Thermodynamics & IC Engines

Lab Manual
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Prof. AJ Nayar
Assistant. Professor,
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
PES University

01 August 2017
 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

AJ Nayar 1 Dept. of ME, PES University

 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Lab Safety Precautions

Attire
1. All students are expected to be dressed in their lab attire. Defaulters will not be
given lab attendance.

2. Closed toe footwear is compulsory, preferably safety shoes.

3. Do not have loosely hanging items like earphones, ID cards, stoles and scarves on
you. Such items need to be safely kept in your bags before taking up position at
the test rigs.

4. For all women with long hair, it is mandatory that it has to be tied up into a bun,
without any strands dangling.

Test Rigs
1. In case of any noticeable problems, inform the Lab Assistant as well as the Teaching
Faculty before you run the engine or conduct any test.

2. If there are problems that arise during the conduction of the experiment, stop
the experiment immediately and inform the Lab Assistant as well as the Teaching
Faculty about the same.

3. Do not start any experiment unless specifically permitted by the teaching faculty.

4. The knobs, switches and levers of the various equipments in the lab serve a purpose
for that equipment. So do not play with them.

5. Extremely high temperature of the engine components may burn your fingers and
hands. Please exhibit caution.

6. After your experiment, keep the area around as well as the test specimen/ test rig
clean.

7. Do not leave stray marks/ notes/ writings on the eqipment or test rig. It is not
your rough note-book!

8. For Engines:

(a) Maintain ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY to the engine and components

(b) Ensure the EXHAUST VALVE is kept open
(c) Ensure STARTING AT ZERO LOAD
(d) Ensure::::::::::::::::
STOPPING AT ZERO LOAD

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Contents

I ATD Experiments 15

1 Flash and Fire Point 16

1.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.0.1 Flash Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.0.2 Fire Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.1 Significance of Flash and Fire Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.3 General Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.2 Precautions to be taken before conducting the test . . . . . . . . 20
1.4 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.5 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2 Redwood Viscometer 23
2.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.1 Viscosity Units and Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.2 Fluid flow and Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Viscometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.3.1 Orifice Viscometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.1 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.3.2 Conversion of Redwood Seconds into Absolute Units of Viscosity . 32
2.4 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3 Saybolt’s Viscometer 35
3.1 Aim °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2.1 Significance and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.2 Saybolt Universal Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.3 Precautions to be taken before conducting the test . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3.1 Working . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.2 Conversion of Saybolt Seconds in Absolute Units of Viscosity . . . 39
3.4 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Bomb Calorimeter 44
4.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.1 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.2 Definition of Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.2.3 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3.1 Gross heat of combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3.2 Net heat of combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3.3 Energy/ Water Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2.3.4 Conversion Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.3.5 Significance and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2.4 Summary of the Test Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Precautions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.1 Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.2 Calorimeter Bucket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.3 Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.4 Ignition System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4.5 Oxygen Filling Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4.6 Additional components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.5 Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5.1 Benzoic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5.2 Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.5.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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4.6 Determination of Heat Capacity of Calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.7 Preliminary Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.7.1 Preparation of sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.7.2 Attaching the fuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.7.3 Water in the bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.7.4 Filling the bomb with oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.7.5 Measurement of Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.7.6 Opening the Calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.8 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.9 Tablulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.10 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.10.1 Fuse Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.10.2 Radiation Correction and the Corrected Temperature Rise . . . . 56
4.11 Handling Oxygen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

5 Boy’s Gas Calorimeter 59

5.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.1 Definition of Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.2.2 Application Fields for Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.3 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2.4 Calorific Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.2.5 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.4 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP Gas or LPG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.4.1 Physical Properties and Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.5 Required Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.6 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.7 Tablulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.8 Error Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

6 Valve Timing Diagram 71

6.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2.1 Principles of Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2.2 Lead, lag and overlap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6.2.3 Valve timing and emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.3 Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
6.4 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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6.5 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7 Air Conditioning Test Rig 78

7.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
7.2.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.2.2 Psychrometric properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7.3 Refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.1 Primary and secondary refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.3.2 Designation of refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.3.3 R134a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.4 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.4.1 AC System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.4.1.1 Compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.4.1.2 Condenser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.4.1.3 Expansion Device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.4.1.4 Cooling Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.4.2 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.5 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.5.1 Cooling Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.5.2 Winter Air Heating process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.5.3 Cooling and Humidification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.6 Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.6.1 Open Cycle – Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.6.2 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.6.3 Closed Cycle – Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.6.4 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.6.5 Coefficient of Performance (CoP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.6.6 Ton of Refrigeration (TR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.7 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

II IC Engine Experiments 99

8 Diesel Engine coupled to Rope Brake Dyno 103

8.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.2.1 Diesel Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
8.2.2 Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

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8.2.3 Engine Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

8.2.3.1 Engine Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2.3.2 Indicated Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.2.3.3 Brake Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.3.4 Frictional Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.2.3.5 Mechanical Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2.3.6 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2.3.7 Volumetric Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
8.2.3.8 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.2.3.9 Specific Air Consumption (sac) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.4 Measurement Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.4.1 Dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.2.4.2 Airflow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2.4.3 Fuel Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.4.4 Engine Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.4.5 Inlet Air and Coolant Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 Precautions to be taken before Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.4 Description of the Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.4.1 Engine Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.4.2 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.5 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
8.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
8.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

9 Petrol Engine coupled to an Alternator 123

9.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.2.1 Four stroke Otto Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.2.2 Engine Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.2.2.1 Power, Torque, and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.2.3 Alternator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
9.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.3.1 Engine Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.5 Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
9.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

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10 2 Stroke Petrol Engine coupled to Rope Brake

Dynamometer 135
10.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.2.1 Third-port engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.2.2 Reed-valve engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10.2.3 Scavenging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
10.2.4 Engine Performance Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
10.2.5 Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
10.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
10.3.1 Engine Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
10.5 Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

11 The Morse Test 147

11.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
11.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
11.2.1 Multi-cylinder Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
11.2.1.1 Irregular torque output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
11.2.1.2 Power output and engine speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
11.2.1.3 Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11.2.1.4 Limitations on cylinder numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11.2.2 Measurement Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
11.2.2.1 Water brake/ Hydraulic dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . 151
11.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.3.1 Engine Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
11.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.5 Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
11.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

12 Variable Compression Ratio Petrol Engine 158

12.1 Aim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
12.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
12.2.1 Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
12.3 Description of Test Rig . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

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12.3.1 Engine Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

12.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
12.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
12.5 Testing Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
12.6 Tabulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
12.7 Graphs to be plotted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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List of Tables

1.6.1 Flash & Fire Point - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

2.6.2 Redwood Viscometer - Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.6.1 Redwood Viscometer - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

3.6.1 Saybolts Viscometer - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.6.2 Saybolts Viscometer - Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

4.9.1 Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (gas) . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

4.9.2 Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (water) . . . . . . . . . . 56

5.7.1 Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (gas) . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5.7.2 Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (water) . . . . . . . . . . 69

7.6.1 Temperatures at various state points - Open cycle cooling . . . . . . . . . 95

7.6.2 Other variables at various state points - Open cycle cooling . . . . . . . . 96
7.6.3 Temperatures at various state points - Closed cycle cooling . . . . . . . . 96
7.6.4 Other variables at various state points - Closed cycle cooling . . . . . . . 96

8.4.1 Single cylinder 4S Vertical Diesel Engine Test Rig Specifications . . . . . 118
8.6.1 Diesel Engine with Brake Dynamometer - Table of Observations . . . . . 121
8.6.2 Diesel Engine with Brake Dynamometer - Table of Results . . . . . . . . 121

9.3.1 Single cylinder 4S Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications . . . . . . . . . . 131

9.6.1 Petrol Engine with Anemometer - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6.2 Petrol Engine with Anemometer - Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

10.3.1Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications . . . . . . . . 143

10.6.12 stroke Petrol Engine - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
10.6.22 stroke Petrol Engine- Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146

11.3.1Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications . . . . . . . . 155

11.6.1Morse Test - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
11.6.2Morse Test - Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

12.3.1Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications . . . . . . . . 162

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12.6.1Variable Compression Engine - Table of Observations . . . . . . . . . . . 165

12.6.2Variable Compression Engine - Table of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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List of Figures

1.3.1 Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.3.2 Test Cup and Cover Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2.1 Simple shear of a liquid film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2.2.2 Various types of fluids based on viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.3 Change in Viscosity of time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids . . . . . . . 27
2.2.4 Redwood viscometer - Lab Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.5 Redwood viscometer - Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.2.1 Saybolt viscometer - Lab Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3.2.2 Saybolt Viscometer - Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.1 Saybolt viscometer cup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

4.3.1 Bomb Calorimeter (Couretsy: PARR INSTRUMENT COMPANY ) . . . . 48

4.4.1 Combustion Bomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.4.2 Sample Holder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.7.1 Attaching fuse to test sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

5.2.1 Calorimeter - A Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.2.2 Boys Gas Calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2.3 LPG Gas Safety Tips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6.2.1 Four Strokes in a Diesel Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

6.2.2 Ideal Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
6.2.3 Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.2.4 Indicator Diagram related to Valve Timing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.4.1 Valve Timing Diagram - Table of Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

7.2.1 Exchange of sensible and latent heat at water–air surface . . . . . . . . . 80

7.3.1 Classification of fluids used as refrigerants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.4.1 Chart of compressor types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4.2 Reciprocating compressor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4.3 Refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.4.4 Simple vapour-compression cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

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7.5.1 Sensible cooling process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

7.5.2 Sensible heating process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
7.5.3 Cooling and humidification process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

8.2.1 Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

8.2.2 Engine slider--crank geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2.3 Actual Indicator Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.2.4 Simple dynamometer for low-speed engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.2.5 Willan’s Line method or the Fuel rate extrapolation method for finding out
the mexhanical losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.2.6 Classical prony brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
8.2.7 Rope brake.Dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

9.2.1 Four stroke SI Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

9.2.2 Otto Cycle pV diagram (a) and Ts diagram (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.2.3 Actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.2.4 Wide open throttle (WOT) performance of an automotive four-stroke engine129
9.2.5 Alternator Dyno-setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

10.2.1A cross scavenged 2 stroke engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

10.2.2Operating sequence of a third-port, loop-scavenged engine. (Walbro) . . 137
10.2.3Operating sequence of a reed-valve engine that in the example shown em-
ploys loop scavenging. The small tube on the lower left of the drawing
transfers crankcase pressure pulses to the fuel pump. (Deere and Company)139
10.2.4Cross scavenged engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.2.5Loop scavenging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

11.2.1Sample Morse test data for a four-cylinder petrol engine . . . . . . . . . 148

11.2.2Torque fl uctuations in a single-cylinder engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
11.2.3Torque fluctuations in a four-cylinder engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11.2.4Hydrokinetic dynamometer, principle of operation:
..................(a) section through dynamometer;
..................(b) end view of rotor;
..................(c) development of section a–a of rotor and casing;
..................(d) representation of toroidal vortex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

12.2.1A VCR engine working on cyclinder tilt mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

12.2.2A VCR engine working on cyclinder tilt mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

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Part I

ATD Experiments

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Experiment 1

Flash and Fire Point

1.1 Aim
To determine the flash and fire point of the given light lubricating oil

1.2 Introduction
1.2.0.1 Flash Point

Flash point may be defined as the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure
of 101.3 Pa (760 mm Hg), at which application of an ignition source causes the vapors of a
specimen of the sample to ignite under specified conditions of test. It is found by heating
a given quantity of the fuel in a special container while passing a flame above the liquid
to ignite the vapors. A distinct flash of flame occurs when the flash point temperature
has been reached. The test specimen is deemed to have flashed when a flame appears
and instantaneously propagates itself over the entire surface of the test specimen. When
the ignition source is a test flame, the application of the test flame can cause a blue halo
or an enlarged flame prior to the actual flash point. This is not a flash point and shall be
ignored.

1.2.0.2 Fire Point

Fire point may be defined as the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure
of 101.3 kPa (760mm Hg), at which application of an ignition source causes the vapors of
a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s under
specified conditions of test.

1.2.1 Significance of Flash and Fire Point

The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable
mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of

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properties that should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a

material. Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable
and combustible materials. One should consult the particular regulation involved for
precise definitions of these classifications. Flash point can indicate the possible presence
of highly volatile and flammable materials in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable
material. For example, an abnormally low flash point on a test specimen of engine oil can
indicate gasoline contamination . This test method shall be used to measure and describe
the properties of materials, products, or assemblies in response to heat and a test flame
under controlled laboratory conditions and shall not be used to describe or appraise the
fire hazard or fire risk of materials, products, or assemblies under actual fire conditions.
However, results of this test method may be used as elements of a fire risk assessment that
takes into account all of the factors that are pertinent to an assessment of the fire hazard
of a particular end use. The fire point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen
to support combustion. These temperatures also indicate that sufficient vaporization has
taken place to change the composition of the oil. A good lubricant should have flash and
fire points above the operating temperature of the system in which they are used.

1.2.2 Scope
These test methods cover the determination of the flash point of petroleum products in
the temperature range from 40 to 40 to 360°C by a manual Pensky-Martens closed-cup
apparatus or an automated Pensky-Martens closed-cup apparatus. This test method is
applicable to all petroleum products with flash points above 79°C and below 400°C except
fuel oils.

1.2.3 General Observation

Flash point values are a function of the apparatus design, the condition of the apparatus
used, and the operational procedure carried out. Flash point can therefore only be defined
in terms of a standard test method, and no general valid correlation can be guaranteed
between results obtained by different test methods, or with test apparatus different from
that specified.

1.3 Description of Test Rig

These test methods cover the determination of the flash point of petroleum products in the
temperature range from 40 to 360°C by a manual Pensky-Martens closed-cup apparatus.
The test rig consists of a Pensky-Martens Closed cup (manual) Apparatus, which can
also be worked with like an Open cup tester for determining the flash and fire points of
the oil. An electric heater is used as the source of heat and a thermometer is fitted to
the apparatus to measure the temperature of the oil.

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1.3.1 Apparatus
Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Apparatus This apparatus consists of the test cup,
test cover and shutter, stirring device, heating source, ignition source device, air bath,
and top plate described in detail in Fig 1.1.

Figure 1.3.1: Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Apparatus

The assembled manual apparatus, test cup, test cup cover, and test cup assembly are
as illustrated in Figure 2.3.2.

Temperature measuring device The Temperature measuring device is a thermome-

ter having a range as shown as follows and conforming to the requirements prescribed in
the ASTM standards, or an electronic temperature measuring device, such as resistance
thermometers or thermocouples. The device shall exhibit the same temperature response
as the mercury thermometers.

Temperature Range
◦ ◦
C F
−5 to + 110°C 20 to + 230°F
+10 to 200°C 50 to 392°F
+90 to 370°C 200 to 700°F

Ignition Source Natural gas flame, bottled gas flame, and electric ignitors (hot wire)
have been found acceptable for use as the ignition source. The electric ignitors should be
of the hot-wire type and the position of the heated section of the ignitor in the aperture

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Figure 1.3.2: Test Cup and Cover Assembly

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of the test cover should be in the same manner as the gas flame device. (Warning—Gas
pressure supplied to the apparatus should not be allowed to exceed 3 kPa of water pres-
sure.)

1.3.2 Precautions to be taken before conducting the test

1. At least 75 mL of sample is required for each test

2. Results of flash point determinations can be affected if sample volume is less than
50 % of sample container capacity.

3. Erroneously high flash points may be obtained if precautions are not taken to avoid
the loss of volatile material. Do not open containers unnecessarily, to prevent loss
of volatile material or possible introduction of moisture, or both.

4. Ensure that samples are not stored in gas-permeable containers, since volatile ma-
terial may diffuse through the walls of the enclosure. Samples in leaky containers
are suspect and not a source of valid results.

5. Tests are to be performed in a draft-free room or compartment.

6. Thoroughly clean and dry all parts of the test cup and its accessories before starting
the test, to ensure the removal of any solvent which had been used to clean the
apparatus.

7. Use suitable solvent capable of removing all of the specimen from the test cup
and drying the test cup and cover. Some commonly used solvents are toluene and
acetone .

1.4 Test Procedure

Open Cup

1. Ensure that the sample container is filled to the volume capacity requirement (75ml)

2. From that, pour 60ml of sample fluid/oil into the oil cup up to the index mark .
Fill the test cup with the test specimen to the filling mark inside of the test cup

3. If too much test specimen has been added to the test cup, remove the excess using
a syringe or similar device for withdrawal of fluid

4. Place the test cover on the test cup and place the assembly into the apparatus. Be
sure the locating or locking device is properly engaged

5. Place the temperature measuring device into its holder. Esure that the thermometer
is not touching the bottom of the test cup

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6. Apply the heat to the test cup at such a rate that the temperature, as indicated by
the temperature measuring device, increases 5 to 6°C /min

7. Turn the stirring device at 90 to 120 rpm, stirring in a downward direction

8. After some time, a test flame (burning stick) is introduced into the cup near the
surface of the oil to check whether the oil will catch give a flash or catch fire

9. Pass the test flame across the center of the test cup at right angles to the diameter
. At the time of the next test flame application, pass the test flame in the opposite
direction of the preceding application. The time consumed in passing the test flame
across the test cup in each case shall be approximately 1s.

10. Record as the observed flash point, the reading on the temperature measuring device
at the time ignition source application causes a distinct flash in the interior of the
test cup. The sample is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the entire surface of the test specimen

11. The procedure is continued and Fire point is noted as the minimum temperature
at which the test flame ignites the oil and continues to burn for at least 5 seconds

12. The test may be conducted by heating as well as cooling the oil and the flash and
fire points are noted for both processes

Closed Cup For obtaining the flash and fire point using a closed cup testing method,
a procedure similar to the one mentioned above, is followed. The main difference is that,

1. the lid of the cup is closed during heating of oil and the test flame is introduced
through the opening in the cover of the cup.

2. the stirring device is turned at approximately twice the speed it was turned for the
open cup test precedure

3. heat application should also be at a considerably slower rate than the temperature
as increases only 1 − 1.6°/min.

Since exposure to air in this apparatus is less, both flash and fire points will be higher
than those obtained in open cup test.

1.5 Calculation
Observe and record the ambient barometric pressure at the time of the test. When the
pressure differs from 101.3 kPa (760 mm Hg), correct the flash point as follows:

ˆ Corrected f lash point = C + 0.033(760–P )

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ˆ Corrected f lash point = C + 0.250(101.3–K)

ˆ Corrected f lash point = F + 0.06(760–P )

where, C = observed f lash point, °C,

F = observed f lash point, °F,
P = ambient barometric pressure, mm Hg, and
K = ambient barometric pressure, kP a.

1.6 Tabulation

Temperature °C Flash / No Flash Fire / No Fire

Table 1.6.1: Flash & Fire Point - Table of Observations

References
1. ASTM Standard D 93-02A: Standard Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-
Martens Closed Cup Tester

2. ASTM Standard D 92-05: Standard Test Method for Flash and Fire Points by
Cleveland Open Cup Tester

3. Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual (Internal Copy), Dr. V.Krishna

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Experiment 2

Redwood Viscometer

2.1 Aim
Determination of viscosity of the given lubricating oil at different temperatures using
Redwood Viscometer.

2.2 Introduction
Viscosity is a fundamental characteristic property of all liquids. When a liquid flows, it
has an internal resistance to flow. Viscosity is a measure of this resistance to flow or
shear. Viscosity can also be termed as a drag force and is a measure of the frictional
properties of the fluid. Viscosity is a function of temperature and pressure. Although the
viscosities of both liquids and gases change with temperature and pressure, they affect
the viscosity in a different manner.

Figure 2.2.1: Simple shear of a liquid film

Viscosity can be defined as the resistance offered to the flow of one fluid layer over
another adjacent fluid layer. Viscosity is thus a very important fluid property. In this lab,

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we will deal primarily with viscosity of liquids and its change as a function of temperature.
The study of viscosity is known as rheology .
Viscosity is expressed in two distinct forms:

1. Absolute or dynamic viscosity

2. Kinematic viscosity

There are several different viscosity coefficients depending on the nature of applied stress
and nature of the fluid.

ˆ Dynamic viscosity (or absolute viscosity ) determines the dynamics of an in-

compressible Newtonian fluid

ˆ Kinematic viscosity is the dynamic viscosity divided by the density for a New-
tonian fluid

ˆ Volume viscosity (or bulk viscosity ) determines the dynamics of a compressible

Newtonian fluid

ˆ Shear viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is a shear stress
(valid for non-Newtonian fluids)

ˆ Extensional viscosity is the viscosity coefficient when the applied stress is an

extensional stress (valid for non-Newtonian fluids)

Dynamic viscosity is the tangential force per unit area required to slide one layer (A)
against another layer (B) as shown in Figure 4.2.1 when the two layers are maintained
at a unit distance. In Figure 4.2.1, force F causes layers A and B to slide at velocities
v1 and v2 , respectively. Since the viscosity of a fluid is defined as the measure of how
resistive the fluid is to flow, in mathematical form, it can be described as:

Shear stress = µ (Strain or shear rate) (2.2.1)

where µ is the dynamic viscosity or the absolute viscosity

If σ is shear stress and ė is strain rate, then the expression becomes:

σ = µė (2.2.2)

The strain rate is generally expressed as

1 dx v
ė = = (2.2.3)
x dt x
where x is the length, t is the time, and dx/dt is the velocity v. Therefore, the dynamic
viscosity can be written as

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x
µ=σ× (2.2.4)
v
Kinematic viscosity requires knowledge of density of the liquid (ρ) at that tem-
perature and pressure and is defined as

µ
ν= (2.2.5)
ρ

2.2.1 Viscosity Units and Conversion

Common units for viscosity are poise (P), Stokes (St), Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU)
and degree Engler.

Centipoise (cP)

This is the most convenient unit to report absolute viscosity of liquids. It is 1/100 of a
Poise. The viscosity unit Poiseuille, in short Poise was named after French physician,
Jean Louis Poiseuille (1799 - 1869)). In the SI System (Système International d’Unités)
the dynamic viscosity units are N · s/m2 , P a · s or kg/m · s where N is Newton and P a
is Pascal, and,

N −s kg
1 P a·s = 1 2
=1
m m−s
The dynamic viscosity is often expressed in the metric system of units called CGS
g
(centimeter-gram-second) system as cm−s , dyne−s
cm2
or poise (P) where,

dyne − s g 1
1 poise = 2
= = Pa · s
cm cm − s 10

Stokes (St)

For the SI system, kinematic viscosity is reported using Stokes (St) or Saybolt Second
2
Universal (SSU) units. The kinematic viscosity is expressed as ms or Stokes (St),
2
where 1St = 10−4 ms . Stokes is a large unit, and it is usually divided by 100 to give the
unit called Centistokes (cSt).

