvements could
expand without limit.[51]

Of the relationship between population and economics, Malthus wrote that when the population of
laborers grows faster than the production of food, real wages fall because the growing population causes
the cost of living (i.e., the cost of food) to go up. Difficulties of raising a family eventually reduce the
rate of population growth, until the falling population again leads to higher real wages.

In the second and subsequent editions Malthus put more emphasis on moral restraint as the best means
of easing the poverty of the lower classes."[52]
Editions and versions
1798: An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it affects the future improvement of
society with remarks on the speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and other writers..
Anonymously published.
1803: Second and much enlarged edition: An Essay on the Principle of Population; or, a
view of its past and present effects on human happiness; with an enquiry into our prospects
respecting the future removal or mitigation of the evils which it occasions. Authorship
acknowledged.
1806, 1807, 1816 and 1826: editions 3–6, with relatively minor changes from the second
edition.
1823: Malthus contributed the article on Population to the supplement of the Encyclopædia
Britannica.
1830: Malthus had a long extract from the 1823 article reprinted as A summary view of the
Principle of Population.[53]

Other works

1800: The present high price of provisions

In this work, his first published pamphlet, Malthus argues against the notion prevailing in his locale that
the greed of intermediaries caused the high price of provisions. Instead, Malthus says that the high price
stems from the Poor Laws, which "increase the parish allowances in proportion to the price of corn."
Thus, given a limited supply, the Poor Laws force up the price of daily necessities. However, he
concludes by saying that in time of scarcity such Poor Laws, by raising the price of corn more evenly,
actually produce a beneficial effect.[54]

1814: Observations on the effects of the Corn Laws

Although government in Britain had regulated the prices of grain, the Corn Laws originated in 1815. At
the end of the Napoleonic Wars that year, Parliament passed legislation banning the importation of
foreign corn into Britain until domestic corn cost 80 shillings per quarter. The high price caused the cost
of food to increase and caused distress among the working classes in the towns. It led to serious rioting in
London and to the Peterloo Massacre in Manchester in 1819.[55][56]

In this pamphlet, printed during the parliamentary discussion, Malthus tentatively supported the free-
traders. He argued that given the increasing cost of growing British corn, advantages accrued from
supplementing it from cheaper foreign sources.

1820: Principles of political economy

In 1820 Malthus published Principles of Political Economy. (A second edition was posthumously
published in 1836.) Malthus intended this work to rival Ricardo's Principles (1817).[57] It, and his 1827
Definitions in political economy, defended Sismondi's views on "general glut" rather than Say's Law,
which in effect states "there can be no general glut".

Other publications
 1807. A letter to Samuel Whitbread, Esq. M.P. on his proposed Bill for the Amendment of
the Poor Laws. Johnson and Hatchard, London.
1808. Spence on Commerce. Edinburgh Review 11, January, 429–448.
1808. Newneham and others on the state of Ireland. Edinburgh Review 12, July, 336–355.
1809. Newneham on the state of Ireland, Edinburgh Review 14 April, 151–170.
1811. Depreciation of paper currency. Edinburgh Review 17, February, 340–372.
1812. Pamphlets on the bullion question. Edinburgh Review 18, August, 448–470.
1813. A letter to the Rt. Hon. Lord Grenville. Johnson, London.
1817. Statement respecting the East-India College. Murray, London.
1821. Godwin on Malthus. Edinburgh Review 35, July, 362–377.
1823. The Measure of Value, stated and illustrated
1823. Tooke – On high and low prices. Quarterly Review, 29 (57), April, 214–239.
1824. Political economy. Quarterly Review 30 (60), January, 297–334.
1829. On the measure of the conditions necessary to the supply of commodities.
Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom. 1, 171–180. John
Murray, London.
1829. On the meaning which is most usually and most correctly attached to the term Value
of a Commodity. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom. 2,
74–81. John Murray.

Reception and influence

Malthus developed the theory of demand-supply mismatches that he called gluts. Discounted at the time,
this theory foreshadowed later work by an admirer, John Maynard Keynes.[58]

The vast bulk of continuing commentary on Malthus, however, extends and expands on the "Malthusian
controversy" of the early 19th century.