1 St = 100 cSt.

m2
1 cSt = 10−6
s
The specific gravity of water at STP (68.4°F ) is one, and therefore the kinematic
viscosity of water at STP is 1.0 cSt.

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Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)

Saybolt Universal Seconds is defined as the efflux time in Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS)
required for 60 milliliters of a petroleum product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a
Saybolt Universal viscometer, under a fixed temperature, as prescribed by test ASTM test
method. This is also called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number
(Saybolt Seconds Furol).

2.2.2 Fluid flow and Viscosity

Liquid viscosities are needed by process engineers for quality control, while design en-
gineers need the property for fixing the optimum conditions for the chemical processes
and operations as well as for the determination of the important dimensionless groups
like the Reynoldsnumber and Prandtl number. Liquid viscosity is also important in the
calculation of the power requirements for the unit operations such as mixing, pipeline
design, pump characteristics, atomization (liquid droplets), storage, injection, and trans-
portation. The flow characteristics of liquids are mainly dependent on the viscosity and
are broadly divided into three categories:

1. Newtonian Time independent

2. Non-Newtonian, and

3. Time dependent Non-Newtonian.

When the viscosity of a liquid remains constant and is independent of the applied shear
stress, such a liquid is termed a Newtonian liquid. In the case of the non-Newtonian
liquids, viscosity depends on the applied shear force and time. For time independent
non-Newtonian fluid, when the shear rate is varied, the shear stress does not vary pro-
portionally and is shown in Figure 2.2.2 The most common types of time independent
non-Newtonian liquids include psuedoplastic (This type of fluid displays a decreasing vis-
cosity with an increasing shear rate and sometimes called shear-thinning), dilatant (This
type of fluid display increasing viscosity with an increase in shear rate and is also called
shear-thickening), and Bingham plastic (A certain amount of force must be applied to the
fluid before any flow is induced). Bingham plastic is somewhat idealized representation
of many real materials, for which the rate of shear is zero if the shearing stress is less
than or equal to a yield stress eo . Otherwise, it is directly proportional to the shearing
stress in excess of the yield stress.

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Figure 2.2.2: Various types of fluids based on viscosity

Time dependent non-Newtonian fluids display a change in viscosity with time under
conditions of constant shear rate. One type of fluid called Thixotropic undergoes a de-
crease in viscosity with time as shown in Figure 2.2.3a. The other type of time dependent
non Newtonian fluid is called Rheopectic. The viscosity of rheopexic fluids increases with
the time as it is sheared at a constant rate (See Figure 2.2.3b).

Figure 2.2.3: Change in Viscosity of time-dependent non-Newtonian fluids

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

These as well as several other considerations, including attempts to understand inter-

actions among different molecules, have resulted in a very large number of experimental,
theoretical and analytical investigations in the areas related to viscosity.
The reason for the resistance offered to flow is the cohesive forces between the molecules
of the fluid. In a liquid an increase in temperature leads to a decrease in the cohesive
forces leading to reduction in viscosity. In gases however the viscosity is due to the inter-
molecular collisions. As such an increase in the temperature of a gas leads to an increase
in its viscosity. The flowability of an oil is directly related to its viscosity. The more
viscous an oil the more time it will take to flow. This principle is used in the Redwood
viscometer in which the time taken for a specific quantity of oil (50cc) to flow out of an
orifice is used to arrive at its viscosity.
Most oils on the shelves today are ”Multigrades”, which simply means that the oil falls
into 2 viscosity grades (i.e. 10W 40 etc) Multigrades were first developed some 50 years
ago to avoid the old routine of using a thinner oil in winter and a thicker oil in summer.
In a 10W 40 for example, the 10W bit (W = winter, not weight or watt or anything else
for that matter) simply means that the oil must have a certain maximum viscosity/flow
at low temperature. The lower the ”W” number the better the oil’s cold temperature/cold
start performance. The 40 in a 10W-40 simply means that the oil must fall within certain
viscosity limits at 100°C. This is a fixed limit and all oils that end in 40 must achieve
these limits. Once again the lower the number, the thinner the oil: a 30 oil is thinner
than a 40 oil at 100°C etc. The oil used fo this experiment is SAE 20W-40.

2.2.3 Viscometers
Accurate knowledge of viscosity is necessary for various industrial processes. Various
theories that are developed for prediction or estimation of viscosity must be verified
using experimental data. Instruments used to measure the viscosity of liquids can be
broadly classified into seven categories:

ˆ Capillary viscometers

ˆ Orifice viscometers

ˆ High temperature high shear rate viscometers

ˆ Rotational viscometers

ˆ Falling ball viscometers

ˆ Vibrational viscometers

ˆ Ultrasonic viscometers

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

2.2.3.1 Orifice Viscometers

Orifice viscometers are mainly adopted by the oil industry due to their simplicity and
easy operation. They are also known as efflux type viscometers. Orifice viscometers
essentially consist of a reservoir, an orifice and a receiver. The orifice length does not
exceed 10 times the diameter of the orifice. Although the original design concept of these
viscometers was based on the Hagen-Poiseuille Law which states that the efflux of a fixed
volume of liquid through a capillary is proportional to the viscosity of the fluid, the actual
design of the instrument failed to meet the requirement of the Hagen-Poiseuille Law.
The friction loss at the orifice entrance was found to be a function of cross sectional
area ratio of cup to orifice, velocity of fluid, and the shape of the orifice entrance. Also
the varying hydrostatic head during an experimental run needs to be considered when
calculating the viscosity. Because of these reasons, the efflux time no longer remains
proportional to the viscosity. Time is measured for the flow of a fixed volume of sample
through an orifice and efflux time is taken as an arbitrary measure of viscosity. Conver-
sion formulas or tables must be used for comparing results which are generally not very
accurate. Absolute measurements cannot be carried out using this type of equipment and
also the viscosity of non-Newtonian fluid cannot be determined. Most common orifice
viscometers used by oil industry are listed below.

ˆ Redwood viscometer

ˆ Saybolt viscometer

ˆ Engler viscometer

ˆ Ford viscosity cup viscometer

ˆ Shell viscosity cup viscometer

ˆ Zahn cup viscometer

The Redwood viscometer may be considered as the first orifice meter designed and de-
scribed by Sir Boverton Redwoo, in his address before the Society of the Chemical In-
dustry in 1886. The Redwood viscometer was primarily developed for the determination
of the viscosity of petroleum products which follow Newton’s law exhibiting a linear rela-
tionship between shearing stress and the rate of shear under the test conditions. Redwood
viscometer measures the viscosity of oil as a time of flow in seconds. The apparatus is
illustrated in Figure 2.2.4. The important components of the viscometer are–oil cup, jet,
heating bath, stirrer, valve, thermometer support, oil cup cover and screen

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Figure 2.2.4: Redwood viscometer - Lab Model

Figure 2.2.5: Redwood viscometer - Diagram

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

TThe Institute of Petroleum recommended its use for oils for which the flow times,
for 50cm3 of oil, lies in-between 2000s and 30s under specified test conditions. The
viscometer essentially consists of a flow cup and thermo-control system.

2.3 Description of Test Rig

As shown in Figure 3.3.1, Redwood viscometer consists of a standard cylindrical cup with
a gauge wire to operate a plug or ball valve.

Cup The flow cup A is heavily silver plated to avoid corrosion and has an agate jet
J (capillary) of specified dimensions. The jet is accurately bored and polished to the
prescribed dimensions: The pointer B in the cup indicates the level to which the oil
under-test is to be filled. The valve V with a rod sits snugly on the opening of the jet J.
This is used to start and stop of the oil flow.

Thermo-Control Bath The cup is placed in a water bath C, which has the stirrer H
having 4 vanes. It is used to stir water so that a uniform temperature is obtained. The
side tube E is inlet for hot water and D with a tap is the outlet. Thermometers T and
T1 measure the temperature of the bath and the oil in the cup.
An agate jet of a standard dimension provided by the manufacturer is facilitated for
smooth an uninterrupted flow of oil throw the orifice. The plug or ball valve fits over the
upper concave depression of the agate jet. The upward or downward movement of the
plug regulates the flow of oil from the cup. The oil cup is immersed in a water bath and
water bath is heated using an electric heater and stirrer.

2.3.1 Working
The cup before use, is washed with a suitable solvent like Benzene, petroleum spirit etc.
and cleaned with some soft material such as tissue paper. Care is taken for cleaning
the jet J, No fibrous material or any other thing should be left within the jet J. The oil
under-test is heated separately within a few degrees of the test temperature. The oil is
poured in the cup. The bath temperature is adjusted so that oil reaches the temperature
of test uniformly through out its bulk. The level of the oil is adjusted to R, by moving
the valve V vertically. The efflux time of the oil is then measured with a precision of
0.2s by raising the valve V to fill a calibrated flask up to 50ml mark. The efflux time
should be measured at the specified temperature. The specified temperature is attained
by very slow heating or cooling the water bath. So that desired temperature reaches
during midway of the measured efflux time. One measurement of efflux time is taken
while the temperature is rising and second observation is taken while the temperature is
falling. In each case rate of rise or fall of the temperature must be same and should be

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

such that specified temperature is reached midway of the efflux time. The mean of the
two efflux time is taken and the viscosity of the oil is reported in “Redwood seconds”.
The more viscous oils sometimes show hysteresis and to eliminate its effect the oil is first
heated to a specified temperature and is allowed to cool for 24h before carrying out the
viscosity test.

2.3.2 Conversion of Redwood Seconds into Absolute Units of

Viscosity
Conversion of redwood second TR into absolute units of measurements is basically carried
out with Poiseuille’s formula with kinetic energy term.

B
ν = A × TR − (2.3.1)
Tr
2
Here ν is the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt) or in mm
s
Efflux time TR is substituted by Redwood seconds. The values A and B for Redwood
viscometer, calibrated are

For TR between 40 to 85 s A = 0.264 and B = 190

For TR between 85 to 2000 s A = 0.247 and B = 65

2.4 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Description of oil under test: SAE1040

ˆ Quantity of oil taken: 50cc

ˆ Room temperature at which test is conducted: T °C

ˆ Weight of empty measuring jar, = xg

ˆ Weight of measuring jar + 50cc oil, = yg

ˆ Weight of 50 cc oil at room temperature : (x–y)g

ˆ Mass density of oil at room temperature (ρ)

(x − y) kg
ρ= × 1000 3 (2.4.1)
50 m
ˆ Specific gravity of oil at room temperature, SG = ( ρwater
ρ
)

ˆ Specific gravity of oil at an temperature is given by:

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

SGT = S15 –0.0006 × (T –15) (2.4.2)

∴ SG15 = SGT + 0.0006 × (T –15) (2.4.3)

ˆ From equation (4.3.1), Kinematic viscosity

190 65
(ν) = [0.264 × Tr ] − OR (ν) = [0.247 × Tr ] − ,
Tr Tr

(where Tr is the efflux time in Redwood seconds)

ˆ Absolute viscosity , = ν×Mass density of oil at corresponding temp (T) in poise

ˆ Redwood Number,
100 × TR × SGT
R= (2.4.4)
535 × 0.915
Where, SGT = specific gravity of the oil at temperature T

ˆ Similarly, µ , ν and Redwood number of the given oil is calculated at different

temperatures.

2.5 Test Procedure

1. The apparatus is cleaned and water jacket is filled with water.

2. The orifice is plugged by an iron ball which acts like a valve

3. The oil cup is filled with 50cc of given lubricating oil after taking its initial weight
at room temperature.

4. The two thermometers used for measuring the water and oil temperatures are in-
troduced to the respective slots in the apparatus.

5. At room temperature, the ball valve is opened and oil is allowed to flow through
the orifice and the time taken to collect the 50cc oil is noted

6. The specific gravity of the oil at room temperature is calculated

7. Now the apparatus is electrically heated and at a particular temperature, the ball
valve is opened and oil is allowed to flow through the standard orifice

8. The time taken for flow of 50cc oil is noted and the specific gravity of oil at that
temperature is calculated.

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Time taken
to run down Specific
ν µ
Temperature 50cc of oil , gravity of oil, R
(stokes) (poise)
TR SG
(s)

Table 2.6.2: Redwood Viscometer - Table of Results

9. Atleast three or more varied sets of testing are to be conducted. The readings so
obtained are tabulated.

2.6 Tabulation

Time for 50cc

Weight of Jar Weight of (Oil + Jar)
Temperature rundown, Tr
(g) (g)
(s)

Table 2.6.1: Redwood Viscometer - Table of Observations

2.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ µ versus T

ˆ ν versus T

References
1. Viscometry for Liquids: Calibration of Viscometers - Springer Series in Materials
Science 194, Gupta, S. V; 2014, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland
2014

2. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Experiment 3

Saybolt’s Viscometer

3.1 Aim °C
Determination of viscosity of the given lubricating oil at different temperatures using
Saybolt’s Viscometer.

3.2 Introduction
The flowability of an oil is directly related
to its viscosity. The more viscous an oil the
more time it will take to flow. This prin-
ciple is used in the Saybolt’s viscometer in
which the time taken for a specific quantity
of oil (60 cc) to flow out of an orifice is used
to arrive at its viscosity. Saybolt Viscome-
ter is the American equivalent of British
Redwood Viscometer. ASTM (American
Society of Testing Materials) specified that
Saybolt Viscometer should be used for lu-
bricating oils and the efflux time for such
oils should not be less than 32 s.
Saybolt viscometer is available in two
types:

1. Saybolt universal viscometer and

Figure 3.2.1: Saybolt viscometer - Lab
2. Saybolt–Furol viscometer. Model
In this lab, we would be conducting the
tests on a Saybolt universal viscometer.

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3.2.1 Significance and Use

This test method is useful in characterizing certain petroleum products, as one element
in establishing uniformity of shipments and sources of supply. The Saybolt Furol vis-
cosity is approximately one tenth the Saybolt Universal viscosity, and is recommended
for characterization of petroleum products such as fuel oils and other residual materials
having Saybolt Universal viscosities greater than 1000s.

Figure 3.2.2: Saybolt Viscometer - Diagram

3.2.2 Saybolt Universal Viscosity

It is the corrected efflux time in seconds of 60 mL of sample flowing through a calibrated
Universal orifice under specified conditions. The viscosity value is reported in Saybolt
Universal seconds, abbreviated SUS, at a specified temperature.
The viscosity of lubricating oils is generally measured by means of a Saybolt universal
viscometer while the viscosity of fuel oils is often measured by means of a Saybolt–Furol
viscometer. Standard test methods using Saybolt viscometer is described in ASTM D88-
94 standard. Saybolt universal viscometer should not be used for the liquids whose
outflow time is less than 32 s. The apparatus is shown in Figure 3.2.2. It consists of an
oil tube fitted at the top with an over flow cup, the tube is surrounded by a bath.
The outflow capillary tube is fitted to the bottom of the oil tube and is made of
stainless steel or of hard and corrosion resistant materials. The receiving flask is marked
to hold 60 mL ( ±0.15 mL) at 20°C . The lower end of the outflow tube is enclosed by a
larger tube, sealed by means of a cork, which acts as a closed air chamber and prevents
the flow of oil until the cork is removed. The use of a looped string to withdraw this cork

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is recommended. Two thermometers are installed to measure the temperature of the oil
as well of the bath. The bath is heated to the required temperature using a electrical
heater.
Oil used in this instrument should first be strained through a 100-mesh sieve and
the excess oil over flow at the top should be removed by means of a suitable pipette.
The outflow time is recorded by making use of a stop-watch. The results are normally
expressed as Saybolt universal seconds.

3.2.3 Precautions to be taken before conducting the test

1. The level of the bath liquid must be above the over flow rim of the oil tube and any
oil used for test or cleaning should be strained before its use.

2. The oil is heated to the required temperature and some of it poured through the
clean tube.

3. The cork is inserted tightly enough to prevent air leakage but not to reach the
outflow tube.

4. The oil under test is heated outside the viscometer to a temperature about 1.5 °C
above the temperature of the test and is poured into the oil tube until it ceases to
over flow into the over flow cup.

5. Stirring of the oil in the container and also of the bath should be constant during
the entire time of the test.

6. Adequate stirring and control should be provided for the bath so that the temper-
ature of a test sample in the viscometer will not vary more than ± 0.03°C.

7. After the bath and the oil in the container have reached the required temperature,
the oil tube thermometer is withdrawn, the excess oil in the over flow cup is pipetted
out, so that the level of the oil in the over flow cup is below the level of the oil in
the tube.

8. The cork is then dexterously withdrawn and the time of flow of 60 mL of the oil is
recorded.

9. The liquid in the surrounding bath is kept under constant stirring during the entire
test.

3.3 Description of Test Rig

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

This test method covers the empirical

procedures for determining the Saybolt
Universal or Saybolt Furol viscosities of
petroleum products at specified tempera-
tures between 21 and 99°C
The construction of the viscometer is
almost similar to that of Redwood vis-
cometer. A narrower cup and bath extend-
ing well below the bottom of the outlet
tube O are used so that better tempera-
ture uniformity of the oil under test is ob-
tained. The viscometer is entirely made
of a hard and corrosive resistant material,
such as Stainless steel or Monel metal. The
cup is shown in Figure 3.2.2. In this case
the oil-level of the under-test oil is fixed by
allowing the liquid to overflow. The over
flown liquid is collected into the special rim
B. The water bath extends up to the level
Figure 3.3.1: Saybolt viscometer cup
KK and level of water LL is kept slightly
above the top of the cup. A cork C fitting
into a recess below the outlet tube O is used to start the flow. The oil is collected in a
calibrated flask of 60 cm3 . The dimensions of the outlet tube O are:

3.3.1 Working
Saybolt Viscometer and Bath, as shown in Figure 3.2.2 and described below

Viscometer The viscometer, illustrated in Figure. 3.2.2, shall be constructed entirely

of corrosion-resistant metal, conforming to dimensional requirements shown in Figure.
5.3.1. The orifice tip, Universal or Furol, may be constructed as a replaceable unit in the
viscometer. Provide a nut at the lower end of the viscometer for fastening it in the bath.
Mount vertically in the bath and test the alignment with a spirit level on the plane of the
gallery rim. Provide a cork or other suitable means to prevent the flow of sample until
the start of the test; a small chain or cord may be attached to the cork to facilitate rapid
removal.

Bath The bath serves both as a support to hold the viscometer in a vertical position
as well as the container for the bath medium. Equip the bath with effective insulation
and with an efficient stirring device. Provide the bath with a coil for heating and cooling
and with thermostatically controlled heaters capable of maintaining the bath within the

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

functional precision as per ASTM standards. The heaters and coil should be located at
least 30mm from the viscometer. Provide a means for maintaining the bath medium at
least 6 mm above the overflow rim. The standards also permite the use of certain oils of
known SUS viscosity at 38.8°C.

Withdrawal Tube Technically, according to testing standards a Withdrawal Tube is

to be used to remove extra oil from the viscometer or that which has overflowed over the
rim.

Thermometer & Support Saybolt Viscosity thermometers and Bath Thermometers

or any other temperature-indicating means of equivalent accuracy are to be available.
Each thermometer shall conform to the ASTM standards requirements. For both ther-
mometers, a support for the viscometer thermometer as well as that for the water bath
are to be provided.

Filter Funnel A filter funnel equipped with interchangeable 150µm (No. 100) and
75µm (No. 200) wire-cloth inserts meeting the standards, with respect to the wire cloth.

Receiving Flask A receiving or collecting flask, needs to be provided to collect the

efflux oil.

Timer A timer graduated in tenths of a second, and accurate to within 0.1% when
tested over a 60-min interval. Electric timers are acceptable if operated on a controlled
frequency circuit.

3.3.2 Conversion of Saybolt Seconds in Absolute Units of Vis-

cosity
In this case also, the formula for conversion is similar to that used for Redwood seconds
in previous experiment. Three sets of constants are given depending up on the efflux
time. The equation used is

B
ν = A × TSU − (3.3.1)
TSU
2
Here ν is the kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cSt) or in mm
s
and TSU represent the
Saybolt seconds
Efflux time TSU is substituted by Saybolt seconds. The values A and B for Saybolt
viscometer, calibrated are
For TSU less than 100 s A = 0.226 and B = 195
For TSU more than 100 s A = 0.220 and B = 130
For TSU more than 200 s A = 0.220 and B = 0.0

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3.4 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Description of oil under test: SAE1040

ˆ Quantity of oil taken: 60cc

ˆ Room temperature at which test is conducted: T °C

ˆ Weight of empty measuring jar, = xg

ˆ Weight of measuring jar + 60cc oil, = yg

ˆ Weight of 50 cc oil at room temperature : (x–y)g

ˆ Mass density of oil at room temperature (ρ)

(x − y) kg
ρ= × 1000 3 (3.4.1)
60 m
ˆ Specific gravity of oil at room temperature, SG = ( ρwater
ρ
)

ˆ Specific gravity of oil at an temperature is given by:

SGT = SG15 –0.0006 × (T –15) (3.4.2)

∴ SG15 = SGT + 0.0006 × (T –15) (3.4.3)

ˆ From equation (4.3.1), Kinematic viscosity

195
(ν) = [0.226 × TSU ] −
TSU

Or
130
(ν) = [0.220 × TSU ] −
TSU

Or
0.0
(ν) = [0.220 × TSU ] −
TSU

(where TSU is the efflux time in Saybolt seconds)

ˆ Absolute viscosity , = ν×Mass density of oil at corresponding temp (T) in poise

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3.5 Test Procedure

1. Clean the viscometer thoroughly with an appropriate solvent of low toxicity; then
remove all solvent from the viscometer and its gallery. Clean the receiving flask in
the same manner.

2. Establish and control the bath temperature at the selected test temperature

3. Standard test temperatures for measuring Saybolt Universal viscosities are 21.1,
37.8, 54.4, and 98.9°C

4. Insert a cork stopper, having a cord attached for its easy removal, into the air
chamber at the bottom of the viscometer. The cork shall fit tightly enough to
prevent the escape of air, as evidenced by the absence of oil on the cork when it is
withdrawn later as described.

5. If the selected test temperature is above room temperature, the test may be ex-
pedited by preheating the sample in its original container to not more than 1.7°C
above the test temperature. Never preheat any sample to within 28°C of its flash
point because volatility losses might alter its composition.

6. Stir the sample well; then strain it through the 150µm (No. 100) wire cloth in the
filter funnel directly into the viscometer until the level is above the overflow rim.

7. The viscosities of steam-refined cylinder oils, black lubricating oils, residual fuel
oils, and similar waxy products can be affected by their thermal histories. Use
the following preheating procedure with such products to obtain uniform results at
temperatures below 93°C

(a) Heat the sample in its original container to about 50°C , with stirring and
shaking to dissolve and blend waxy materials. Probe the bottom of the con-
tainer with a stirring rod to be certain that all waxy materials are in solution,
and mix well.
(b) Pour about 100 mL into a 125-mL flask. Stopper loosely with a cork or rubber
stopper.
(c) Immerse the flask in a bath of boiling water for 30 min.
(d) Mix well, remove the sample from the boiling water bath, wipe the outside of
the flask dry
(e) Strain the sample through the 75µm (No. 200) wire cloth in the filter funnel
directly into the viscometer until the level is above the overflow rim.

8. The time taken for flow of 50cc oil is noted and the specific gravity of oil at that
temperature is calculated.

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

9. Atleast three or more varied sets of testing are to be conducted. The readings so
obtained are tabulated.

3.6 Tabulation

Time for 50cc

Weight of Jar Weight of (Oil + Jar)
Temperature rundown, Tr
(g) (g)
°C (s)

Table 3.6.1: Saybolts Viscometer - Table of Observations

Time taken
to run down Specific
ν µ
Temperature 50cc of oil , gravity of oil, R
(stokes) (poise)
°C TR SG
(s)

Table 3.6.2: Saybolts Viscometer - Table of Results

3.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ µ versus T

ˆ ν versus T

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

References
1. Viscometry for Liquids: Calibration of Viscometers - Springer Series in Materials
Science 194; Gupta, S. V; 2014, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland

2. Viscosity of Liquids Theory, Estimation, Experiment, and Data; Vishwanath et al.;

2007; Springer, Dordrecht, Netherlands

3. ASTM Standard D 88-94: Standard Test Method for Saybolt Viscosity (D 88–94)

4. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

AJ Nayar 43 Dept. of ME, PES University

 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Experiment 4

Bomb Calorimeter

4.1 Aim
Measurement of the energy equivalent of the bomb calorimeter . Measurement of the
energy of combustion and the calculation of the enthalpies of combustion and formation
of an unknown. (All unknowns contain C, and H, and possibly O, but no other elements.)

4.2 Introduction
4.2.1 Scope
This test method covers the determination of the heat of combustion of hydrocarbon
fuels. It can be used for a wide range of volatile and nonvolatile materials where slightly
greater differences in precision can be tolerated. In order to attain this precision, strict
adherence to all details of the procedure is essential since the error contributed by each
individual measurement that affects the precision shall be kept below 0.04 %, insofar as
possible. Under normal conditions, the method is directly applicable to such fuels as
gasolines, kerosines, fuel oil, diesel fuel and various gas turbine fuels.

4.2.2 Definition of Calorimetry

Calorimetry means the measurement of heat. Nevertheless, for a definition of calorimetry,
you may say it is the amount of energy released after burning 1kg of fuel.
In the past, the term heat was associated with various concepts. Nowadays one no
longer speaks of different energies (e.g., heat energy, electrical energy, and kinetic energy)
coexisting in a substance or system independent of one another. According to the modern
view, there is only one single energy (the internal energy) stored in a body, which – only
during an exchange – appears in a variety of energy forms such as heat energy, electrical
energy, or kinetic energy. Accordingly, the form of energy known as heat can only be
conceived as coupled with a change of energy.

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Heat is always associated with a heat flow. In other words, heat is the amount of
energy exchanged within a given time interval in the form of a heat flow. Calorimeters
are the instruments used for measuring this heat.

4.2.3 Terminology
4.2.3.1 Gross heat of combustion

The gross heat of combustion at constant volume of a liquid or solid fuel containing only
the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur is the quantity of heat liber-
ated when a unit mass of the fuel is burned in oxygen in an enclosure of constant volume,
the products of combustion being gaseous carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, and
liquid water, with the initial temperature of the fuel and the oxygen and the final tem-
perature of the products at 25◦ C. Gross heat of combustion is represented by the symbol
Qg and expressed as megajoules per kilogram. (M J/kg)1

4.2.3.2 Net heat of combustion

The net heat of combustion at constant pressure of a liquid or a solid fuel containing
only the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur is the quantity of heat
liberated when a unit mass of the fuel is burned in oxygen at a constant pressure of
0.101 MPa (1 atm), the products of combustion being carbon dioxide, nitrogen, sulfur
dioxide, and water, all in the gaseous state, with the initial temperature of the fuel and the
oxygen and the final temperature of the products of combustion at 25◦ C. The net heat of
combustion is represented by the symbol Qn and is related to the gross heat of combustion
by the following equation and expressed as megajoules per kilogram. (M J/kg)

Qn (at 25°C) = Qg (at 25°C) − 0.2122 × H (4.2.1)

where,
Qn (at 25°C) =net heat of combustion at constant pressure, MJ/kg,
Qg (at 25°C) =gross heat of combustion at constant volume, MJ/kg, and
H =mass % of hydrogen in the sample.

4.2.3.3 Energy/ Water Equivalent

In a reaction where a quantity of heat that raises the temperature of some substance
by some amount, the same quantity of heat can simultaneously raise the temperature of
1
Users of this test method desiring to calculate D H° for a pure compound should note that corrections
must be applied to the value of Qg for buoyancy of air, heat capacities of reaction components, reduction
to a constant-pressure process, and deviations of the reaction from the thermodynamic standard state.
In any comparison of measurements on pure compounds, the user of this test method should realize that
impurities of various kinds, including water and foreign hydrocarbons may cause significant effects on
the values obtained for particular samples of material.

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

a certain mass of water by the same amount. The mass of water is then termed as
water equivalent or water value. The term heat capacity or energy equivalent will be used
here in the sense of an instrument-associated or calibration factor. The heat capacity
reflects the sensitivity of the calorimeter because it indicates the heat necessary to obtain
a given temperature change. A large water value consequently means low sensitivity, and
vice versa. The energy equivalent (effective heat capacity or water equivalent) of the
calorimeter is expressed as joules per degree Celsius, °JC . 2

4.2.3.4 Conversion Factors

The following relationships may be used for converting to other units:

1 cal = 4.1868 JA
1 Btu = 1055.06 JA
1cal/g = 0.0041868 MJ/kgA
1 Btu/ lb = 0.002326 MJ/kgA

4.2.3.5 Significance and Use

The heat of combustion is a measure of the energy available from a fuel. The mass heat
of combustion, that is, the heat of combustion per unit mass of fuel, is measured by this
procedure. A knowledge of this value is essential when considering the thermal efficiency
of equipment for producing either power or heat. Its magnitude is particularly important
to weight-limited vehicles such as airplanes, surface effect vehicles, and hydrofoils as the
distance such craft can travel on a given weight of fuel is a direct function of the fuel’s
mass heat of combustion and its density.
The volumetric heat of combustion, that is, the heat of combustion per unit volume
of fuel, can be calculated by multiplying the mass heat of combustion by the density of
the fuel (mass per unit volume). The volumetric heat of combustion, rather than the
mass heat of combustion, is important to volume-limited craft such as automobiles and
ships, as it is directly related to the distance traveled between refuelings.

4.2.4 Summary of the Test Method

The heat of combustion is determined by burning a weighed sample in an oxygen-bomb
calorimeter under controlled conditions. The temperature increase is measured by a ther-
mometer of accuracy as per the standards. The heat of combustion is calculated from
temperature observations before, during, and after combustion, with proper allowance for
2
The energy equivalent may be expressed in any energy unit and any temperature unit so long as the
value is used consistently throughout the calculations.

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thermochemical and heat-transfer corrections. Either isoperibol3 or adiabatic calorime-

ters4 may be used.

4.3 Precautions
Combustion with oxygen in a sealed bomb is a very effective and reliable method for
releasing all heat energy obtainable from a sample and for preparing hydrocarbon com-
pounds and carbonaceous materials for analysis, but there are certain precautions which
must always be observed when using this equipment. In particular,

ˆ Do not overcharge the bomb with too much sample or with a sample which might
react with explosive violence

ˆ Do not overcharge the bomb with too much oxygen. The initial charging pressure
should not exceed 30 atm (440.87 psig)

ˆ Do not fire the bomb alone on an open bench without providing a protective cooling
medium. The bomb should be completely submerged in water during firing

ˆ Do not fire the bomb if gas bubbles are released from any point on the bomb when
it is submerged in water.

ˆ Do not ignite a volatile sample without using one of the sealed sample holders

ˆ Stand away from the bomb during and do not handle the bomb for at least 6 minutes
after firing

ˆ Keep the bomb in good condition at all times. Any parts that show signs of weakness
or deterioration must be replaced promptly

4.4 Description of Test Rig

The Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter consists of three essential parts, namely:

1. The ”Bomb” or vessel in which combustion takes place.

2. The ”Bucket” or container holding a measured quantity of water in which the bomb,
thermocouple and stirring device are immersed.

3. The ”Jacket” for protecting the bucket from the effects of variation in room tem-
perature, draft, etc.
3
the temperature of the surroundings is kept constant while the temperature variation of the specimen
is measured.
4
the temperature of the surroundings is permanently matched to that of the specimen in order to
minimise exchange of heat between them.

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Figure 4.3.1: Bomb Calorimeter (Couretsy: PARR INSTRUMENT COMPANY )

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Figure 4.4.1: Combustion Bomb

4.4.1 Bomb
Constructed of materials that are not affected by the combustion process or the products
formed to introduce measurable heat input or alteration of end products. The bomb
shall be designed so that all liquid combustion products can be completely recovered by
washing the inner surfaces. There shall be no gas leakage. The bomb shall be capable
of withstanding a hydrostatic pressure test to 20 MPa (3000 psig) at room temperature
without stressing any part beyond its specified elastic limit.

4.4.2 Calorimeter Bucket

Made of metal with a tarnish-resistant coating, with all outer surfaces highly polished, its
size shall be such that the bomb is completely immersed in water during a determination.
A stirrer shall be provided for uniform mixing of the water. The immersed portion of the
stirrer shall be accessible to the outside through a coupler of low thermal conductivity.
The stirrer speed shall remain constant to minimize any temperature variations due to
stirring. Continuous stirring for 10 min shall not raise the calorimeter temperature more
than 0.01◦ C when starting with identical temperatures in the calorimeter, test area and
jacket. For calorimeters having a bucket it can be a separate component or integral
component of the bomb. The vessel shall be of such construction that the environment
of the calorimeter’s entire outer boundaries can be maintained at a uniform temperature.

4.4.3 Jacket
A container with the inner perimeter maintained at constant temperature 60.1◦ C (isoperi-
bol) or at the same temperature 60.1◦ C as the calorimeter vessel (adiabatic) during the
test. To minimize convection, the sides, top and bottom of the calorimeter vessel shall

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not be more than 10 mm from the inner surface of the jacket. Mechanical supports for
the calorimeter vessel shall be of low thermal conductivity.

4.4.4 Ignition System

Samples are ignited in the oxygen bomb by passing an electric current through a short-
length (usually 10 cm) of nickel-iron-chromium alloy wire, a card of which is furnished
with the calorimeter. The firing current, supplied by the ignition system is sufficient to
heat the wire yet not so high as to destroy the wire before the sample starts to burn. A
current close to 4 amperes is required to fire the 10 cm alloy ignition fuse. The voltage
of firing is equally important; usually a potential drop across the 10 cm fuse is about 18
volts. A step-down transformer connected to an alternating current circuit, capacitors,
or batteries can be used. The cord from the ignition unit is attached to the calorimeter
via suitable connectors provided on the calorimeter. For manually operated calorimeters,
the ignition circuit switch shall be of the momentary double-contact type, normally open
except when held closed by the operator. An ammeter or pilot light can be used in the
circuit to indicate when current is flowing.

4.4.5 Oxygen Filling Equipment

The oxygen filling equipment includes a cylinder of compressed oxygen, a bench clamp
for holding the bomb, which serves mainly to prevent upsets when filling the bomb and
for preloading, and an assembly of valves, couplings, gauges and pressure tubing. The
mentioned assembly has an automatic self-sealing valve to prevent back flow of the oxygen.
The flow of oxygen is controlled by a needle valve located at the front of the pressure
regulator. A gauge graduated from 0 to 55 atmospheres shows the pressure to which the
bomb has been charged and below it another gauge indicates the oxygen pressure in the
oxygen supply tank. The relief valve is located underneath the pressure regulator.

4.4.6 Additional components

Some additional components, of which we need to be aware of are,
1. Sample Holder — An open crucible made of
of platinum, quartz, or base metal alloy is generally
used as the sample holder inside the Bomb. Before
use in the calorimeter, the base metal crucibles are
heat treated for a minimum of 4h at 500◦ C to ensure
completely oxidation of the crucible surface. Base
metal alloy crucibles are acceptable, if after three
preliminary firings, the weight does not change by
more than 0.0001g. Figure 4.4.2: Sample Holder

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2. Thermometers — Temperature measuring devices complying to the standards as

well as thermometer accessories like a magnifier for reading values to the smallest scale
division if any.

4.5 Reagents
4.5.1 Benzoic Acid
Standard benzoic acid (C6 H5 COOH)—Pellets made from benzoic acid or benzoic acid
calibrated against NIST standard material. The calorific value of benzoic acid, for use in
the calibration calculations, should be traceable to a recognized certificate value.
From Wikipedia, you may read, Benzoic Acid is a colourless crystalline solid and a
simple carboxylic acid. The name is derived from gum benzoin, which was for a long
time its only known source. Benzoic Acid occurs naturally in many plants and it serves
as an intermediate in the biosynthesis of many secondary metabolites. Salts of Benzoic
Acid are used as food preservatives and benzoic acid is an important precursor for the
industrial synthesis of many other organic substances. The salts and esters of benzoic
acid are known as benzoates.”
Due to its constant calorific value it is the ideal substance for calibration in bomb
calorimeters. For this purpose we press the powdery substance into tablets of approxi-
mately 0.5 grams and 1.0 grams, with a calorific value of approximately 26.454 kJ g
as can
be seen Figure 5.4.2.
The calibration of an oxygen bomb calorimeter system (also called standardization)
is done using a tablet of benzoic acid. During this calibration process, a known amount
of heat is introduced into the calorimeter by the combustion of a benzoic acid tablet.
This produces the energy equivalent of the calorimeter for a specific temperature rise.
All further unknown samples are compared to this calibration performed. If any part of
the calorimeter is changed then the calibration must be repeated. Clean out crucibles
after every firing and replace with a new Benzoic Acid Tablet before proceeding with the
next firing during a calibration

4.5.2 Oxygen
Oxygen manufactured from liquid air, guaranteed to be greater than 99.5% pure, and free
of combustible matter is required for theis test. Oxygen made by the electrolytic process
may contains small amounts of hydrogen rendering it unfit unless purified by passage
over copper oxide at 500◦ C. Give special attention to the Oxygen handling precautions
mentioned in Section 5.11.

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4.5.3 Water
Conforming to conductivity requirements, preparation of reagents and washing of the
bomb interior, it is preferred that distilled water be used. But, demineralized or tap
water containing less than 250 ppm of dissolved solid is satisfactory.

4.6 Determination of Heat Capacity of Calorimeter

Compute the calorimeter energy equivalent (2000 ml of water are included), ε, from the
data obtained from combustion of benzoic acid which are the corrected temperature rise,
∆t (◦ C), the correction for heat of combustion of firing wire, e, (joules), and mass of the
benzoic acid, m (g), according to
 
m∆E + e
ε=− (4.6.1)
∆t
where ∆E is the energy of combustion of benzoic acid (−26435 ± 5) ( Jg ). (Remember all
combustions are exothermic including wire.)

4.7 Preliminary Operations

4.7.1 Preparation of sample
Size For best results and for safety purposes it is desirable to use sufficient amount
of sample to produce a temperature rise of about 2.0 °C starting from a tem-
perature somewhat below room temperature. . Do Not Use More Than
One Gram

Pellets It is often advantageous to compress the sample into a pellet (by the available
pellet press). The pellet should neither be so soft it crumbles, nor so hard that
it will pop during oxidation. The pellet is weighed to 0.1 mg in the preweighed
crucible in which it is to be burned. The pellets should be handled with forceps
or a small pair of tongs. . Do Not Touch With The Fingers

4.7.2 Attaching the fuse

All manipulations prior to closing the bomb can be performed by holding the bomb head
in the support stand. Cut a single length of the nickel-alloy wire, 10 cm long, from the
provided card. Attach the wire to the electrodes as illustrated in Figure 4.7.1. A small
forceps is very helpful for this purpose. The wire must be tightly wrapped to reduce
resistance. Attach one end of the wire to the loop electrode and then attach the other
end to the straight electrode. Bend the wire up/down between the electrode such that

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the wire touches only the sample in the sample cup. Care should be exercised to ensure
that it does not touch the sample cup.

4.7.3 Water in the bomb

Place 1.0 ml of distilled water in the bomb
from a pipet. This amount of water serves
to saturate the oxygen as an aid in com-
bustion and to assure that water resulting
from combustion is in the liquid state and
also to dissolve any acid formed. (Acid
formation is not expected in the case of
samples used in the experiment except for
HN O3 formation, which may be found be-
cause of the N2 in the residual air in the
bomb. It is not critical in this work to cor-
rect for the HN O3 acid formed as such.) Figure 4.7.1: Attaching fuse to test sample
Place the bomb head with the fuse wire attached to the firing leads and capsule
containing the sample in position in the bomb and close the bomb. This latter step is
most conveniently done by placing the bomb in the bomb clamp then carefully set the
bomb head on, being careful not to damage the gasket or disturb the sample. Place on
the screw ring and turn it clockwise with great care until you are sure the threads are
properly meshed; only then should an attempt be made to screw it all the way on. The
bomb is self-sealing and is closed simply by screwing the cap down firmly by hand. There
is no need for a wrench or spanner for closing. Always make certain that the head gasket
and the threads are dust-free.

4.7.4 Filling the bomb with oxygen

With the sealed bomb in hand, attach the filling tube from the oxygen cylinder and
turn the union nut moderately tight. Close the control valve on the filling connection,
and open or ”crack” the oxygen tank valve not more than one quarter turn. Open the
filling connection control valve slowly. Observe the gauge and allow the pressure to rise
slowly until a pressure of 25 atmospheres is reached, then close the control valve. Do
not attempt to over pressurise the bomb. Depite the bomb having a pressure limit of
40 bars, the working limit is to be strictly maintained between 20 and 25, with 25 being
the maximum allowable. In case, by accident, it is pressurised above the safe limit, DO
NOT under any circumstances, ignite the charge. Dangerously high pressures which can
be developed under such conditions might cause the bomb to explode.Instead, purge the
bomb and refill oxygen to the correct pressure and continue with the experiment.

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4.7.5 Measurement of Temperature

The calorimeter temperature of water should be brought below 1 − 1.5°C to a that of
room temperature. The bucket, to be filled with distilled water of adjusted temperature,
should be wiped free of moisture on the outside surface before being placed in the jacket.
Set the bucket in the jacket with the long axis of the oval in line with the operator and
with the bomb locating dimple in the bottom positioned opposite the stirrer. Grasp the
bomb valve between the thumb and forefinger and lower the bomb into the bucket; taking
care to avoid jarring or disturbing the contents. Set the bomb with its feet spanning the
location and turned so that the electrode terminal is near the insulated ignition wire.
Attach the thrust terminal to the bomb electrode. Add 2000ml of water to the bucket
(use the provided volumetric flask). Place the cover on the jacket with the thermocouple
toward the operator. Lower the cover into position, using care to avoid striking the
thermocouple against anything. The location pin at the rear of the cover should fall
into the hole on the top rim of the jacket. Put on the rubber drive belt and start the
motor. Run the motor for 5 minutes to attain thermal equilibrium. Be prepared to take
temperature readings as soon as equilibrium is indicated by a slow uniform rise.

Initial period Read and record the temperature to the nearest 0.002°C at one minute
intervals for exactly five minutes.

Main period Fire the charge (by switching the ignition switch on) at the start of the
sixth minute, recording the exact time and temperature at the firing point. After firing,
approximately 20 seconds will elapse before the mercury starts to rise. The rate of rise
will be rapid during the first few minutes and decrease as the calorimeter approaches
maximum temperature. Temperature readings should be recorded at 15-second intervals
during the first two minutes and at one- minute intervals thereafter - until the difference
between successive readings is constant.

Final period After the maximum temperature rise is reached, record the tempera-
ture at one-minute intervals until the rate of temperature change becomes uniform and
constant over a period of 5 minutes.

4.7.6 Opening the Calorimeter

At the completion of a test, stop the motor, remove the belt, and lift the cover from the
jacket. Wipe the thermocouple with a clean dry cloth and set the cover on the support
stand. Disconnect the firing connection from the bomb terminal and lift the bucket and
bomb out of the jacket. Replace the cover and thermocouple on the empty jacket.
Lift the bomb out of the bucket and relieve all residual pressure. This should be done
slowly and at a uniform rate. After all pressure has been relieved, remove the screw cap,

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

lift out the bomb head and place it on the support stand.
Examine the interior of the bomb for soot or other evidence of incomplete combustion.
Discard the test if any is found.

4.8 Test Procedure

1. The sample is compressed into a pellet and weighed in the crucible in which it is to
be burned.

2. The firing fuse is connected to the leads in the bomb.

3. A 1.0mL of water is placed in the bottom of the bomb. The crucible with the
weighed sample pellet is put in place and the bomb is closed.

4. The bomb is filled to a known pressure (25atm) with oxygen and tested for leaks.
(Do Not Pressurize Above 30atm)

5. The calorimeter bucket is placed into the jacket with the dimple opposite the stirrer
motor. The bomb is then placed in the bucket and the firing leads attached.

6. Calorimeter is carefully filled with exactly 2.0 litres of water preadjusted to a suit-
able temperature (19 − 21°C) . The top is then placed on the calorimeter, the
thermocouple carefully inserted and the stirrer started. Caution: check to make
sure the resistance is approximately 0Ω before closing the calorimeter.

7. After a long enough wait for the establishment of a steady rate of temperature
change, the observations of the initial period are begun. These consist of observa-
tions over a fixed time interval, of temperatures at equally spaced times.

8. At the end of the initial period, the sample is fired and observations of temperature
and time of the main period are begun immediately.

9. After a steady rate of temperature change is again established, the observations of

temperature and time of the final period are made.

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4.9 Tablulation

Sl Pressure of Gas Flow Pressure of Volume of Water Exit gas

No. Gas Rate Gas gas Flow Rate Tempera-
pg1 Vg1 pg2 Vg2 Vw ture
( /cm2 )
kg (lpm) ( /cm2 )
kg (lpm) (lpm) °C

1.
2.
3.