In popular culture
Ebenezer Scrooge from A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens represents the perceived
ideas of Malthus,[59] famously illustrated by his explanation as to why he refuses to donate
to the poor and destitute: "If they would rather die they had better do it, and decrease the
surplus population". In general, Dickens had some Malthusian concerns (evident in Oliver
Twist, Hard Times and other novels), and he concentrated his attacks on Utilitarianism and
many of its proponents, like Jeremy Bentham, whom he thought of, along with Malthus, as
unjust and inhumane.[60]
In the musical Urinetown, written by Greg Kotis and Mark Hollmann, the characters live in a
society in which a fee must be paid in order to urinate, for a drought has made water
incredibly scarce. A revolution starts with a "pee for free" agenda. At the end of the show,
the revolution wins but the characters end up dying because water was not being
preserved, unlike when the 'pee fee' was in place. The penultimate line is "Hail Malthus".
In Marvel's film Avengers: Infinity War, the main villain called Thanos appears to be
motivated by Malthusian views about population growth, though he already shared similar
motivations in the comics.[61][62]

Epitaph
The epitaph of Malthus in Bath Abbey reads [with commas inserted for clarity]:
 Sacred to the memory of the Rev THOMAS
ROBERT MALTHUS, long known to the lettered
world by his admirable writings on the social
branches of political economy, particularly by his
essay on population.

One of the best men and truest philosophers of any

age or country, raised by native dignity of mind
above the misrepresentation of the ignorant and the
neglect of the great, he lived a serene and happy life
devoted to the pursuit and communication of truth,
supported by a calm but firm conviction of the
usefulness of his labours, content with the
approbation of the wise and good.
The epitaph of Malthus just inside the
His writings will be a lasting monument of the entrance to Bath Abbey

extent and correctness of his understanding.

The spotless integrity of his principles, the equity

and candour of his nature, his sweetness of temper,
urbanity of manners and tenderness of heart, his
benevolence and his piety are still dearer
recollections of his family and friends.

Born February 14, 1766 – Died 29 December 1834.

See also
Cornucopianism, a counter-Malthusian school of thought
Exponential growth
Food race, a related idea from Daniel Quinn
The Limits to Growth, from the Club of Rome
Hong Liangji, China's Malthus
Human overpopulation
Malthusian equilibrium
Malthusian growth model
Malthusian trap
Malthusianism
National Security Study Memorandum 200
Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, etc.
World population

Notes
1. Several sources give Malthus's date of death as 15 December 1834. See Meyers
Konversationslexikon (http://www.retrobibliothek.de/retrobib/seite.html?id=110865) (Leipzig,
4th edition, 1885–1892), "Biography" (http://homepages.caverock.net.nz/~kh/bobperson.ht
 ml) by Nigel Malthus (the memorial transcription reproduced in this article). However, the
article in "Malthus, Thomas Robert" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6
dia_Britannica/Malthus,_Thomas_Robert). Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 (11th ed.). 1911.
p. 515. gives 23 December 1834.
2. Petersen, William (1979). Malthus: Founder of Modern Demography (https://archive.org/det
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ed. (1893). "Malthus, Thomas Robert". Dictionary of National Biography. 36. London: Smith,
Elder & Co.
Dupâquier, J. 2001. Malthus, Thomas Robert (1766–1834). International Encyclopedia of
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Elwell, Frank W. 2001. A commentary on Malthus's 1798 Essay on Population as social
theory. Mellon Press.
Evans, L.T. 1998. Feeding the ten billion – plants and population growth. Cambridge
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Journal of the History of Economic Thought. Bd. 20 (2013), H. 3, S. 399–425,
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Hollander, Samuel 1997. The Economics of Thomas Robert Malthus. University of Toronto
Press. Dedicated to Malthus by the author. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.
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Peterson, William 1999. Malthus, founder of modern demography 2nd ed. Transaction.
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indifference to limits, Rhodes & Easton, Traverse City, MI. 1997
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Further reading
Bashford, Alison, and Joyce E. Chaplin. The New Worlds of Thomas Robert Malthus:
Rereading the Principle of Population (Princeton University Press, 2016). vii + 353 pp.
 excerpt (https://books.google.com/books?id=sKrPCgAAQBAJ); also online review (http://eh.
net/?s=New+Worlds+of+Thomas+Robert+Malthus)
Elwell, Frank W. 2001. A Commentary on Malthus' 1798 Essay on Population as social
theory E. Mellen Press, Lewiston, NY. ISBN 0-7734-7669-5.
Heilbroner, Robert, The Worldly Philosophers – the lives, times, and ideas of the great
economic thinkers. (1953) commentary (https://www.cliffsnotes.com/literature/w/the-worldly-
philosophers/about-the-worldly-philosophers)
Mayhew, Robert J. (2014). Malthus: The Life and Legacies of an Untimely Prophet.
Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72871-4.
Negative Population Growth organization (https://web.archive.org/web/20060113213030/htt
p://www.npg.org/projects/malthus/malthus_index.htm): a collection of essays for the Malthus
Bicentenary
National Academics Forum, Australia (https://web.archive.org/web/20081020110110/http://
www.naf.org.au/papers.htm): a collection of essays for the Malthus Bicentenary
Conference, 1998
Conceptual origins of Malthus's Essay on Population, facsimile reprint of 8 Books in 6
volumes, edited by Yoshinobu Nanagita (ISBN 978-4-902454-14-7) www.aplink.co.jp/ep/4-
902454-14-9.htm
National Geographic Magazine, June 2009 article, "The Global Food Crisis,"[1] (http://ngm.n
ationalgeographic.com/2009/06/cheap-food/bourne-text/4)