Table 4.9.1: Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (gas)

Sl Water Water Water

No. Flow Rate inlet Tem- outlet
Vw perature Tempera-
(lpm) °C ture
°C

Table 4.9.2: Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (water)

4.10 Error Analysis

4.10.1 Fuse Correction
Carefully remove all unburned pieces of fuse wire from the bomb electrodes, straighten
them and measure their combined length in cm. Subtract this length from the initial
10cm and enter this value on the data sheet as the net amount of wire burned.

4.10.2 Radiation Correction and the Corrected Temperature

Rise
Temperature observations are made at definite intervals to identify the critical points of
the time-temperature relationship of any test. These points which characterize the initial,
main and final periods of a combustion test are best illustrated by a typical temperature-
time curve.

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In addition to the initial temperature at the time of firing and the final maximum
temperature, the initial and final time-temperature data are necessary to compute the
radiation rate effect and to derive the corrected temperature rise accordingly.
The correction for heat gain or loss by radiation is based on the observation that the
points of transition from the initial period to the final period occurs at a time when the
temperature rise has reached 60 percent of its total amount. This means that during
the time in which 0.6 of the temperature rise occurs, the calorimeter is influenced by its
surroundings at a rate equivalent to that determined by observations made during the 5-
minute initial period. But during the time in which the remaining 0.4 of the temperature
rise takes place, the calorimeter is being affected at a rate equal to that determined in
the 5-minute final period. Hence the correction is obtained from an estimate of the time
when the temperature rise has reached 0.6 of its total amount.

4.11 Handling Oxygen

ˆ Do not exceed the sample size limits.

ˆ Following manufacturer’s commendations for filling the bomb.

ˆ Do not use oil or grease on regulators, gages, or control equipment.

ˆ Use only with equipment conditioned for oxygen service by carefully cleaning to
remove oil, grease, and other combustibles. Keep combustibles away from oxygen
and eliminate ignition sources.

ˆ Keep surfaces clean to prevent ignition or explosion, or both, on contact with oxy-
gen.

ˆ Always use a pressure regulator. Release regulator tension before opening cylinder
valve.

ˆ All equipment and containers used must be suitable and recommended for oxygen
service.

ˆ Never attempt to transfer oxygen from cylinder in which it is received to any other
cylinder.

ˆ Do not mix gases in cylinders.

ˆ Do not drop cylinder. Make sure cylinder is secured at all times.

ˆ Keep cylinder valve closed when not in use.

ˆ Stand away from outlet when opening cylinder valve.

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ˆ Keep cylinder out of sun and away from heat.

ˆ Keep cylinder from corrosive environment.

ˆ Do not use cylinder without label.

ˆ Do not use dented or damaged cylinders.

References
1. ASTM Standard D 5865–03 : Standard Test Method for Gross Calorific Value of
Coal and Coke

2. ASTM Standard D 4809–00 : Standard Test Method for Heat of Combustion of

Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter (Precision Method)

3. ASTM Standard D 240–02 (Reapproved 2007): Standard Test Method for Heat of
Combustion of Liquid Hydrocarbon Fuels by Bomb Calorimeter

4. Calorimetry: Fundamentals, Instrumentation and Applications, First Edition (2014),

Stefan M. Sarge, Gunther W. H. Hohne and Wolfgang Hemminger. Wiley-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

5. Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry - Volume 1: Principles and Practice

(1998), Michael E. Brown; Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

6. Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry - Volume 51: Recent Advances,

Techniques and Applications (2008), Michael E. Brown & Patrick K. Gallagher;
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

7. Liquefied Petroleum Gases-Specification (Third Revision of IS 4576), Accessed from

http://www.bis.org.in/sf/pcd/PCD3(11588) 06062017.pdf on August 01, 2017

8. Operating Instruction Manual of 1341 Oxygen Bomb Calorimeter, PARR Iinstru-

ment Company, USA

9. https://www.ddscalorimeters.com/the-use-of-benzoic-acid-in-bomb-calorimeters/ ac-
cessed on August 1, 2017

10. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Experiment 5

Boy’s Gas Calorimeter

5.1 Aim
Experimental determination of the calorific value of gaseous fules

5.2 Introduction
5.2.1 Definition of Calorimetry
Calorimetry means the measurement of
heat. Nevertheless, for a definition of
calorimetry, you may say it is the amount
of energy released after burning 1kg of fuel.
In the past, the term heat was associ-
ated with various concepts. Nowadays one
no longer speaks of different energies (e.g.,
heat energy, electrical energy, and kinetic
energy) coexisting in a substance or system
independent of one another. According to Figure 5.2.1: Calorimeter - A Schematic
the modern view, there is only one single
energy (the internal energy) stored in a body, which – only during an exchange – ap-
pears in a variety of energy forms such as heat energy, electrical energy, or kinetic energy.
Accordingly, the form of energy known as heat can only be conceived as coupled with a
change of energy.
Heat is always associated with a heat flow. In other words, heat is the amount of
energy exchanged within a given time interval in the form of a heat flow. Calorimeters
are the instruments used for measuring this heat.

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5.2.2 Application Fields for Calorimetry

Calorimetry has been well known for centuries as a very effective method in natural sci-
ences. The precise measurement of heat capacity, heat of fusion, heat of reaction, heat
of combustion, and other caloric quantities has built the basis for progress in thermo-
dynamics and classical physical chemistry. The classical methods of calorimetry have
not changed very much during the past century, and the scientific interest in and the
knowledge about them have dropped accordingly.
Only the progress in microelectronics and computer science during the past few
decades has made it possible to develop new types of calorimeters and open new fields
of application. As a result, there is now an increasing interest in calorimetry as a very
easy and powerful method for different kinds of investigation. Modern calorimetry is
successfully used in many fields, such as material science, life sciences (biology, medicine,
and biochemistry), pharmacy, and food science, for quality control, safety investigations,
and the determination of the energy content of fuels.

5.2.3 Classification
The classification of calorimeters presented hereafter aims at being simple and clear
enough to be relatively easy to teach, learn and remember. This classification was arrived
at after a time of maturation of about 35 years. There were several reasons for such a
slow maturation. One was the great variety of calorimetric devices developed over the last
two centuries, probably due to the ”labile” or ”evanescent” character of heat, so difficult
to store, which excited the imagination of many scientists. More than 100 different types
of calorimeters can easily be listed. This made it difficult to establish any comprehensive
and ordered presentation of the calorimeters. This great variety of calorimeters led to a
large number of possible classifications, depending on the criteria chosen.
With reference to the schematic shown in Figure 5.2.1, the basic criterion we shall use
to distinguish different types of calorimeters will be that of the heat exchanges between
system S and thermostat T . This immediately divides the calorimeters into two broad
families, namely:

1. ”Adiabatic” calorimeters, where the aim is to avoid any exchange of heat between
the system S and the surrounding thermostat T .

2. ”Diathermal” calorimeters, where the aim is, on the contrary, to favour the above
heat exchange.

The word adiabatic comes from the greek ”adiabatos”, meaning ”which cannot be crossed”.
The word diathermal comes from the greek ”dia” and ”thermos”, meaning ”through” and
”hot”, respectively.
In adiabatic calorimeters, one thus tries to store the heat in the system S, so as
to measure it in situ from the temperature change of the system. This temperature

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change is therefore imposed by the heat produced or absorbed in the system S and is not
known a priori. In diathermal calorimeters, where one tries to exchange most of the heat
with the surroundings, the surroundings determine the temperature which can therefore
be controlled by the experimenter. The above adiabatic or diathermal hnctioning of a
calorimeter can be achieved (irrespective of the final efficiency) either by simple design
and construction (by means of appropriate thermal conductors or resistors R) or with the
help of electronic control. Hence each of the two families above, can be further divided
into two groups, which can be named ”passive” and ”active”, respectively. We therefore
end up with four groups of calorimeters:

ˆ Adiabatic – passive

ˆ Adiabatic – active

ˆ Diathermal – passive

ˆ Diathermal – active

The above classification is now applied to the ”real world” of calorimeters.

5.2.4 Calorific Value

The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured
either as gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being the latent heat
of condensation of the water vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross
calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully
condensed. Net calorific value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion
products without fully being condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net
calorific value. The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash,
moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more
consistent.
The quantity known as higher heating value (HHV) (or gross energy or upper
heating value or gross calorific value (GCV) or higher calorific value (HCV)) is deter-
mined by bringing all the products of combustion back to the original pre-combustion
temperature, and in particular condensing any vapor produced. Such measurements often
use a standard temperature of 15C (288 K).
This is the same as the thermodynamic heat of combustion since the enthalpy change
for the reaction assumes a common temperature of the compounds before and after com-
bustion, in which case the water produced by combustion is condensed to a liquid, hence
yielding its latent heat of vaporization. Mechanical systems such as gas-fired boilers used
for space heat are suited for the purpose of capturing the HHV as the heat delivered is
at temperatures below 150C (423 K) yet usable in space heating.

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The quantity known as lower heating value (LHV) (net calorific value (NCV) or
lower calorific value (LCV)) is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of the
water vapor from the higher heating value. This treats any H2 O formed as a vapor. The
energy required to vaporize the water therefore is not released as heat.
LHV calculations assume that the water component of a combustion process is in vapor
state at the end of combustion, as opposed to the higher heating value (HHV) (a.k.a. gross
calorific value or gross CV) which assumes that all of the water in a combustion process
is in a liquid state after a combustion process.
The LHV assumes that the latent heat of vaporization of water in the fuel and the
reaction products is not recovered. It is useful in comparing fuels where condensation of
the combustion products is impractical, or heat at a temperature below 150C (423 K)
cannot be put to use.

5.2.5 Units
As illustrated by the earlier examples, there is no direct method for the measurement of
heat. Consequently, heat has to be determined by means of its effects. The older unit
quantity of heat – calorie – was therefore defined in terms of a measurement instruction:
One 15C calorie (cal15C ) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of
water from 14.5 to 15.5C under standard atmospheric pressure. Because heat is merely
one form of energy, as are the electrical and mechanical energies, a special unit for heat
is unnecessary. Today, in the International System of Units (SI), heat is expressed in the
unit of energy:

1J = 1N m = 1W s

Conversion between the old unit (cal) and new SI unit (J) is made as follows:

1 cal = 4.186 J (exactly) 1 J = 0.2388459 cal (5.2.1)

The heating value (or energy value or calorific value) of a substance, usually a fuel
or food, is the amount of heat released during the combustion of a specified amount of it.
The energy value is a characteristic for each substance. It is measured in units of energy
per unit of the substance, usually mass, such as:

kJ
Calorif ic V alue ⇒ (5.2.2)
kg
But it is important to note that, for gases the energy value is measured in units of
energy per unit volume of the substance, as:

kJ
Calorif ic V alue ⇒ (5.2.3)
m3

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Figure 5.2.2: Boys Gas Calorimeter

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Figure 5.2.3: LPG Gas Safety Tips

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5.3 Description of Test Rig

Boy’s gas calorimeter is a simple apparatus that is suitable for determining calorific value
of gaseous fuels. This apparatus was named after an English physicist Sir Charles Vernon
Boys. From this, we can calculate both the lower calorific value (LCV) as well as the
higher calorific value (HCV) of gases. There are two types of calorific values as stated
earlier.

1. Higher calorific value/ Higher Heating Value (HCV/ HHV) - It is the total
heat liberated by the complete combustion of 1kg of fuel. This is determined by
bringing all the products of combustion back to pre-combustion temperature i.e.,
condensing any water vapor produced. In higher calorific value we assume that
water is in a liquid state after combustion and it absorbs some amount of heat to
convert it into vapor form. This heat is known as the latent heat of vaporization.

2. Lower calorific value/ Lower Heating Value (LCV/ LHV) - It is the differ-
ence of higher calorific value and heat absorbed by water to vaporise. This treats
the H2 O formed as the product of combustion to be in the vapor state. The energy
required to vaporize water is therefore not released as heat.

If the condensation part of the Boy’s gas colorimeter works properly, then the higher
calorific value can be found out. But if water remains in the vapor phase then only
the lower calorific value is obtained. The inability of the apparatus used for this for
experiment in this lab, to condense the vapourised H2 O limits our attempts to just the
Lower calorific value.
Figure. 5.3.1 illustrates a the gas calorimeter devised by C. V. Boys. The heated
products of combustion from the burner B impinge on a metal box H, through which
water is circulating, and then pass downwards and outwards through a spiral cooler which
reduces them practically to the atmospheric temperature. A steady stream of water enters
the apparatus by the inflow thermometer O, flows through the spiral coolers N and M, and
finally through the box H, where it is well mixed before passing the outflow thermometer
P. As soon as a steady state is reached, the difference of temperature between the outflow
and inflow thermometers, multiplied by the current of water in grams per minute gives
the heat per minute supplied by combustion. The gas current is simultaneously observed
by a suitable meter, which, with subsidiary corrections for pressure, temperature and
gives the necessary data for deducing calorific value.

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5.4 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LP Gas or LPG)

The term applies to a mixture of certain light hydrocarbons derived from petroleum
which are gaseous at normal ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure but may
be condensed to the liquid state at normal ambient temperature by the application of
moderate pressure. LP gases mainly consist of one or more of the following hydrocarbons:
a) Propane (C3 H8 )
b) Propylene (C3 H6 )
c) n - butane (C4 H10 )
d) Iso - butane (C4 H10 )
e) Butylene (C4 H8 )
LPG is a mixture of commercial butane and commercial propane having both satu-
rated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. LPG marketed in India shall be governed by Indian
Standard Code IS-4576 and the test methods by IS-1448.

5.4.1 Physical Properties and Characteristics

Density LPG at atmospheric pressure and temperature is a gas which is 1.5 − 2.0
times heavier than air. It is readily liquefied under moderate pressures. The density of
the liquid is approximately half that of water and ranges from 0.525 − 0.580 @ 15C. Since
LPG vapour is heavier than air, it would normally settle down at ground level/ low lying
places, and accumulate in depressions.

Vapour Pressure The pressure inside a

LPG storage vessel/ cylinder will be equal
to the vapour pressure corresponding to
the temperature of LPG in the storage ves-
sel. The vapour pressure is dependent on
temperature as well as on the ratio of mix-
ture of hydrocarbons. At liquid full con-
dition any further expansion of the liq-
uid, the cylinder pressure will rise by ap-
kg
prox. 14 − 15 cm 2 , for each degree centi-

grade. This clearly explains the hazardous

situation that could arise due to overfilling
of cylinders
Even though, LPG is liquid inside a cylinder, it is important to know that at an area
at the top of the cylinder, it turns into vapour. LPG boils at −42◦ C becoming gas vapour.
The only reason, LPG stays liquid inside the cylinder is because its under pressure in a
gas cylinder. As shown in figure, the LPG vapour is held in the top of the bottle and the
liquid LPG at the bottom. It is this vapour pressure atop the liquid phase which keeps it

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from vaporising completely. As you consume this vapourised phase, the vapour pressure
drops and more liquid phase gets vapourised.

Flammability LPG has an explosive range of 1.8% volume of gas in air. This is
considerably narrower than other common gaseous fuels. This gives an indication of
hazard of LPG vapour accumulated in low lying area in the eventuality of the leakage or
spillage. The auto-ignition temperature of LPG is around 410 − 580C and hence it will
not ignite on its own at normal temperature. Entrapped air in the vapour is hazardous
in an unpurged vessel/ cylinder during pumping/ filling-in operation.

Combustion The combustion reaction of LPG increases the volume of products in

addition to the generation of heat. LPG requires upto 50 times its own volume of air
for complete combustion. Thus it is essential that adequate ventilation is provided when
LPG is burnt in enclosed spaces. Otherwise asphyxiation due to depletion of oxygen
apart from the formation of carbon-dioxide can occur.

5.5 Required Theory

From energy balance equation: Heat released by volume of gas (Qg ) = Heat acquired by
water (Qw ), ie.

Qg = [Calorif ic V alue of Gas] × [V olumegas burnt per minute ]

Qw = [W atermass f low per min × Cpwater × ∆Twater ]

From energy balance, Qg = Qw , i.e.,

C.Vg × [Vg2 ] = [W atermass f low per min × Cpwater × ∆Twater ] (5.5.1)

Volume of gas burnt,

Vg2 = Gasf low rate per min × 10−3 m3

The pressure that you observe at the pressure gauge is in fact the vapour pressure of
the gas. The volume corresponding to this pressure expands to a higher volume and lower
pressure corresponding to the atmospheric conditions. This volume can be calculated
using Equation 5.5.2.
Converting gas volume into standard conditions,

pg1 Vg1 × Tg2

Vg2 =
Tg1 × pg2

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pg1 Vg1 × Tg2 pg1 Vg1 × Tg2

Vg2 = = (5.5.2)
(25 + 273) × pg2 298 × pg2
pg2 =Pressure of gas w.r.t atmospheric pressure
Vg2 =Volume of gas w.r.t atmospheric pressure
Tg2 =Temperature of gas at the burner
kg
pg1 =Pressure of gas inside the cylinder (1 cm 2 = 98.06kP a)

Vg1 =Volume of gas equivalent w.r.t cylinder pressure

Tg1 =Temperature of gas at NTP (25C)
Absolute pressure of Gas=Gauge pressure of Gas + Atmospheric pressure (101.325 kP a)

pg2 = pg1 + patm

kJ
Knowing that the specific heat at constant pressure for water is Cpwater = 4.184 kg−K ,
kg
and density, ρw = 1000 m3 , it may be substituted in Equation 5.5.1 to get the Calorific
Value of gas

[(Vwater × ρw ) × Cpwater × ∆Twater ]

C.Vg = (5.5.3)
[Vg2 ]

5.6 Test Procedure

1. Switch on the water flow into the calorimeter and ensure the rotameter shows the
volume flow rate. To begin with, keep it to a low level (≈ 0.5 lpm).

2. Draw down the burner point from underneath the calorimeter and ensure it is clean
and nothing is clogging the burner tip.

3. Open the check valve on the LPG gas cylinder and ensure there is no leakage.
The distinctive stench imparted by the ethyl mercaptan added to LPG (a safety
measure) would help you confirm a leak, if any.

4. Open the gas flow and ignite the burner using the wick provided. Note down the
readings from the rotameter as well as the pressure gauge.

5. Raise the burner tip into the cavity underneath the calorimeter. Ensure proper
combustion is happening inside the cavity. A flame luminiscent in a yellow manner
suggests incomplete combustion. Complete and proper combustion for LPG would
impart the flame a blue colour. Note that incomplete combustion would affect the
Calorific Value computed. So, ensure that the flame is as blue as possible.

6. Gradually increase the water flow rate till the temperature of the exhaust gases
through the top is more or less at par with the room temperature (±0.1◦ C). Note
down the reading shown on the rotameter.

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7. Observe the increase in temperature on the thermometer kept at the water outlet
point. Keep the gas running and wait till a steady state condition is achived across
the inlet and outlet of water, i.e., there is no increase/ decrease in temperature.

8. Note down the inlet and outlet water temperatures, the exhaust gas temperature
and also the gas pressure.

9. Repeat this procedure for 3 other flow rates of the gas, ensuring that the above
steps are repeated.

10. Slowly turn down the gas at the cylinder first, to ensure that the gas inside the
tubing is completely burnt.

11. Once the flame is extinguished, bring the burner out of the calorimeter.

12. Let the water run through the calorimeter for some time before you turn it down

5.7 Tablulation

Sl Pressure of Gas Flow Pressure of Volume of Water Exit gas

No. Gas Rate Gas gas Flow Rate Tempera-
pg1 Vg1 pg2 Vg2 Vw ture
( /cm2 )
kg (lpm) ( /cm2 )
kg (lpm) (lpm) °C

1.
2.
3.

Table 5.7.1: Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (gas)

Sl Water Water Water

No. Flow Rate inlet Tem- outlet
Vw perature Tempera-
(lpm) °C ture
°C

Table 5.7.2: Boy’s Gas Calorimeter - Table of Observations (water)

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5.8 Error Analysis

It is to be known that the calorific value obtained is not the actual value. This is because
of a lot of assumptions that have been taken and considerable errors in the measuring
system. The combustion of the gas within the closed chamber inside the calorimeter may
have not helped complete combustion due to lack of oxygen. This would cause a drop in
the energy released and hence the amount of energy transferred onto the water channels
also gets reduced. Additionally, we also assume that the entire heat is transferred into
water (which remains an ideal case), but a lot of heat is conducted by the calorimeter
body and and radiated into the atmosphere. Even if we assume the radiated heat to be
considerably less or negligible, the heat conducted by the calorimeter itself is a major
loss. A correction factor for this loss comes as Calorific Equivalent of the Calorimeter,
which may be included along with the experimentally calculated value, giving you a better
approximate of the ccalorific value.
There are also errors due to the standard gas volume measurement that were done
at NTP. The realtime atmospheric conditions would have caused changes to the pressure
and temperatures, thereby changing the gas volume considerably.

References
1. Calorimetry: Fundamentals, Instrumentation and Applications, First Edition (2014),
Stefan M. Sarge, Gunther W. H. Hohne and Wolfgang Hemminger. Wiley-VCH
Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA.

2. Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry - Volume 1: Principles and Practice

(1998), Michael E. Brown; Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

3. Handbook of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry - Volume 51: Recent Advances,

Techniques and Applications (2008), Michael E. Brown & Patrick K. Gallagher;
Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

4. Significance of Tests for Petroleum Products 7th ed.; Salvatore J. Rand, ASTM
Manual Series: MNL 1, ASTM International, Barr Harbor Drive, USA

5. LPG Specifications, Accessed from https://www.iocl.com/products/LPGSpecifications.pdf

on August 01, 2017

6. Liquefied Petroleum Gases-Specification (Third Revision of IS 4576), Accessed from

http://www.bis.org.in/sf/pcd/PCD3(11588) 06062017.pdf on August 01, 2017

7. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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Experiment 6

Valve Timing Diagram

6.1 Aim
To draw the Valve Timing Diagram for the given engine and depict the various instants
of opening of valves at different stages.

6.2 Introduction
6.2.1 Principles of Valve Timing

Figure 6.2.1: Four Strokes in a Diesel Engine

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With reference to Fig 1.2.1 and our understanding of the four-stroke principle, we have
accepted that the opening and closing of the inlet and exhaust valves is timed to coincide
exactly with the beginning and ending of the induction and exhaust strokes. Correlating
the degree of rotation of the crank shaft to the piston position corresponding to the stroke,
helps us generate a timing for the intermittent valve operation like the one shown below.

Figure 6.2.2: Ideal Valve Timing

But interestingly, for a variable-speed motor vehicle engine such a tidy approach to
valve timing would result in very inefficient operation. In actual practice a departure must
therefore be made from the basic valve timing implied by the four-stroke principle, this
being early acknowledged by the French automotive pioneer Fernand Forest who originally
patented the idea of valve timing in 1906. Let us now examine how this departure can
be accounted for in relation to the factors involved, which may be listed as follows:

1. Inertia effects of the incoming and outgoing cylinder gases

2. Elastic nature of the incoming and outgoing cylinder gases

3. Mechanical stresses imposed by rapidly opening and closing the valves

Since all bodies possess inertia, no matter whether it is a cannonball or a column of

gas, the effect of inertia is to resist a change of motion. The incoming and the outgoing
flows of cylinder gases are therefore subject to inertia effects. As a consequence there
is an unwelcome reluctance of the gases to commence flowing, followed by a welcome
reluctance of them to cease flowing. Also we know that the volume of a gas, unlike a
liquid, is not fixed and that this property of great compressibility is possessed by all gases.
The elastic nature of any burnt cylinder gases remaining in the combustion chamber at
the end of the exhaust stroke can, therefore, be such that they expand and impede the
flow of incoming air and petrol mixture at the beginning of the induction stroke.

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In the four-stroke cycle the valves are required to open and close at the correct point
in the cycle. The inlet valve normally opens a few degrees before the piston reaches TDC
on the exhaust stroke and closes again several degrees after BDC on the induction stroke.
The exhaust valve normally opens several degrees before BDC on the power stroke and
closes a few degrees after TDC on the exhaust stroke. These events can be shown on
a circular display called a timing diagram. A typical timing diagram is shown in Fig.
1.2.3. Valve timing diagrams display details about valve operation in terms of degrees of
crankshaft rotation, which also indicates the position of the piston in the cylinder.

Figure 6.2.3: Valve Timing

In the timing diagram shown in Fig. 1.2.3 the following details apply:

ˆ The inlet valve opens when the crank is 4 before TDC and it remains open down
the induction stroke and for 48, part of the way up the compression stroke

ˆ The number of degrees for which the valve remains open is called the valve period
e in this case, the inlet valve period is 4 + 180 + 48 = 232

ˆ The exhaust valve opens 48 before BDC on the power stroke and it remains open
up the entire exhaust stroke and for 4 on the induction stroke. The exhaust valve
period is 4 + 180 + 48 = 232

ˆ The number of degrees around TDC for which both valves are open together is
called valve overlap.

ˆ The number of degrees that the exhaust valve opens before BDC is called exhaust
valve lead . Early opening of the exhaust valve while there is still some pressure
left in the gas allows gas to escape into the exhaust system and thus reduces the
pressure that the piston works against on the exhaust stroke. This improves the
efficiency of the engine.

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Figure 6.2.4: Indicator Diagram related to Valve Timing

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ˆ The number of degrees that the inlet valve remains open after BDC is called inlet
valve lag . Closing the inlet valve after BDC allows the momentum of the air
entering the cylinder to overcome the increasing pressure in the cylinder as the
piston moves up the cylinder on the compression stroke. In this way the engine is
made more efficient.

ˆ Valve timing varies from engine to engine and the actual details are determined by
the type of use that the vehicle is intended for.
Note: The motion of valves is determined by the shape of the camshaft
(cam) and this is designed to open and close the valves as quickly as possible
without causing undue stress on components.

In engineering when a material is acted upon by a force, every particle in the material
acts upon every other particle with which it is in contact and sets up a state of stress.
This imposes definite limits to the rapidity with which a valve can be opened and closed,
before breakdown of lubrication and overstressing of the contact surfaces of its cam and
tappet occurs. Due allowance must therefore be made for the short time it necessarily
takes to open and close each valve during its open period. Hence it is imperative that
the basic valve timing of the four-stroke principle is modified in practice to accommodate
the various aforesaid effects. This is done by providing for the lead (advance time) and
lag (delay time) of the inlet and exhaust valve periods of opening, or valve events.

6.2.2 Lead, lag and overlap

The inlet valve is given a lead in opening before the piston reaches top dead centre on
the exhaust stroke, so that least resistance is offered to the incoming flow of air and
petrol mixture as the piston begins its induction stroke. It is also provided with a lag
in closing after the piston reaches bottom dead centre and is beginning the compression
stroke, so as to take advantage of the reluctance of the incoming mixture to cease flowing
as the piston ends its induction stroke. The maximum amount of air and petrol mixture
is therefore induced to enter the cylinder, upon which depends the power developed by
the engine.
Similarly, the exhaust valve is given a lead in opening before the piston reaches bottom
dead centre on the power stroke, so that the burnt gases are already leaving the cylinder
under their own pressure as the piston begins its exhaust stroke. Therefore the engine
expends less energy on expelling the exhaust gases than would otherwise be the case.
The exhaust valve is also provided with a lag in closing after the piston reaches top
dead centre and is beginning the induction stroke. This not only better scavenges the
combustion chamber of exhaust gases, but also lowers the cylinder pressure to facilitate
flow of the incoming air and petrol mixture.

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By modifying the basic valve timing of the four-stroke principle in the manner de-
scribed, it necessarily follows that the opening of the inlet valve before top dead centre
on the exhaust stroke, and the closing of the exhaust valve after top dead centre on the
induction stroke, result in a period when both valves are either partially or fully open.
The superimposing of that part of the valve periods where the inlet valve opens before
the exhaust valve closes is termed the valve overlap.

6.2.3 Valve timing and emissions

When the engine is operating at low speed the overlap that occurs when the inlet valves
and exhaust valves are open simultaneously is a cause of harmful emissions and various
forms of variable valve control are used to overcome the problem. Two forms of valve
control that are used are:

1. Different amounts of valve lift for low and high engine speeds.

2. Automatically changing the valve timing while the engine is running.

6.3 Testing procedure

1. Rotate the flywheel clockwise till the piston reaches TDC.

2. A marking is made on the flywheel face. Align this mark to the zero degree scale.
The flywheel is rotated anti-clockwise direction so that the angular scale reading at
which the inlet valve starts to open can be noted. Note this as Inlet Valve Opening
(IVO). Observe where it happens – before or after TDC

3. Now, rotate the flywheel in the clockwise direction and observe the motion of the
valves. Note the point at which the Exhaust valve starts to closes completely. Note
this as Exhaust Valve Closes (EVC). Observe where it happens – before or after
TDC

4. Continue rotating the flywheel till the inlet valve is completely closed. The position
is marked on the flywheel as Inlet Valve Closes (IVC). Observe where it happens –
before or after BDC

5. Continue rotating the flywheel clockwise so that the inlet and exhaust valve rollers
rest on the cam during the compression and power stroke.

6. During the final stroke, mark on the flywheel the point where Exhaust Valve Opens
(EVO). Observe where it happens – before or after BDC

7. The angles between the markings are noted.

8. The radius of the flywheel is noted.

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9. The angles are drawn and the valve timing diagram is completed.

6.4 Tabulation

Before/ After
Sl No. Valve Event Angle
TDC/ BDC
Inlet Valve Opens
1.
(IVO)
Inlet Valve Closes
2.
(IVC)
Exhaust Valve Opens
3.
(EVO)
Exhaust Valve Closes
4.
(EVC)

Figure 6.4.1: Valve Timing Diagram - Table of Readings

Valve Overlap happens between:

6.5 Graphs to be plotted

Valve Timing Diagram of a single cylinder, four stroke, vertical diesel engine

References
1. Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (4th ed.), M.J. Nunney, 2007, Butterworth-
Heinemann (Elsevier), Oxford, UK

2. A Practical Approach to Motor Vehicle Engineering and Maintenance (3rd ed.),

Bonnick & Newbold, 2011, Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier), Oxford, UK

3. Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual (Internal Copy), Dr. V.Krishna

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Experiment 7

Air Conditioning Test Rig

7.1 Aim
To demonstrate the Cooling and Heating Processes of an air conditioning system and ex-
perimentally find out the coefficent of performance (CoP) and Tonnage of Refriegeration
(TR)

7.2 Introduction
The science of Air Conditioning deals with maintaining a desirable internal air condi-
tions irrespective of external atmospheric conditions. The factors involved in any air
conditioning installation are:

1. Temperature

2. Humidity

3. Air movement and circulation

4. Air filtering, cleaning and purification

The simultaneous control of these factors within the required limits is essential for human
comfort or for any Industrial application of the air conditioning system,
In any air conditioning system, temperature and humidity are controlled by ther-
modynamic processes. Depending on the season, the air conditioning processes involve
cooling , heating , humidification and dehumidification of air. Other aspects such as air
movements’ circulation, purification, etc, are obtained by installing suitable fans, blowers,
ducting and filters.
This equipment is designed to demonstrate conditioning different air conditioning
processing such as cooling, heating, humidification etc required for different seasons of
the year.

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7.2.1 Terminology
Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water vapour.
Dry Air is the theoretical sample of air that has no water vapor is usually termed as Dry
Air. When water vapor is ignored what is left is a fairly fixed percentage of the percent
by volume or percent by mass of Oxygen, Nitrogen and Argon. However, air in the
atmosphere will not be perfectly dry since even in very cold air there will still be a trace
of water vapor. Another definition of dry air is air that has a low relative humidity. When
the relative humidity drops below about 40%. For all practical purposes, the composition
of dry air can be considered as constant. The molecular weight of dry air is found to be
J
28.966 and the gas constant R is 287.035 kgK .
Μοist Air is a mixture of dry air and water vapour.
Saturated Air1 At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain
maximum amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air is
known as saturated air, which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the moist
air and the liquid or solid phases of water. For calculation purposes, the molecular weight
J
of water vapour is taken as 18.015 and its gas constant is 461.52 kgK .

7.2.2 Psychrometric properties

Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a
standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.
Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT) is the temperature of air recorded by a thermometer
when its bulb is surrounded by a wet cloth exposed to the air. If the percentage saturation
of an air sample is less than 100, that is it is less than saturated, and it comes into contact
with water at the same tempera- ture, there will be a difference in vapour pressures. As a
result, some of the water will evaporate. The latent heat required for this change of state
will be drawn from the sensible heat of the water, which will be slightly cooled. This drop
in the water temperature provides a temperature difference, and a thermal balance will
be reached where the flow of sensible heat from the air to the water provides the latent
heat to evaporate a part of it as shown in Figure 7.2.1.
Degree of Saturation is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a unit mass of
dry air to the mass of water vapour in the same mass of dry air when it is saturated at
the same temperature and pressure. It may also be defined as the ratio of the humidity
ratio W to the humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the same temperature and
pressure.
 
W 
µ =   (7.2.1)
Ws t, P
1
”saturated air.” A Dictionary of Earth Sciences. . Encyclopedia.com. 3 Nov. 2017
<http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Figure 7.2.1: Exchange of sensible and latent heat at water–air surface

Courtesy: Refrigertaion, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps, 5th ed, by Hundy, Trott & Welch.

Humidity is the mass of water vapour present in 1 Kg of dry air expressed in gm per
kg of dry air. Humidity is the amount of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor
is the gaseous state of water and is invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the
likelihood of precipitation, dew, or fog. Higher humidity reduces the effectiveness of
sweating in cooling the body by reducing the rate of evaporation of moisture from the
skin. There are three main measurements of humidity: absolute, relative and specific.

ˆ Absolute Humidity is the mass of water vapour present in 1m3 of dry air, ex-
pressed in gm per cubic meter of dry air or grams per kilogram.

ˆ Relative Humidity is the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in a given volume
of moist air to the mass of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at
the same temperature and pressure. Relative humidity, expressed as a percent,
measures the current absolute humidity relative to the maximum (highest point)
for that temperature.

ˆ Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the
moist air parcel.

Psychrometer is an instrument containing dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb ther-
mometer. The difference in the readings of these two thermometers gives the relative
humidity of the air surrounding the psychrometer.

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7.3 Refrigerants
The thermodynamic efficiency of a refrigeration system depends mainly on its operating
temperatures. However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial
and operating costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the
type of refrigerant selected for a given application. Due to several environmental issues
such as ozone layer depletion and global warming and their relation to the various refrig-
erants used, the selection of suitable refrigerant has become one of the most important
issues in recent times. Replacement of an existing refrigerant by a completely new refrig-
erant, for whatever reason, is an expensive proposition as it may call for several changes
in the design and manufacturing of refrigeration systems. Hence it is very important to
understand the issues related to the selection and use of refrigerants. In principle, any
fluid can be used as a refrigerant. Air used in an air cycle refrigeration system can also
be considered as a refrigerant. However, here the attention is mainly focused on those
fluids that can be used as refrigerants in vapour compression refrigeration systems only.

Figure 7.3.1: Classification of fluids used as refrigerants

7.3.1 Primary and secondary refrigerants

Fluids suitable for refrigeration purposes can be classified into primary and secondary
refrigerants.
Primary refrigerants are those fluids, which are used directly as working fluids, for
example in vapour compression and vapour absorption refrigeration systems. When used
in compression or absorption systems, these fluids provide refrigeration by undergoing a
phase change process in the evaporator.
Secondary refrigerants are those liquids, which are used for transporting thermal
energy from one location to other. Secondary refrigerants are also known under the name

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brines or antifreezes. Of course, if the operating temperatures are above 0o C, then pure
water can also be used as secondary refrigerant, for example in large air conditioning
systems. Antifreezes or brines are used when refrigeration is required at sub-zero tem-
peratures. Unlike primary refrigerants, the secondary refrigerants do not undergo phase
change as they transport energy from one location to other. An important property of
a secondary refrigerant is its freezing point. Generally, the freezing point of a brine will
be lower than the freezing point of its constituents. The temperature at which freezing
of a brine takes place its depends on its concentration. The concentration at which a
lowest temperature can be reached without solidification is called as eutectic point. The
commonly used secondary refrigerants are the solutions of water and ethylene glycol,
propylene glycol or calcium chloride. These solutions are known under the general name
of brines.
Selection of refrigerant for a particular application is based on the following require-
ments:

1. Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties

2. Environmental and safety properties, and

3. Economics

Thermodynamic and thermo-physical properties

ˆ Suction pressure: At a given evaporator temperature, the saturation pressure should

be above atmospheric for prevention of air or moisture ingress into the system and
ease of leak detection. Higher suction pressure is better as it leads to smaller com-
pressor displacement

ˆ Discharge pressure: At a given condenser temperature, the discharge pressure

should be as small as possible to allow light-weight construction of compressor,
condenser etc.

ˆ Pressure ratio: Should be as small as possible for high volumetric efficiency and
low power consumption

ˆ Latent heat of vaporization: Should be as large as possible so that the required

mass flow rate per unit cooling capacity will be small

ˆ Isentropic index of compression: Should be as small as possible so that the tem-

perature rise during compression will be small

ˆ Liquid specific heat: Should be small so that degree of subcooling will be large
leading to smaller amount of flash gas at evaporator inlet

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ˆ Vapour specific heat: Should be large so that the degree of superheating will be
small

ˆ Thermal conductivity: Thermal conductivity in both liquid as well as vapour phase

should be high for higher heat transfer coefficients

ˆ Viscosity: Viscosity should be small in both liquid and vapour phases for smaller
frictional pressure drops

The thermodynamic properties are interrelated and mainly depend on normal boiling
point, critical temperature, molecular weight and structure. he important properties
such as latent heat of vaporization and specific heat depend on the molecular weight and
structure of the molecule.
The freezing point of the refrigerant should be lower than the lowest operating tem-
perature of the cycle to prevent blockage of refrigerant pipelines.

Environmental and safety properties

ˆ Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP): According to the Montreal protocol, the ODP
of refrigerants should be zero, i.e., they should be non-ozone depleting substances.
Refrigerants having non-zero ODP have either already been phased-out (e.g. R11,
R12) or will be phased-out in near-future (e.g. R22). Since ODP depends mainly on
the presence of chlorine or bromine in the molecules, refrigerants having either chlo-
rine (i.e., CFCs and HCFCs) or bromine cannot be used under the new regulations
b) Global

ˆ Global Warming Potential (GWP): Refrigerants should have as low a GWP value
as possible to minimize the problem of global warming. Refrigerants with zero ODP
but a high value of GWP (e.g. R134a) are likely to be regulated in future.

ˆ Total Equivalent Warming Index (TEWI): The factor TEWI considers both direct
(due to release into atmosphere) and indirect (through energy consumption) contri-
butions of refrigerants to global warming. Naturally, refrigerants with a low value
of TEWI are preferable from global warming point of view.

ˆ Toxicity, Flammability, Chemical stability, Compatibility with common materials

of construction, Miscibility with lubricating oils and Dilelectric strength are some
other important properties

7.3.2 Designation of refrigerants

Figure 6.4.1 shows the classification of fluids used as refrigerants in vapour compression
refrigeration systems. Since a large number of refrigerants have been developed over the
years for a wide variety of applications, a numbering system has been adopted to designate

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various refrigerants. From the number one can get some useful information about the
type of refrigerant, its chemical composition, molecular weight etc. All the refrigerants
are designated by R followed by a unique number.

1. Fully saturated, halogenated compounds

These refrigerants are derivatives of alkanes (Cn H2n+2 ) such as methane (CH4 ),
ethane (C2 H6 ). These refrigerants are designated by R XYZ, where:
X + 1 indicates the number of Carbon (C) atoms
Y − 1 indicates number of Hydrogen (H) atoms, and
Z indicates number of Fluorine (F) atoms
The balance indicates the number of Chlorine atoms.
Only 2 digits indicates that the value of X is zero.
Similarly it can be shown that the chemical formula of
R12 =CCl2 F2
R134a =C2 H2 F4 (derivative of ethane) (letter a stands for isomer, e.g. molecules
having same chemical composition but different atomic arrangement, e.g. R134 and
R134a)

2. Inorganic refrigerants
These are designated by number 7 followed by the molecular weight of the refrigerant
(rounded-off)
Compound Molecular weight Designation
Ammonia 17 R717
Carbon dioxide 44 R744
Water 18 R718

3. Mixtures
Azeotropic mixtures are designated by 500 series, where as zeotropic refrigerants
(e.g. non-azeotropic mixtures) are designated by 400 series. Some common exam-
ples are shown in under
Azeotropic Constituents
R500 Mixture of R 12 (73.8 %) and R 152a (26.2%)
R502 Mixture of R 22 (48.8 %) and R 115 (51.2%)
R503 Mixture of R 23 (40.1 %) and R 13 (59.9%)
R507A Mixture of R 125 (50%) and R 143a (50%)

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Zeotropic Constituents
R404A Mixture of R 125 (44%), R 143a (52%) and R 134a (4%)
R407A Mixture of R 32 (20%), R 125 (40%) and R 134a (40%)
R407B Mixture of R 32 (10%), R 125 (70%) and R 134a (20%)
R410A Mixture of R 32 (50%) and R 125 (50%)

4. Hydrocarbons
Compound Refrigerant Name
Propane (C3 H8 ) R 290
n-Butane (C4 H10 ) R 600
iso-Butane (C4 H10 ) R 600a
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons R1150 (C2 H4 )
R 1270 (C3 H6 )

7.3.3 R134a
R134a is also known as Tetrafluoroethane (CF3 CH2 F ) from the family of HFC refrigerant.
With the discovery of the damaging effect of CFCs and HCFCs refrigerants to the ozone
layer, the HFC family of refrigerant has been widely used as their replacement. Currently
it is also being widely used in the air conditioning system in newer automotive vehicles.
It is now being used as a replacement for R12 CFC refrigerant in the area of centrifugal,
rotary screw, scroll and reciprocating compresssors. It is safe for normal handling as it
is non-toxic, non-flammable and non-corrosive. It exists in gas form when expose to the
environment as the boiling temperature is −26.1◦ C.
This refrigerant is not 100% compatible with the lubricants and mineral-based refrig-
erant currently used in R12. Design changes to the condenser and evaporator need to be
done to use this refrigerant. The use of smaller hoses and 30% increase in control pressure
regulations also have to be done to the system.
Synthetic refrigerants that were commonly used for refrigeration, cold storage and air
conditioning applications are: R11 (CFC 11), R12 (CFC 12), R22 (HCFC 22), R502 (CFC
12+HCFC 22) etc. However, these refrigerants have to be phased out due to their Ozone
Depletion Potential (ODP). The synthetic replacements for the older refrigerants are:
R134a (HFC-134a) and blends of HFCs. Generally, synthetic refrigerants are non-
toxic and non-flammable. However, compared to the natural refrigerants the synthetic
refrigerants offer lower performance and they also have higher Global Warming Potential
(GWP). As a result, the synthetic refrigerants face an uncertain future. The most com-
monly used natural refrigerant is ammonia. This is also one of the oldest known refriger-
ants. Ammonia has good thermodynamic, thermophysical and environmental properties.
However, it is toxic and is not compatible with some of the common materials of construc-
tion such as copper, which somewhat restricts its application. Other natural refrigerants
that are being suggested are hydrocarbons (HCs) and carbon di-oxide (R744). Though

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these refrigerants have some specific problems owing to their eco-friendliness, they are
being studied widely and are likely to play a prominent role in future.
Prior to the environmental issues of ozone layer depletion and global warming, the
most widely used refrigerants were: R11, R12, R22, R502 and ammonia. Of these,
R11 was primarily used with centrifugal compressors in air conditioning applications.
R12 was used primarily in small capacity refrigeration and cold storage applications,
while the other refrigerants were used in large systems such as large air conditioning
plants or cold storages. Among the refrigerants used, except ammonia, all the other
refrigerants are synthetic refrigerants and are non-toxic and non-flammable. Though
ammonia is toxic, it has been very widely used due to its excellent thermodynamic and
thermophysical properties. The scenario changed completely after the discovery of ozone
layer depletion in 1974. The depletion of stratospheric ozone layer was attributed to
chlorine and bromine containing chemicals such as Halons, CFCs, HCFCs etc. Since
ozone layer depletion could lead to a catastrophe on a global level, it has been agreed by
the global community to phase out the ozone depleting substances (ODS). As a result
except ammonia, all the other refrigerants used in cold storages had to be phased-out
and a search for suitable replacements began in earnest. At the same time, it was also
observed that in addition to ozone layer depletion, most of the conventional synthetic
refrigerants also cause significant global warming. In view of the environmental problems
caused by the synthetic refrigerants, opinions differed on replacements for conventional
refrigerants. The alternate refrigerants can be classified into two broad groups:

ˆ Non-ODS, synthetic refrigerants based on Hydro-Fluoro-Carbons (HFCs) and their

blends

ˆ Natural refrigerants including ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons and their

blends

It should be noted that the use of natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, hydrocar-
bons is not a new phenomena, but is a revival of the once-used-and-discarded technologies
in a much better form. Since the natural refrigerants are essentially making a comeback,
one advantage of using them is that they are familiar in terms of their strengths and weak-
nesses. Another important advantage is that they are completely environment friendly,
unlike the HFC based refrigerants, which do have considerable global warming potential.
The alternate synthetic refrigerants are normally non-toxic and non-flammable. It is also
possible to use blends of various HFCs to obtain new refrigerant mixtures with required
properties to suit specific applications. However, most of these blends are non-azeotropic
in nature, as a result there could be significant temperature glides during evaporation
and condensation, and it is also important take precautions to prevent leakage, as this
will change the composition of the mixture.