External links
Works by Thomas Robert Malthus (https://www.gutenberg.org/author/Malthus,+T.+R.+(Tho
mas+Robert)) at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Thomas Robert Malthus (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28
subject%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%20Robert%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Malt
hus%2C%20Thomas%20R%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Malthus%2C%20T%2E%
20R%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Thomas%20Robert%20Malthus%22%20OR%20
subject%3A%22Thomas%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22T%2E%2
0R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%22%20O
R%20subject%3A%22Thomas%20Malthus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thomas%20R
obert%20Malthus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thomas%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20
OR%20creator%3A%22T%2E%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22T%2
E%20Robert%20Malthus%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%20Ro
bert%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%20R%2E%22%20OR%20c
reator%3A%22Malthus%2C%20T%2E%20R%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Malthu
s%2C%20T%2E%20Robert%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Thomas%20Malthus%22%20
OR%20creator%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Thomas%2
0Robert%20Malthus%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Thomas%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20
OR%20title%3A%22T%2E%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Thomas%2
0Malthus%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Thomas%20Robert%20Malthus%22%20O
R%20description%3A%22Thomas%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20description%3
A%22T%2E%20R%2E%20Malthus%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Malthus%2C%20T
homas%20Robert%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%20R%2
E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Thomas%20Malthus%22%20OR%20description%3
A%22Malthus%2C%20Thomas%22%29%20OR%20%28%221766-1834%22%20AND%20
Malthus%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Thomas Robert Malthus (https://librivox.org/author/5203) at LibriVox (public
domain audiobooks)
Malthus, Thomas Robert (1999). Gilbert, Geoffrey (ed.). An Essay on the Principle of
Population (https://books.google.com/books?id=Yxoe-sEcHNgC). Oxford world's classics.
 Oxford University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-19-283747-9. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Theories of Population" (https://en.wikisource.org/wik
i/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Theories_of_Population). Catholic Encyclopedia. New York:
Robert Appleton Company.
More Food for More People But Not For All, and Not Forever (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0051231111031/http://www.unfpa.org/intercenter/food/morefood.htm) United Nations
Population Fund website [Not found]
The Feast of Malthus (http://www.garretthardinsociety.org/articles_pdf/feast_of_malthus.pdf)
by Garrett Hardin in The Social Contract (1998)
The International Society of Malthus (http://desip.igc.org/malthus)
Online chapter "Malthus and the Evolutionists: The Common Context of Biological and
Social Theory" (http://human-nature.com/dm/chap2.html) from Darwin's Metaphor: Nature's
Place in Victorian Culture by Professor Robert M. Young (1985, 1988, 1994). Cambridge
University Press.
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) (http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Malthus.html).
The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty (2nd ed.).
Liberty Fund. 2008.
Thomas Robert Malthus (https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/21117) at Find a Grave

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