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7.4 Description of Test Rig

7.4.1 AC System Components
7.4.1.1 Compressor

The purpose of the compressor in the vapour compression cycle is to compress the low-
pressure dry gas from the evaporator and raise its pressure to that of the condenser.
Compressors may be divided into two types, positive displacement and dynamic. Positive
displacement types compress discrete volumes of low-pressure gas by physically reducing
the volumes causing a pressure increase, whereas dynamic types raise the velocity of the
low- pressure gas and subsequently reduce it in a way which causes a pressure increase.
Today, the majority of compressors are completely sealed, with the motor enclosed.
In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends through a seal
in the crankcase for an external drive. The external drive may be an electrical motor or
an engine (e.g. diesel engine). The compressor may be belt driven or gear driven. Open
type compressors are normally used in medium to large capacity refrigeration system
for all refrigerants and for ammonia (due to its incompatibility with hermetic motor
materials). Both the compressor and the motor normally reject heat to the surrounding
air for efficient operation.
In hermetic compressors, the motor and the compressor are enclosed in the same
housing to prevent refrigerant leakage. The housing has welded connections for refrigerant
inlet and outlet and for power input socket. As a result of this, there is virtually no
possibility of refrigerant leakage from the compressor. In hermetic compressors heat
cannot be rejected to the surrounding air since both are enclosed in a shell. Hence, the
cold suction gas is made to flow over the motor and the compressor before entering the
compressor. This keeps the motor cool.
The motor winding is in direct contact with the refrigerant hence only those refriger-
ants, which have high dielectric strength, can be used in hermetic compressors. If flow
rate is not sufficient and/or if the temperature is not low enough the insulation on the
winding of the motor can burn out and short-circuiting may occur. Hence, hermetically
sealed compressors give satisfactory and safe performance over a very narrow range of
design temperature and should not be used for off-design conditions.
Reciprocating type, capacity 1KW , Tecumseh make, hermatically sealed used to com-
press refrigerant vapour at low pressure from the evaporator to a higher pressure at the
condenser inlet

7.4.1.2 Condenser

The purpose of the condenser in a vapour compression cycle is to accept the hot, high-
pressure gas from the compressor and cool it to remove first the superheat and then the
latent heat, so that the refrigerant will condense back to a liquid. In addition, the liquid

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Figure 7.4.1: Chart of compressor types.

Courtesy: Refrigertaion, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps, 5th ed, by Hundy, Trott & Welch.

Figure 7.4.2: Reciprocating compressor

Courtesy: Refrigertaion, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps, 5th ed, by Hundy, Trott & Welch.

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Figure 7.4.3: Refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram

is usually slightly subcooled. In nearly all cases, the cooling medium will be air or water.
In a typical refrigerant condenser, the refrigerant enters the condenser in a superheated
state. It is first de-superheated and then condensed by rejecting heat to an external
medium. The refrigerant may leave the condenser as a saturated or a sub-cooled liquid,
depending upon the temperature of the external medium and design of the condenser.

7.4.1.3 Expansion Device

An expansion device is another basic component of a refrigeration system. It is provided

to facilitate expansion of high pressure liquid refrigerant to a low pressure liquid–vapour
mixture at constant enthalpy
The basic functions of an expansion device used in refrigeration systems are to:

1. Reduce pressure from condenser pressure to evaporator pressure, and

2. Regulate the refrigerant flow from the high-pressure liquid line into the evaporator
at a rate equal to the evaporation rate in the evaporator

Under ideal conditions, the mass flow rate of refrigerant in the system should be propor-
tional to the cooling load. Sometimes, the product to be cooled is suchthat a constant
evaporator temperature has to be maintained. In other cases, it is desirable that liq-
uid refrigerant should not enter the compressor. In such a case, the mass flow rate has
to be controlled in such a manner that only superheated vapour leaves the evaporator.
Again, an ideal refrigeration system should have the facility to control it in such a way
that the energy requirement is minimum and the required criterion of temperature and
cooling load are satisfied. Some additional controls to control the capacity of compressor

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and the space temperature may be required in addition, so as to minimize the energy
consumption.
The expansion devices used in refrigeration systems can be divided into fixed opening
type or variable opening type. As the name implies, in fixed opening type the flow area
remains fixed, while in variable opening type the flow area changes with changing mass
flow rates.

7.4.1.4 Cooling Coil

The Cooling Coil is a coil with fins where cooling takes place because of evaporation
of liquid — vapour refrigerant at low temperature and pressure it consists of a metallic
tubing with fins having small passage in between fins where air passes through and surface
through which the refrigerant flows while evaporating

7.4.2 Apparatus

Figure 7.4.4: Simple vapour-compression cycle

Courtesy: Refrigertaion, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps, 5th ed, by Hundy, Trott & Welch.

Figure shows the schematic of the set-up. It consists of a cooling coil which is a part of the
vapour Compression Air conditioning system working on R–l34a. In the upstream and
down stream of the cooling coil heaters are provided to heat air either at the tip-stream or
the down of the cooling coil. The system is provided with fans, air duct and valve system
to circulate air over the cooling coil and heaters and to operate the system in both closed
and open cycles. The system is instrumented with RTD and wind velocity Indicators
to determine the state of air moisture mixture during the operation of the conditioning
system. Following are the important components.

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1. Cooling coil of the vapour Compression Air conditioning System consisting of Com-
pressor, Condenser, Throttle / Capillary Tube, Digital / Analogue Pressure, Tem-
perature indicators with selector Switch and Humidity indicator with sensors before
and after cooling coil, power meter / Energy meter for compressor and heaters. The
System works on refrigerant R–l34a.

2. Air Heaters — 2 Nos of 1000 watts ( 500 W each) before and after cooling coil with
Dimmer stat for heat control.

3. Rotameter for flow measurement of refrigerant

4. Fan for air circulation in the Duct.

5. Valve System to change the system to perform in both closed and open cycle modes.

6. Wooden Duct of 300mm × 400mm × 2400mm length contains Fan, cooling coil,
heaters before and after cooling coil, temp and humidity sensor at before and after
cooilng coil, steam out let nozzle oft humidity creation, and the duct out let con-
nected to Working area chamber with window of 400mm × 400mm × 400mm size.
For closed circuit operation, a metallic duct of 200mm × 200mm size with baffle
type control valve connects the Working area chamber to the Main wooden duct
before the fan (suction side of fan) (closed circuit duct with air flow control valve).

7. Anemometer to measure air Velocity in the duct.

8. Temperature Indicators to measure Air Temperature Upstream of cooling Coil and

downstream of Air and compressor inlet and outlet, condesor inlet and outlet, after
expansion, inside working area chamber.

9. Analogue / Digital pressure of indicator at both upstream and downstream of com-

pressor.

10. Energy meter / Digital power meter (2 Nos.) for compressor and heater.

11. Steam generator with pressure gauge and safety valve and steam control valve for
humidification

12. Pressure switches to limit pressure upstream and downstream of compressor.

13. Thermostat to limit negative temperatures in the cooling coil.

7.5 Working Principle

Sensible Cooling is a process where air is cooled without changing specific humidity

Sensible Heating is a process where air is heated without changing specific humidity.

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Figure 7.5.1: Sensible cooling process

7.5.1 Cooling Process

During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its temperature
decreases as it flows over a cooling coil. For moisture content to remain constant, the
surface of the cooling coil should be dry and its surface temperature should be greater
than the dew point temperature of air. If the cooling coil is 100% effective, then the exit
temperature of air will be equal to the coil temperature. However, in practice, the exit
air temperature will be higher than the cooling coil temperature. Figure 7.5.1 shows the
sensible cooling process O-A on a psychrometric chart. The heat transfer rate during this
process is given by

Qc = ma (H5 − H6 ) = ma cpm (T5 − T6 ) (7.5.1)

where, ma is the mass of the air, and cpm is the humid specific heat

The heat rejected by air (per kg of air) during cooling can be obtained from the
psychrometric chart by the enthalpy (h) difference between the Air Inlet and Outlet.

kJ
Heat rejected = (H5 − H6 ) (7.5.2)
kg
It may be noted that since the specific humidity remains constant (WO − WA = 0),
the dry bulb temperature reduces from TO to ΤA and the relative humidity increases from
θi to θO .

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

Figure 7.5.2: Sensible heating process

7.5.2 Winter Air Heating process

In this process, cold air from the cooling coil is again heated to the required temperature
by the post heater as shown in Figure 7.5.2. This stimulates the air heating process
encountered during winter. During this process, the moisture content of air remains
constant and its temperature increases as it flows over a heating coil. The heat transfer
rate during this process is given by:

Qh = ma (h5 − h6 ) = ma cpm (T5 − T6 ) (7.5.3)

where cpm is the humid specific heat (≈ 1.0216 kJ

kg
dry air) and ma is the mass flow
kJ
rate of dry air ( kg ).

The heat absorbed by air (per Kg of air) during cooling can be obtained from the
Psychrometric chart by the enthalpy (H) difference between the air inlet and outlet.
Figure 7.5.2 shows the sensible heating process on a psychrometric chart.

kJ
Heat absorbed = (H5 − H6 ) (7.5.4)
kg
It may be noted that, like in sensible cooling, since the specific humidity remains
constant (Wi − Wo = 0), the dry bulb temperature increases from T6 to Τ5 and the
relative humidity increases from θi to θo .

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Figure 7.5.3: Cooling and humidification process

7.5.3 Cooling and Humidification

As the name implies, during this process, the air temperature drops and its humidity
increases. This process is shown in Fig.28.6. As shown in the figure, this can be achieved
by spraying cool water in the air stream. The temperature of water should be lower
than the dry-bulb temperature of air but higher than its dew-point temperature to avoid
condensation (TDP T < TW < TO )

It can be seen that during this process there is sensible heat transfer from air to water
and latent heat transfer from water to air. Hence, the total heat transfer depends upon
the water temperature. If the temperature of the water sprayed is equal to the wet- bulb
temperature of air, then the net transfer rate will be zero as the sensible heat transfer
from air to water will be equal to latent heat transfer from water to air. If the water
temperature is greater than WBT, then there will be a net heat transfer from water to
air. If the water temperature is less than WBT, then the net heat transfer will be from
air to water.

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T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

Table 7.6.1: Temperatures at various state points - Open cycle cooling

7.6 Testing Procedure

7.6.1 Open Cycle – Cooling
1. Switch ON the Mains and the Console

2. Open the window and set the valve to work the Air conditioning system in the open
cycle operation

3. Switch — ON the Thermostat and set it to the maximum value

4. Switch — ON all MCBs

5. Switch — ON the compressor of the Refrigeration Unit, the cooling coil temperature
begins to fall

6. Switch — ON the Suction Fans

7. Switch — ON pre-heater

8. Observe Temperatures (T5 & T6 ) at the inlet and outlet of the Air Conditioning Unit
till fairly steady state is reached

7.6.2 Tabulation

T1 , Temperature of Refrigerant after evaporator or inlet to Compressor (°C)

T2 , Temperature οf Refrigerant after compression (°C)
T3 , Temperature of Refrigerant after condensation (°C)
T4 , Temperature οf Refrigerant after Throttle / capillary tube (°C)
T5 , Air Inlet Temperature, before cooling coil (°C)
T6 , Air Outlet Temperature, after cooling coil and post heater (°C)
T7 , Air Temperature working area chamber (°C)
T8 , Temperature at inlet to cooling coil (°C)
T9 , Temperature at outlet of cooling coil (°C)

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 Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual

HP LP V pc ph θi θo

Table 7.6.2: Other variables at various state points - Open cycle cooling

HP , Pressure, High Pressure Side (kg/cm2 )

LP , Pressure Low Pressure Side (kg/cm2 )
V , Air Velocity from Wind Anemometer (m/sec)
pc , Power Input to the compressor (watts)
ph , Power Input to the heater (watts)
θi , Relative Humidity of Air at lnlet (%)
θo , Relative Humidity of Air at Outlet (%)

7.6.3 Closed Cycle – Cooling

Repeat the above processes (as mentioned in 7.5.1 ) with the following conditions taken
into consideration.

1. Window closed

2. Valve differen position to facilitate circulation of air inside the duct system

3. Additional fan switched off

7.6.4 Tabulation

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9

Table 7.6.3: Temperatures at various state points - Closed cycle cooling

HP LP V pc ph θi θo

Table 7.6.4: Other variables at various state points - Closed cycle cooling

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The list of temperatures and psychrometric variables are as mentioned in Section

7.5.1.

7.6.5 Coefficient of Performance (CoP)

Refrigeration ‘efficiency’ is usually defined as the heat extracted divided by the work
input. This is called CoP or coefficient of performance. The ideal or Carnot CoP takes
its name from Sadi Carnot and is given by:

Q T0
CoP = = (7.6.1)
W (T1 − T0 )
The heat absorbed and the work input can be represented in terms of the enthalpy
difference and hence the CoP may also be expressed as,

Q H1 − H4
CoP = = (7.6.2)
W H2 − H1
It is the dimensionless ratio of thermal energy rate and power input rate (mechanical
or electrical). The same units are used for both, normally W or kW . COP may apply to
cooling or to heating, depending on whether a system is delivering useful heat or useful
cooling. For a simple system:

COP(cooling) = COP(heating) − 1 (7.6.3)

Normally it is quite clear from the context which COP is intended, and occasionally
suffixes are used, for example COPR , COPH .
Confusingly, EER is used instead of COP in Europe for some air-conditioning units
including chillers. Instead of using the normal Btu
h
/W definition, EER for a chiller is
defined as kW cooling capacity per kW power

7.6.6 Ton of Refrigeration (TR)

Refrigeration equipment must have a capacity rating system so that equipment made by
different manufacturers and different models can be compared. The method for rating
refrigeration equipment capacity goes back to the days of using ice as the source for
removing heat. It takes 144 Btu of heat energy to melt 1 lb of ice at 32◦ F . This same
figure is also used in the capacity rating of refrigeration equipment.
The term for this capacity rating is the ton. One ton of refrigeration is the amount of
heat required to melt 1 ton of ice in a 24-hour period. Defined as 12,000 Btu/h, originally
one ton-day was the amount of heat removed to make one US ton (2000lb) (also called a
short ton = 907.18 kg) of ice in one day.
Imperial units, previously used in the United Kingdom, have now been superseded by
international SI units, but are still used in the United States. These together with some

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other idiosyncrasies deserve special mention: Btu and Btu/h – British Thermal Units are
very deeply rooted in the world of heating and cooling. Data originating in the USA and
some parts of Asia are likely to be expressed in terms of Btu. The rate of thermal energy
is Btu/h, commonly abbreviated verbally as simply ‘Btu’. The Fahrenheit temperature
scale is likely to be used in these situations.
When converting it into SI Units,

Btu J 1055.06 J
12000 = 12000 × 1055.06 = 12000 × = 3.516W
h h 3600 s

1T R = 3.516W

7.7 Result
ˆ The coefficent of performance (CoP) of the air conditioning sytems is:

ˆ The Tonnage of Refriegeration (TR )of the air conditioning sytems is:

References
1. 2010 ASHRAE Handbook – Refrigeration (2010), American Society of Heating,
Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, USA

2. Hundy, Trott, Welch (2016); Refrigertaion, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps, 5th
ed.; Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK

3. 40 Lessons on Refrigeration and Air Conditioning from IIT Kharagpur. Useful

Training Material for Mechanical Engineering Students/ College or as Reference
for Engineers (2008), Department of Electrical Engineering, IIT, Kharagpur, India

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Part II

IC Engine Experiments

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Historical Background

As an introduction to this segment on IC Engine experiments, let us first first take a

history tour, visiting a few of the major figures in the invention and development of the
internal combustion engines.
In 1858, J. Lenior (1822–1900), a Belgian engineer, developed a two-stroke engine
that developed 6 hp with an efficiency of about 5%. During the intake stroke, a gas--
air mixture at atmospheric pressure was drawn into the engine, and ignited by a spark,
causing the cylinder pressure to increase during the latter half of the stroke, producing
work. The return stroke was used to remove the combustion products through an exhaust
valve. The Lenior engine was primarily used in stationary power applications.
In 1872, George Brayton (1830--1892), an American mechanical engineer, patented
and commercialized a constant pressure internal combustion engine, “Brayton’s Ready
Engine”. The engine used two reciprocating piston-driven cylinders, a compression cylin-
der, and an expansion cylinder. The Brayton piston engine was used on the first automo-
bile in 1878. The Brayton cycle is the thermodynamic cycle now used by gas turbines,
which use rotating fan blades to compress and expand the gas flowing through the turbine.
Nikolaus Otto (1832--1891), a German engineer, developed the “Otto Silent Engine”,
the first practical four-stroke engine with in-cylinder compression in 1876. With a com-
pression ratio of 2.5, the gas engine produced 2 hp at 160 rpm, and had a brake efficiency
of 14%. Nikolaus Otto is considered the inventor of the modern internal combustion
engine, and the founder of the internal combustion engine industry. The concept of a
four-stroke engine had been conceived and patented by A. de Rochas in 1861, however
Otto is recog- nized as the first person to build and commercialize a working flame ignition
engine. In 1872, he founded the first internal combustion engine manufacturing company,
N. A. Otto and Cie, and hired Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, who would
(eventually) go on to start the first automobile company, the Daimler Motor Company
in 1890. You would also find it intersting to read that Otto’s son Gustav founded the
automotive company now known as BMW.
Many of these early internal combustion engines, such as the Lenior, Brayton, and
Otto engines, were powered by coal gas, a mixture of methane, hydrogen, carbon monox-
ide, and other gases produced by the partial pyrolysis of coal. In the 1880s, crude oil
refineries began producing gasoline and kerosene in quantities sufficient to create a market
for liquid-fueled internal combustion engines.

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Gottlieb Daimler (1834--1900), a German engineer, is recognized as one of the founders

of the automotive industry. He developed a high-speed four-stroke gasoline-fueled engine
in 1883. The liquid fuel was vaporized and mixed with the intake air in a carburetor
before being drawn into the combustion chamber. The fuel air mixture was ignited by a
flame tube. In 1886, he built the first four-wheeled automobile, and founded the Daimler
Motor Company in 1890.
Karl Benz (1844--1929), a German engineer, successfully developed a 3.5 hp liquid-
fueled two-stroke engine with a carburetor and spark ignition in 1885. The ignition system
consisted of an electrical induction coil with a rotary breaker driven by the engine and a
re- movable spark plug fitted into the cylinder head, similar to what is found in today’s
engines. The engine was installed on a three-wheeled vehicle in 1886, the first “horseless
carriage”. The transmission was a two-chain arrangement that connected the engine to
the rear axle.
In 1897, Rudolph Diesel (1858--1913), a German engineer, developed the first practical
four-stroke engine using direct injection of liquid fuel into the combustion chamber. The
high compression ratio of the engine resulted in autoignition and combustion of the fuel
air mixture. He designed his engines to follow Carnot’s thermodynamic principles as
closely as possible. Accordingly, his initial objective was to have constant temperature
combustion, however, this was not realized in practice, and he adopted the strategy of
constant pressure combustion.
Rudolph Diesel’s single-cylinder engine had a bore of 250mm, stroke of 400mm, for
a 20L displacement. The diesel fuel was atomized using air injection, a technique where
compressed air entrained diesel fuel in the injector and carried it into the cylinder. The
engine operated at a speed of 170 rpm, and produced 18 hp, with an efficiency of 27%
at full load. This is a much greater efficiency than the steam engines and spark ignition
engines in use at that time.
Sir Harry Ricardo (1885--1974), a mechanical engineering graduate of Cambridge, and
a prominent English engineer, patented the use of a spherical prechamber, the Ricardo
“Comet”, to greatly increase the fuel--air mixing rate, allowing diesel engines to be used in
high--speed, 2000 rpm and higher, engine vehicular applications. The first multi-cylinder
diesel engines for trucks were available by 1924, and the first diesel-powered automobiles
were available by 1936. During his career, Ricardo also contributed to greater under-
standing of the role of turbulence, swirl and squish in enhancing flame speed in both
spark and diesel engines, commercialized sleeve valves for aircraft engines, developed an
octane rating system for quantifying knock in spark engines, and founded what is now
the Ricardo Consulting Engineers Company.
These early engines were air cooled, since they produced relatively low power. Natural-
convection water-cooling using the thermosyphon principle, and forced convection cooling
using water pumps was adopted after about 1910 for higher horsepower engines. For
example, Henry Ford’s Model T engine of 1908, and the Wright Brother’s Flyer engine

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of 1903 used natural convection water cooling.

Internal combustion engines can be built in many different configurations. For a given
engine, using a four or two-stroke Otto or Diesel cycle, the configurations are characterized
by the piston--cylinder geometry, the inlet and exhaust valve geometry, the use of super
or turbochargers, the type of fuel delivery system, and the type of cooling system. The
reciprocating piston--cylinder combination remains the dominant form of the internal
combustion engine.
The performance of the engines depend upon these configuration and vary quite
widely. It is to test and understand how much these parameters are effective on the
performance of the engine that the following experiments on various IC engines are con-
ducted.

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Experiment 8

Diesel Engine coupled to Rope Brake Dyno

8.1 Aim
Experimental determination of performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency,
indicated thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, specific fuel consumption and air fuel
ratio for a 4 Stroke Vertical Diesel Engine coupled to a Rope Brake Dynamometer.

8.2 Introduction
A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that operates based on the Diesel Cycle.
In diesel engines, air is first compressed and fuel is then injected. Since air heats up
during compression, the fuel ignites as it comes in contact with the high temperature of
the air. The standard compression ratios of diesel engines are higher than 18 and so,
compression ratios as high as 25 : 1 can be achieved. Diesel has a higher energy density
and hence gives better mileage than petrol. Diesel engines however produce more noise
and vibration as compared to petrol engines.
In 1897, Rudolph Diesel (1858--1913), a German engineer, developed the first practical
four-stroke engine using direct injection of liquid fuel into the combustion chamber. The
high compression ratio of the engine resulted in autoignition and combustion of the fuel
air mixture. Diesel graduated from Munich Polytechnic in 1880, and worked with his
former professor, Carl von Linde, initially on ammonia Rankine cycle refrigeration, then
worked with the MAN company to develop compression ignition engines. He designed his
engines to follow Carnot’s thermodynamic principles as closely as possible. Accordingly,
his initial objective was to have constant temperature combustion, however, this was not
realized in practice, and he adopted the strategy of constant pressure combustion.
Rudolph Diesel’s single-cylinder engine had a bore of 250mm, stroke of 400mm, for
a 20L displacement. The diesel fuel was atomized using air injection, a technique where
compressed air entrained diesel fuel in the injector and carried it into the cylinder. The
engine operated at a speed of 170 rpm, and produced 18 hp, with an efficiency of 27%
at full load. This is a much greater efficiency than the steam engines and spark ignition

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engines in use at that time.

Despite combustion occurring more slowly in compression ignition engines, they are
more efficient than spark ignition engines because of several factors: Their higher com-
pression ratios; their power output is controlled by the quantity of fuel injected, not by
throttling, with its associated losses; during compression the behaviour of air is closer to
ideal than the behaviour of a fuel/air mixture .

8.2.1 Diesel Fuel

Diesel fuel has a calorific value of approximately 45 MkgJ and it has a specific gravity of
approximately 0.8 ccg . The ignition quality of diesel fuel is denoted by the cetane number;
a figure of 50 indicates good ignition properties. Among other properties of diesel fuel
that affect normal operation are flash point, pour point and cloud point, or cold filter
plugging point. But other than the flash point, we would not be exploring the other three
points of interest.

8.2.2 Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle

In the theoretical diesel cycle the pressure–volume diagram is of the form shown in Figure
8.2.1

Figure 8.2.1: Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle

Working round the diagram shown in Figure 8.2.1, starting at point 1: air is com-
pressed adiabatically – no heat is added to the air in the cylinder and none is rejected,
up to point 2. At point 2, heat energy is added and the air in the cylinder expands, doing
work on the piston; the volume increases to point 3 while the pressure remains constant.
Work is done on the piston during this phase. No further heat is added after point 3 and
the air in the cylinder expands adiabatically doing work on the piston up to point 4. At

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point 4 the remaining heat energy in the air in the cylinder is removed while the volume
remains constant and the air in the cylinder is restored to its original state at point 1.
Because the compression and expansion processes are adiabatic, during which no heat
is added or rejected,

the work done during the cycle = heat added–heat rejected. (8.2.1)

The thermal efficiency of the diesel cycle, also known as the air standard thermal
efficiency is given by,
 γ 
1 (β − 1)
ηdiesel =1− γ (8.2.2)
(r − 1) γ(β − 1)
where r is the compression ratio, ρ is a factor derived from the fuelling design of the
engine (also called the cut off ratio where β = VV32 = TT32 , and γ =adiabatic index for air.
The term in brackets in Equation 6.2.2 is greater than 1, so that for the same com-
pression ratio r, the efficiency of the Diesel cycle is less than that of the Otto cycle.
However, since Diesel cycle engines are not knock limited, they operate at about twice
the compression of ratio of Otto cycle engines. For the same maximum pressure, the
efficiency of the Diesel cycle is greater than that of the Otto cycle.
Although Equation 6.2.2 is correct, its utility suffers somewhat in that β is not a
natural choice of independent variable. Rather, in engine operation, we should think
more in terms of the heat transferred in. The two are related according to

γ−1 Qin 1
β =1− × × (γ−1) (8.2.3)
γ P1 v1 r

8.2.3 Engine Performance Parameters

8.2.3.1 Engine Geometry

Figure 8.2.2: Engine slider--crank geometry

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Engine Geometry For any one cylinder, the crankshaft, connecting rod, piston, and head
assembly can be represented by the mechanism shown in Figure 6.2.2. Of particular
interest are the following geometric parameters: bore, b; connecting rod length, l; crank
radius, a; stroke, s; and crank angle,θ. The crank radius is one-half of the stroke. The
top dead center (tdc) of an engine refers to the crankshaft being in a position such that
θ = 0 . The cylinder volume in this position is minimum and is also called the clearance
volume, Vc . Bottom dead center (bdc) refers to the crankshaft being at θ = 180. The
cylinder volume at bottom dead center V1 is maximum.

8.2.3.2 Indicated Power

Indicated power Indicated power (ip) is the power that is developed inside the engine
cylinders. It is determined by measuring the pressures inside the cylinders while the
engine is on test, on a dynamometer. The device that is used to measure the pressure
is called an indicator, from which the term indicated power is derived. The indicator
diagram for a four-stroke engine is shown in Figure 6.2.3 (also Figure 1.2.4). Because the
pressure varies greatly throughout one cycle of operation of the engine, the pressure that
is used to calculate indicated power is the mean effective pressure.

Figure 8.2.3: Actual Indicator Diagram

Indicated power is calculated from the formula,

pm LAN K
Indicated power, ip = kW (8.2.4)
1000

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where Pm = mean effective pressure in mN2 ,

l = length of engine stroke in m,
a = cross-sectional area of cylinder bore in m2 ,
N = number of working strokes per second

Mean effective pressure The mean effective pressure is that pressure which, if acting
on its own throughout one complete power stroke, would produce the same power as is
produced by the various pressures that occur during one operating cycle of the engine. This
information is usually shown in an indicator diagram of the type shown in Figure 6.2.3. In
that diagram, the loop formed by the pressure trace for the exhaust and induction strokes
is known as the pumping loop. This represents power taken away and the effective area is
determined by subtracting A2 from A1 . This calculation then gives the indicated mean
effective pressure. The resulting area (A1 − A2 ) is then divided by the base length of
the diagram. The resulting mean height is then multiplied by a constant that gives the
indicated mean effective pressure (imep).

8.2.3.3 Brake Power

The engine power that actually reaches the output shaft or flywheel of an engine is
known as the brake power. It is the power that is measured by a dynamometer and a
dynamometer is also known as a brake, hence the term, brake power. The simplest form
of dynamometer is shown in Figure 6.2.4. Here a rope is wound around the circumference
of the engine flywheel; one end of the rope is supported by a spring balance and the other
end has weights attached to it. The load that the engine is working against is varied by
increasing, or decreasing, the amount of weight. The effective load (force) that the engine
is working against is = W − S newtons.

Figure 8.2.4: Simple dynamometer for low-speed engines

Rotating the flywheel inside the rope, against the force (W − S) newtons newtons,
is equivalent to moving the force (W − S) around the circumference of the flywheel.
The distance travelled by the force during one revolution of the flywheel is equal to the

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circumference of the flywheel. If the radius of the flywheel is R metres, the circumference
= 2πR meters. From this, it may be seen that:

W ork done per revolution of the f lywheel = f orce × distance

= (W − S) × 2πR joules (8.2.5)

(W − S) × R also = T ; the torque that the engine is exerting. By substituting T for

(W − S) × R, the work done per revolution becomes = T × 2π joules

bp = work done per second = (T × 2π) × no. of revolutions per second (8.2.6)

This is normally written as brake power,

bp = 2πT N (8.2.7)

where N = number of revolutions per second

When the torque is in newton metres (N m), the formula bp = 2πT N gives the power
in watts. As engine power is given in thousands of watts, i.e. kilowatts, and the speed
in in rotations per minute, the formula for brake power normally appears as:

2πT N
bp = kW (8.2.8)
60 × 1000

Note
Each cylinder of a four-stroke engine produces one power stroke for every two
revolutions of the crankshaft. In a multi-cylinder engine, each cylinder will
produce one power stroke in every two revolutions of the crankshaft. A formula
to determine the number of power strokes per minute for a multi-cylinder, four
stroke engine is:

numberof cylinders
number of power strokes per minute = × rev/min
2
Also note,
( )
rev./s f or two − stroke engines
N= rev./s
2
f or f our − stroke engmes.
.

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Figure 8.2.5: Willan’s Line method or the Fuel rate extrapolation method for finding out
the mexhanical losses

8.2.3.4 Frictional Power

The brake power is less than the indicated power due to engine mechanical friction,
pumping losses in the intake and exhaust, and accessory power needs, which are grouped
as a friction power loss, Wf

f p = ip − bp (8.2.9)

The frictional power (f p) is found out by plotting the graph mf vs bp. This method is
also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this method a graph of fuel consumption
(vertical axis) versus brake power (horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated on to
the negative axis of brake power as shown in Figure 6.2.5. The intercept of the negative
axis is taken as the friction power (f p) of the engine at that speed. The frictional power
(f p) thus obtained can be added along with the brake power (bp) to get the indicated
power (ip). The relationship between shaft power and mass flow through a heat engine is
sometimes called the Willans’ Line after Peter William Willans, a British engineer who
proved it experimentally.
As shown in the figure, in most of the power range the relation between the fuel con-
sumption and brake power is linear when speed of the engine is held constant and this per-
mits extrapolation. Further when the engine does not develop power, i.e. brake power =
0, it consumes a certain amount of fuel. This energy in the fuel would have been spent
in overcoming the friction. Hence the extrapolated negative intercept of the horizontal
axis will be the work representing the combined losses due to friction, pumping and as
a whole is termed as the frictional loss of the engine. This method of measuring friction
power will hold good only for a particular speed and is applicable mainly for compression
ignition engines.

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The main draw back of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data
between 5 and 40 % load towards the zero line of the fuel input. The directional margin
of error is rather wide because the graph is not exactly linear.

8.2.3.5 Mechanical Efficiency

The mechanical efficiency of an engine is defined as

brake power bp
ηmech = = (8.2.10)
indicated power ip
This gives a measure of how much of the power generated inside the cylinder is con-
verted into useful power available at the crank shaft. The difference between indicated
work and brake work is accounted for by friction, and work done in driving essential items
such as the lubricating oil pump. So you may also express it as,

bmep
ηmech = (8.2.11)
imep

8.2.3.6 Thermal Efficiency

The thermal efficiency of an engine is a term that is used to express the effectiveness of
an engine’s ability to convert heat energy into useful work. Thermal efficiency is the ratio
of energy output of the engine to energy supplied to the engine in the fuel:

ˆ indicated thermal efficiency ηith = indicated power

energy suppliued

ip
= mass of f uel
s
× calorif ic value of the f uel

ip
ηith = (8.2.12)
ṁ × CV

ˆ brake thermal efficiency ηbth = brake power

energy suppliued

bp
= mass of f uel
s
× calorif ic value of the f uel

bp
ηith = (8.2.13)
ṁ × CV

8.2.3.7 Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency is a measure of the effectiveness of the induction and exhaust pro-
cesses. Even though some engines inhale a mixture of fuel and air it is convenient, but
arbitrary, to define volumetric efficiency as

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mass of air inhaled per cycle

ηv = (8.2.14)
mass of air to occupy swept volume at 0 ambient0 p and T

Assuming air obeys the Gas Laws, this can be rewritten as

V˙a
ηv = (8.2.15)
VS N
V˙a =volumetric flow rate of air with ’ambient’ density
Vs =engine
( swept volume )
rev./s f or two − stroke engines
N= rev./s
2
f or f our − stroke engmes.

8.2.3.8 Specific Fuel Consumption (sfc)

The specific fuel consumption is a comparative metric for the efficiency of converting the
chemical energy of the fuel into work produced by the engine. As with the mean effective
pressure, there are two specific fuel consumption parameters, brake and indicated.
Brake specific fuel consumption (bsf c) is a measure of the effectiveness of an engine’s
ability to convert the chemical energy in the fuel into useful work. The brake specific fuel
consumption (bsfc) is the fuel flow rate mf , divided by the brake power Wb and is as shown
in equation 6.2.14. You find that it has three terms that are standard measurements in
an engine test: the fuel flow rate, the torque, and the engine speed.

mass of f uel consumed per hour

bsf c =
brake power

ṁf ṁf
bsf c = = (8.2.16)
Ẇb 2πT N

The indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc) is the ratio of the mass of fuel injected
during a cycle to the indicated cylinder work, and is used to compare engine performance
in computational simulations that do not include the engine friction.

ṁf
isf c = (8.2.17)
Ẇi

Typical values of measured bsfc for naturally aspirated automobile engines depend
on the engine load, with values ranging from about 200 to 400 g/kWh. The specific fuel
consumption and engine efficiency are inversely related, so that the lower the specific fuel

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consumption, the greater the engine efficiency. Engineers use bsfc rather than thermal
efficiency primarily because a more or less universally accepted definition of thermal
efficiency does not exist.

8.2.3.9 Specific Air Consumption (sac)

As with specific fuel consumption, specific air consumption can be evaluated as a brake
specific air consumption (bsac) or as an indicated specific air consumption (isac). The
specific air consumption indicates how good a combustion system is at utilising the air
trapped within the cylinder, and it is most likely to be encountered with diesel engines.
This is because the output of diesel engines (especially when naturally aspirated) is often
limited by the fuelling level that causes smoke. In other words. when the specific air
consumption is evaluated at full load, it tells the designer how well the air and fuel have
been mixed.
When the gravimetric air/fuel ratio is known (AFR), the relationship with brake
specific fuel consumption (bsfc) and indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc) is

isac = AF R × isf c (8.2.18)

8.2.4 Measurement Components

8.2.4.1 Dynamometer

The defining parameters of any rotating machinery are Torque, Speed, and Power. So,
it is imperative that these quantities need to be accurately measured for determining a
machine’s efficiency and also for establishing safe operating regimes for long and reliable
service. Torque and power measurements are used in testing new engine designs and in
the development of new components.
Rotating machinery exists in specific types without limit and may operate at power
levels from fractions of a watt to some tens of megawatts. Apparatus for power measure-
ment exists in a similarly wide range of types and sizes. Mechanical power flows from
a driver to a load. This power can be determined directly by application of Equation
1.2.1. The rate at which work is performed is termed power, P. If a torque T acts over a
small interval of time ∆t, during which there is an angular displacement ∆θ, work equal
to T ∆θ is performed at the rateT ∆θ∆t
. Replacing ∆θ
∆t
by ω, power is found simply as

P = Tω (8.2.19)

Dynamometers are force, torque or power measuring device. It is an apparatus that

includes absorbing or/and driving means and wherein torque is determined by the reaction
forces on a stationary part (the stator). Generally for large machinery, dynamometers

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include a driving or absorbing machine. Such dynamometers are classified according to

their function as absorbing or driving (sometimes motoring). A universal dynamometer
can function as either a driver or an absorber.
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two types. They are,

ˆ Power Absorption Dynamometers

ˆ Transmission Dynamometers
Transmission Dynamometers
Transmission dynamometers are also called torque meters. They mostly consist of
a set of strain-gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the
angular deformation of the shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge.
A four arm bridge is used to reduce the effect of temperature and the gauges are
arranged in pairs such that the effect of axial or transverse load on the strain gauges
is avoided.
Absorption Dynamometers
Absorption dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to
which they are coupled to. Absorption dynamometers, oftentimes are called brakes
since their operation depends on the creation of a controllable drag torque and
convert mechanical work into heat. A drag torque, as distinguished from an active
torque, can act only to restrain and not to initiate rotational motion. Temperature
rise within a dynamometer is controlled by carrying away the heat energy, usually
by transfer to a moving fluid, typically air or water.
Drag torque is created by inherently dissipative processes such as friction between
rubbing surfaces, shear or turbulence of viscous liquids, flow of electric current,
or magnetic hysteresis. Brakes of this type are rarely used with modern prime
movers, their main use being for instructional purposes, since they embody all of the
underlying principles and major operating considerations for all types of absorption
dynamometers. Some commone examples of power absorption dynamometers are
Prony brake dynamometer, Rope brake dynamometer, Eddy current dynamometer,
Hydraulic dynamometer, etc.

1. Prony Brake
Pony Brake is one of the simplest dynamometer for measuring power output
(brake power). It is to attempt to stop the engine by means of a brake on
the flywheel and measure the weight which an arm attached to the brake will
support, as it tries to rotate with the flywheel. It is interesting to note that
Prony brakes allow full drag torque to be imposed down to zero speed. But
uneven retarding forces associated with fluctuating coefficients of friction gen-
erally make rubbing friction a poor way to generate drag torque. Nevertheless,

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Figure 8.2.6: Classical prony brake

because they may be easily constructed, ad hoc variations of prony brakes, of-
ten using only bare ropes or wooden cleats connected by ropes or straps, find
use in the laboratory or wherever undemanding or infrequent power measure-
ments are to be made. The rope brake explained below is such a variation of
the prony brake dyno.

2. Rope Brake
A rope-brake dynamometer consists of 2 or more ropes wrapped around the
flywheel whose brake power is to be measured. The upper end of the rope is
connected to a spring balance, while the other end is connected to a set of dead
weights so that engine maintains a constant speed. An alternative arrangement
is where both ends may be connected to separate spring balances.
The power that would normally be delivered by the shaft of the driving engine
to the driven load is converted instead into heat via the work done by the
frictional forces between the friction blocks and the flywheel rim. Adjusting
the tightness of the clamping bolts varies the frictional drag torque as required.
Heat is removed from the inside surface of the rim by arrangements (as shown
in Fig) utilizing either a continuous flow or evaporation of water. While the
drag torque tends to rotate the clamped-on apparatus, it is held stationary by
the equal but opposite reaction torque F × r. The F at the end of the torque
arm of radius r (a fixed dimension of the apparatus) is monitored by a scale
or load cell.
We know that if during the time of application of a torque T, the body rotates

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Figure 8.2.7: Rope brake.Dynamometer

through some angle, θ, mechanical work W = T θ. The rate at which work

is performed is termed power, P . The corresponding power is found from
T = F × l and P = T ω

2πN
P =F ×r×ω =F ×r× , where N is in rpm. (8.2.20)
60
The unit of power follows from its definition and is given the special name
watt, (W )

J N.m
1W = 1 =1
s s
Historically, power has also been measured in horsepower (Hp), where 1 Hp =
746 W
3. Alternating Currrent and DC Generators
Cradled AC and DC machines are employed as power absorbing elements in
dynamometers. The AC applications require variable frequency capabilities to
allow a wide range of power and speed measurements. The power produced
in such dynamometers may be dissipated as thermal energy using resistive
loads. A detailed description is given along with the literature on the Test
experiments, where they have been used.

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4. Hydraulic/ Waterbrake Dynamometers

A waterbrake dynamometer employs fluid friction and momentum transport to
create a means of energy dissipation. A detailed description is given along with
the literature on Morse Test experiment, where the hydraulic dynamometer has
been used..
5. Eddy Current Dynamometers
A direct current field coil and a rotor allow shaft power to be dissipated by
eddy currents in the stator winding. Rotation of a toothed or spoked steel rotor
through a spatially uniform magnetic field, created by direct current through
coils in the stator, induces locally circulating (eddy) currents in electrically
conductive (copper) portions of the stator. Electromagnetic forces between
the rotor, which is magnetized by the uniform field, and the field arising from
the eddy currents create the drag torque.

With an appropriate control system, the dynamometer can be used to control either
engine speed or torque. For control of engine speed, the dynamometer applies whatever
load is required to maintain that speed. For example, if an engine was being tested, then
the response of the dynamometer to the operator increasing the inlet manifold pressure
by opening the throttle would be to increase the load (resistance to turning or applied
torque) to maintain the speed.
With torque control selected, the dynamometer maintains a fixed load. For example,
the dynamometers response to opening the throttle would be to maintain a constant
applied torque. In this case, the engine speed would increase to a point where the friction
mean effective pressure in the engine would have increased by an amount equal to the
increase in the net indicated mean effective pressure. Since about one third of the input
fuel energy to the engine ends up as heat transfer to the coolant, a cooling tower or
radiator is required for the dynamometer stand. The cooling tower will control the coolant
temperature. A complete test stand has, in addition, provisions to control the fuel and
air temperature, the atmospheric pressure, and the air humidity.

8.2.4.2 Airflow Measurement

The air flow measurement was achieved by a U-tube manometer and air chamber. It has
an air chamber. The air chamber is equipped with an inlet orifice having coefficient of
discharge 0.6. The pressure difference in the inlet manifold was measured by a normal
U-tube manometer. Airflow was measured by taking the difference in heights of the water
column in the two legs of the manometer and area of orifice of the surge tank.
Airflow to engines cannot be measured with the same precision as the fuel flow. There
are two main reasons for this:

1. the instrumentation available is at best accurate to within about 1%, and

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2. it is harder to ensure that all of the air delivered to the engine is metered or retained.
Air can leak into and out of the cylinder of engines, for example, through the valve
guides.

As a result, as recommended by Stone (1989), it is wise to measure airflow not only

directly but also indirectly using exhaust gas analysis.
A common problem in measuring airflow is that the flow is unsteady or periodic;
however, the available meters are usable only in a steady flow. A similar problem can
be encountered in measuring fuel flow. The severity of the problem decreases with an
increasing number of cylinders sharing a common intake manifold and with an increase
in the volume between the meter and the intake ports. The volume acts as a fluid
capacitor to damp out fluctuations at the meter. The flow at the meter is smoother with
multicylinder engines than with single-cylinder engines because since the flow rates to
individual cylinders are superimposed, the flow at the meter becomes smooth.
A solution for the worst case, that is, for a single-cylinder engine, that can be applied
to steady-state engine is where all of the air to be delivered to the engine is metered by
a steady-state airflow meter located upstream of a surge tank.

8.2.4.3 Fuel Flow Measurement

An old, but accurate and simple, way to measure the cumulative fuel flow to an engine is
to locate the fuel supply on a weighing bridge and time the period required to consume a
certain weight of fuel. This method works equally well for both liquid and gaseous fuels.
Fuel flow metering in the test rig includes a fast flow pipette and the capacity scale
of the pipette. The pipette is connected to the fuel tank at the back of the unit from
the bottom through a check valve. The fuel consumption rate is measured manually.
While the engine is running at a constant desired speed, the valve is closed so that the
fuel in the pipette is used for running the engine. The amount of fuel consumed by the
engine is indicated on the scale and a stopwatch is used to measure the required time for
consumption of a specific amount of fuel i.e. 10ml/20ml.

8.2.4.4 Engine Speed

The engine speed is measured with optical or electrical techniques. One optical technique
uses a disk with holes mounted on the revolving engine shaft. A light-emitting diode
is mounted on one side of the disk and a phototransistor is mounted on the other side.
Each time a hole on the disk passes by the optical sensor, a pulse of light impinges on the
phototransistor that generates a periodic signal, the frequency of which is proportional
to engine speed.
Many engines use a notch in the flywheel and a magnetic reluctance sensor. The
engine speed is found by measuring the frequency at which the notch passes by the
position sensor. The sensor is an electromagnet whose induced voltage varies with the

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change in the magnetic flux. As the notch in the flywheel passes by the sensor, the
induced voltage will first decrease, then increase. If the engine is not running, there will
be no change in the magnetic flux, and the magnetic reluctance sensor will not produce
any voltage.

8.2.4.5 Inlet Air and Coolant Temperature

The inlet air temperature and coolant temperature are measured with thermistors. The
thermistors are mounted in a housing placed in the fluid stream. The coolant temperature
is used to indicate engine warm-up and overheating states.

8.3 Precautions to be taken before Testing proce-

dure
1. The Exhaust Lines connected to the overhead channel should be opened for the
smooth passage of burnt gases from the engine. Make sure the oevrhead exhaust
channel blower is switched on.

2. Water supply to the engine for its cooling, as well as the dynamometer and the
calorimeter (where provided) has to turned on

3. Always start the engine at Zero load

8.4 Description of the Test Rig

8.4.1 Engine Specifications

Engine make : Rajkot

Number of strokes : 4
Number of Cylinders : 1
Fuel used : Diesel : Diesel
kg
Density of fuel used : ≈ 800 m 3

Calorific value of the fuel : 43,100 kJ

kg
Rated brake power : 3.9 kW
Speed, N : 1500rpm
Bore, d : 80 mm
Stroke, L : 110 mm
Air Box Orifice diameter : 20 mm
Weight of hangar : 1 kg
Brake drum diameter : 0.3 m
Rope diameter : 0.015 m
Table 8.4.1: Single cylinder 4S Vertical Diesel Engine Test Rig Specifications

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The given test rig comprises of a four stroke vertical single cylinder diesel engine, that is
coupled to a rope brake dynamometer. The dynamometer set up such that the rope is
wound around the flywheel and the ends are connected to separate spring balances. A fuel
tank is provided with a valve to supply diesel to the engine and a burette is connected
to the fuel tank to measure the flow rate of the fuel. A manometer is also provided
to measure the air flow rate or head of air developed in order to measure volumetric
efficiency. A tachometer is used to measure the speed of the engine. The engine is also
connected to a calorimeter set-up which involves flow of exhaust gases through tubes
submerged in a volume of water.

8.4.2 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Brake Power
2πT N
bp = kW
60, 000

– Where, T = W × Ref f (N m)
– W = [(Spring balance 1 reading, WL )−(Spring balance 2 reading Ws )]×9.81 (N )
(brake drum dia+rope dia)
– Ref f = 2
(m)
– N = speed (rpm)

ˆ Mass flow rate

(volume) × (ρD ) (10 × 10−6 ) × ρD

mf = = (kg/s)
time t
kg
– Density of diesel, ρD ≈ 800 m 3

– t =time taken for 10cc fuel consumption (s)

ˆ Input Power
mf × Calorif ic value of f uel used (kW )
kJ
– Calorific value of Diesel = 43100 kg

ˆ Specific fuel consumption,

ṁ × 3600 kg
sf c = ( )
bp kW h

ˆ Indicated thermal efficiency

ip
ηith = × 100 %
indicated power

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ˆ Brake thermal efficiency

bp
ηbth = × 100 %
input power

ˆ Mechanical efficiency

bp
ηmech = × 100 %
indicated power

ˆ Air Fuel Ratio,

mass f low rate of air Density of air × Qa

AF R = =
mass f low rate of f uel ṁf
p m3
Q a = Cd × A 0 × 2gha ( )
s

π 2
A0 = d
4 0
(d0 = orif ice diameter = 20mm)

hw × ρw
ha = (m)
ρa

kg
(ρa = Density of air = 1.12 )
m3

8.5 Test Procedure

1. Start the engine only after ensuring

(a) that the load on the engine is zero

(b) the exhaust valve to the overhead line is open
(c) a continuous flow of water is maintained to both the engine as well as to the
calorimeter

2. The time taken for 10 cc fuel consumption for zero load along with the manometer
readings and the engine speed is first noted. This would be used to sketch the
Willan’s line to understand the frictional power.

3. Lock one of the spring balance to zero value. This would act as Ws . Ensure the
load/change of weight is done only on the other spring balance WL .

4. Increase the weight on the hangar in steps of 1 or 2kg and the readings obtained are
noted down.

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5. Repeat the same procedure for atleast three or more loading values.

6. The readings taken are then tabulated and the corresponding performance graphs
are drawn.

7. Ensure the load is complteley released before the engine is shut down.

8. Let the cooling water run for a minute or two before closing the vallve.

9. Finally, close the exhaust valve before leaving the test rig.

8.6 Tabulation
Speed, N Weight on Weight on Manometer Time for
Sl No
(rpm) Spring Spring readings 10cc fuel
Balance 1 Balance 2 (cm) consump-
(WL ) (Ws ) hL hr hw tion
(sec)

Table 8.6.1: Diesel Engine with Brake Dynamometer - Table of Observations

Sl No mf ip bp sfc ηith ηbth ηmech AFR

(kg/s) (kW ) (kW ) (kg/kW h) (%) (%) (%)

Table 8.6.2: Diesel Engine with Brake Dynamometer - Table of Results

8.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ mf vs bp

ˆ sf c vs bp

ˆ ηith vs bp

ˆ ηbth vs bp

ˆ ηmech vs bp

ˆ AF R vs bp

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References
1. Colin R. Ferguson Allan T. Kirkpatrick (2016), Internal Combustion Engines Ap-
plied Thermosciences, 3rd ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK

2. Allan Bonnick (2008); Automotive Science and Mathematics; Butterworth-Heinemann

(Elsevier) Burlington, USA

3. Richard Stone (1999), Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Macmillan

Press Ltd, Hampshire, London

4. V.A.W. Hillier (2012); Hiller’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 6th ed.
Revised by Calex, Nelson Thornes Ltd, UK

5. T. R. Seetharam (2014), Lecture notes on Thermodynamics for private circulation

6. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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Experiment 9

Petrol Engine coupled to an Alternator

9.1 Aim
Experimental determination of performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency
and specific fuel consumption of a four stroke single cylinder petrol engine coupled to an
alternator.

9.2 Introduction
The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was made by a Frenchman,
Etienne Lenoir, in 1860. It ran on coal gas, but worked on a cycle of operations that did
not include compression of the gas before ignition: as a result, it was not very efficient.
In spite of this it was, in some respects, superior to small steam engines at the time, and
a great many were sold and did useful work driving machinery in factories.
In 1862, Lenoir made a horseless carriage powered by his engine and possibly drove
it on the roads, but he lost interest in this venture and nothing came of it. A method
of carrying out the cycle of operations required for the internal-combustion engine was
described in a patent dated 16 January 1862, taken out by a French civil servant, M.
Beau de Rochas. Since he did not have the means to develop the patent himself, the
patentee offered it to Lenoir who, failing to realise its importance, turned it down.
In Germany, N. A. Otto started the manufacture of gas engines in about 1866. His
first engines were extremely noisy, though quite effective. However, in about 1875 Otto
took out a patent describing a method of carrying out the cycle of operations that was
identical with that of Beau de Rochas’ 13 years earlier. (It is, however, most unlikely that
Otto had heard of the Frenchman or his patent.) Otto’s new engine was an immediate
success. It was much more effi cient than Lenoir’s and was very quiet – a characteristic
that led to its being named Otto’s silent gas engine.
Before petrol can be burnt it must be vaporised and mixed with a suitable quantity
of air. This happens inside the carburettor and the mixture thus formed, must then be
introduced into the cylinder. This is done through a hole called the inlet port controlled

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by an inlet valve. The latest systems depend on direct inejection into the combustion
chamber.
Once inside the cylinder, the mixture is compressed before burning, since this would
help increase the pressure after burning. After compression, the vaporised fuel is ignited
by an electric spark, which, at the appropriate moment, jumps across a small gap on a
sparking plug, screwed into the top of the cylinder.
After the fuel has burned and the resulting pressure has pushed the piston down the
cylinder, the burned gases are released, as already mentioned, through the exhaust port/
valve. The inlet and exhaust ports/ valves are normally closed, but are opened at the
correct times to allow the gases to pass through them. The running of the engine involves
the continuous repetition of four operations, which make up what is called the cycle of
operations.

Figure 9.2.1: Four stroke SI Engine

In this method, one complete stroke of the piston is used to carry out each of the four
operations forming the cycle of operations. Figure 7.2.1 shows the complete cycle. To
complete the cycle, therefore, four strokes of the piston, occupying two revolutions of the
crankshaft, are needed: consequently, the method is generally known as the four-stroke
cycle.
Starting with the movement of the piston from the top of its stroke, or Top Dead
Centre (TDC) 1 , to the bottom point of its stoke, Bottom Dead Centre (BDC) 2 , as the
crankshaft rotates the method of operation is as follows:
1
Also called the Inner Dead Centre (IDC) for horizontal engines
2
Also called the Outer Dead Centre (ODC) for horizontal engines

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First stroke – the piston moves down the cylinder with the inlet port open and
exhaust port closed, filling the cylinder with a mixture of petrol vapour and air. This is
the induction stroke.
Second stroke – the piston moves up the cylinder with both ports closed, compress-
ing the mixture into the combustion chamber at the top end of the cylinder. This is the
compression stroke.
Third stroke – towards the end of the compression stroke an electric spark is made
to jump across a small gap on a sparking plug screwed into the end of the cylinder within
the cylinder head. This spark ignites the petrol vapour, which burns very rapidly, heating
the gas in the cylinder to a high temperature and considerably increasing its pressure.
The pressure forces the piston down the cylinder with both ports remaining closed. This
is the power stroke.
Fourth stroke – the piston returns up the cylinder with the inlet port still closed but
the exhaust port open, expelling the burnt gases from the cylinder. This is the exhaust
stroke.
At the end of this stroke, the exhaust port closes and the inlet port reopens for the
next induction stroke, which follows immediately. The inlet and exhaust ports are closed
by valves, which are mechanically opened at the correct times usually by a camshaft. If
the engine runs on petrol, the petrol and air are mixed in the correct proportions by a
carburettor, fitted to the outer end of the inlet port, or by fuel being injected into the
inlet manifold or directly into the combustion chamber to mix with the air.

9.2.1 Four stroke Otto Cycle

A large proportion of light vehicle engines use petrol as a fuel and they operate on the Otto
cycle. Otto cycle engines are also called four-stroke engines because the Otto cycle takes
four strokes of the piston for its completion. An Otto cycle is an idealized thermodynamic
cycle that describes the functioning of a typical spark ignition piston engine. It is the
thermodynamic cycle most commonly found in automobile engines. A Petrol engine is a
spark ignition engine that operates based on Otto Cycle. A petrol engine differs from a
diesel engine in the manner of fuel injection. In a petrol engine, a mixture of air and fuel
(charge) is taken into the cylinder and compressed until a desired temperature is reached.
Then a spark from the spark plug is used to ignite this charge leading to combustion.
The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles described is
not a simple task. However, the analysis can be simplified sig- nificantly if the air-standard
assumptions are utilized. The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating
conditions, is the ideal Otto cycle. It consists of four internally reversible processes:

ˆ 1–2 Isentropic compression

ˆ 2–3 Constant-volume heat addition

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ˆ 3–4 Isentropic expansion

ˆ 4–1 Constant-volume heat rejection

Figure 9.2.2: Otto Cycle pV diagram (a) and Ts diagram (b)

Figure 9.2.3: Actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine

In more detail,
The work interactions during the constant-pressure intake (0-1) and constant-pressure
exhaust (1-0) processes can be expressed as

Wout, 0−1 = P0 (v1 − v0 )

Win, 0−1 = P0 (v1 − v0 )

These two processes cancel each other as the work output during the intake is equal
to work input during the exhaust. Then, the cycle reduces to the one with only four state
points namely, 1, 2, 3 & 4, even though this is representatiove of only two strokes 1 − 2

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& 3 − 4. Therefore, inclusion of the intake and exhaust processes has no effect on the
net work output from the cycle. However, when calculating power output from the cycle
during an ideal Otto cycle analysis, we must consider the fact that the ideal Otto cycle
has four strokes just like actual four-stroke spark-ignition engine
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic
and potential energies, the energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, on a
unit-mass basis, as

kJ
(qin − qout ) = (win − wout ) = ∆u ( ) (9.2.1)
kg
No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take place at
constant volume. Therefore, heat transfer to and from the working fluid can be expressed
as

qin = (u3 − u2 ) = cv (T3 − T2 ) (9.2.2)

and

qout = (u4 − u1 ) = cv (T4 − T1 ) (9.2.3)

Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air stan- dard
assumptions becomes

wnet qout T4 − T1 T1 ( TT14 − 1)

ηth = =1− =1− =1− (9.2.4)
qin qin T3 − T2 T2 ( TT32 − 1)
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and v2 = v3 and v4 = v1 . Thus,
 γ−1  γ−1
T1 v1 v3 T4
= = =
T2 v2 v4 T3
Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying gives

1
ηOtto = 1 − (9.2.5)
rγ−1
vmax v1 cp
where, r = vmin
= v2
is the compression ratio and γ = cv
is the specific heat ratio.

9.2.2 Engine Performance Parameters

9.2.2.1 Power, Torque, and Efficiency

The brake power, Ẇb ,is the rate at which work is done; and the engine torque, T is a
measure of the work done per unit rotation (radians) of the crank. The brake power is
the power output of the engine, and measured by a dynamometer. Early dynamometers
were simple brake mechanisms, and many have been explained along with the previous

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experiments. The brake power is less than the boundary rate of work done by the gas,
called indicated power, partly because of friction. The brake power and torque are related
by

Wb = 2πT N (9.2.6)

The net power is from the complete engine, whereas gross power is from an engine
without the cooling fan, muffler, and tail pipe. The indicated work Wi is the net work
transferred from the gas to the piston during a cycle, which is the integral of the pressure
over the cylinder volume:
Z
Wi = P.dV (9.2.7)

and the indicated power Ẇ1 for an engine with nc cylinders, is

nc Wi N
Wi = (4 stroke engine) (9.2.8)
2

nc Wi N
Wi = (2 stroke engine) (9.2.9)
2
since the four-stroke engine has two revolutions per power stroke and the two-stroke
engine has one revolution per power stroke. The brake power is less than the indicated
power due to engine mechanical friction, pumping losses in the intake and exhaust, and
accessory power needs, which are grouped as a friction power loss, Ẇf

Ẇf = Ẇi − Ẇb (9.2.10)

The ratio of the brake power to the indicated power is the mechanical efficiency,

Ẇb
ηmech = (9.2.11)
Ẇi

Ẇf
ηmech = 1 − (9.2.12)
Ẇi
The wide open throttle performance of a 2.0 L automotive four-stroke engine is plotted
in Figure 1.7. As with most engines, the torque and power both exhibit maxima with
engine speed. Viscous friction effects increase quadratically with engine speed, causing
the torque curve to decrease at high engine speeds. The maximum torque occurs at lower
speed than maximum power, since power is the product of torque and speed. Notice that
the torque curve is rippled. This is due to both inlet and exhaust airflow dynamics and
mechanical friction, discussed later.

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Figure 9.2.4: Wide open throttle (WOT) performance of an automotive four-stroke engine

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Figure 9.2.5: Alternator Dyno-setup

9.2.3 Alternator
An alternator forms a component of an automotive charging system. It works along
with the battery of an automobile to generate power for the electrical components of a
vehicle. It is typically found near the front of the engine and is usually driven by the
crankshaft. The engine provides the mechanical energy through a pulley attached to the
engines crank shaft. As the engine runs the crank shaft, the pulley spins and drives a
belt that transfers this spinning motion to the other pulleys that the belt contacts. On
a typical modern car this includes pulleys attached to the alternator, the power steering
pump, the water pump, and the air conditioning compressor. The alternator then uses
this mechanical energy from the spinning pulley to produce electrical energy.
Alternators have several advantages over direct-current generators. They are lighter,
cheaper and more rugged. They use slip rings providing greatly extended brush life over a
commutator. The brushes in an alternator carry only excitation current, a small fraction
of the current carried by the brushes of a DC generator, which carry the generator’s
entire output. A set of rectifiers (diode bridge) is required to convert AC to DC. To
provide direct current with low ripple, a three-phase winding is used and the pole-pieces
of the rotor are shaped (claw-pole). Automotive alternators are usually belt-driven at 2–3
times crankshaft speed. The alternator runs at various RPM (which varies the frequency)
since it is driven by the engine. This is not a problem because the alternating current is
rectified to direct current.
This concept of converting one form of energy into another form of energy can also be
used to measure the amount of energy by measuring certain parameters. In the alternator,
the pulley is attached to the shaft of the alternator rotor. The rotor contains a wire coil
which produces a magnetic field when a voltage is applied to the rotor coil via the voltage
regulator and brush set. The rotor has pole pieces made of special metal that form
magnetic north and south poles alternately (north-south-north-south and so on). The
rotor spins inside a stationary set of coils called a stator.
A rotating magnetic field (with north and south lines of force) spinning inside a

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stationary coil produces an alternating current in the stationary coil. This consecutively
induces a reactive torque force on the stator, which is equivalent to the electric power
developed. . If the voltage (V ) and amperage (I) levels of the alternating current that
moves through the wire in the stator can be measured using suitable measurement devices,
the power developed can be calculated as,

P = V × I (kW ) (9.2.13)

Since a fair amount of heat is generated the alternators have fans that circulate air to
help cool the internal components.

9.3 Description of Test Rig

9.3.1 Engine Specifications

Engine make : Rajkot

Number of strokes : 4
Number of Cylinders : 1
Fuel used : Petrol
kg
Density of fuel used : ≈ 710 m 3

Calorific value of the fuel : 43,100 kJ

kg
Rated power : 2.35 kW
Speed, N : 3000rpm
Bore, d : 70 mm
Stroke, L : 66.70 mm
Air Box Orifice diameter : 20 mm
Air Box Orifice discharge coefficient : 0.6
Alternator efficiency : 85 %
Table 9.3.1: Single cylinder 4S Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications

The given test rig comprises of a four stroke petrol engine coupled to an alternator by
means of which load is applied on the engine. The load applied is varied by means of a
hydraulic rheostat. A fuel tank is provided with a valve to supply petrol to the engine
and a burette is connected to the fuel tank to measure the flow rate of the fuel. An
Ammeter and a Voltmeter is provided to measure the current and voltage respectively.
A tachometer is used to measure the speed of the engine during the test.

9.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Brake Power
A×V
bp = kW
1000 × ηalt
– A = Current (amp)

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– V = V oltage (V )
– ηalt =alternator efficiency

ˆ Mass flow rate

(volume) × (ρD ) (10 × 10−6 ) × ρD

mf = = (kg/s)
time t
kg
– Density of petrol, ρp ≈ 710 m 3

– t =time taken for 10cc fuel consumption (s)

ˆ Specific fuel consumption,

ṁ × 3600 kg
sf c = ( )
bp kW h

ˆ Input Power
mf × Calorif ic value of f uel used (kW )
kJ
– Calorific value of fuel used = 42436 kg

ˆ Brake thermal efficiency

bp
ηbth = × 100 %
input power

9.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing proce-

dure
1. The Exhaust Lines connected to the overhead channel should be opened for the
smooth passage of burnt gases from the engine. Make sure the oevrhead exhaust
channel blower is switched on.

2. Water supply to the engine for its cooling, as well as the dynamometer and the
calorimeter (where provided) has to be turned on

3. Always start the engine at Zero load

9.5 Testing Procedure

1. Start the engine by ’hand cranking’ only after ensuring

(a) that the load on the engine is zero

(b) the exhaust valve to the overhead line is open

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(c) a continuous flow of water is maintained to both the engine as well as to the
calorimeter

2. Once the engine is running, note the time taken for 10 cc fuel consumption for zero
load along with the manometer readings and the engine speed.

3. The hydraulic rheostat is then used to set current to the required values correspond-
ing to the initial loading.

4. The values of engine speed, voltage and time taken for 10cc fuel consumption is
noted for each current value which is increased in steps of 0.5 amp

5. Similarly, three or more trials are carried out and the necessary values observed and
noted down.

6. Ensure the load is complteley released before the engine is shut down.

7. Let the cooling water run for a minute or two before closing the vallve.

8. Finally, close the exhaust valve before leaving the test rig.

9.6 Tabulation

Sl No Engine speed, Voltage Current Time for 10 cc fuel

N (V ) (A) consumption
(rpm) t
(s)

Table 9.6.1: Petrol Engine with Anemometer - Table of Observations

Sl No mf ip bp sfc ηbth
(kg/s) (kW ) (kW ) (kg/kW h) (%)

Table 9.6.2: Petrol Engine with Anemometer - Table of Results

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9.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ bp

ˆ sf c vs bp

References
1. Colin R. Ferguson Allan T. Kirkpatrick (2016), Internal Combustion Engines Ap-
plied Thermosciences, 3rd ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK

2. Yunus A. Çengel & Michael A. Boles (2015); Thermodynamics: An Engineering

Approach, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, New York, USA

3. Halderman, James D. (2015); Automotive Engines: Theory and Servicing; Pearson

Education, New Jersey, USA

4. V.A.W. Hillier (2012); Hiller’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 6th ed.
Revised by Calex, Nelson Thornes Ltd, UK

5. Allan Bonnick (2008); Automotive Science and Mathematics; Butterworth-Heinemann

(Elsevier) Burlington, USA

6. Robin Smith (2005); Chemical Process Design and Integration, John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, West Sussex, UK

7. Richard Stone (1999), Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Macmillan

Press Ltd, London, UK

8. T. R. Seetharam (2014), Lecture notes on Thermodynamics for private circulation

9. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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Experiment 10

2 Stroke Petrol Engine coupled to Rope Brake

Dynamometer

10.1 Aim
Experimental determination of performance parameters such as brake thermal efficiency,
indicated thermal efficiency, mechanical efficiency, specific fuel consumption and air fuel
ratio for a 2 Stroke Vertical Diesel Engine coupled to a Rope Brake Dynamometer.

10.2 Introduction
As the name implies, two-stroke engines need only two-strokes of the piston or one revo-
lution to complete a cycle. There is a power stroke every revolution instead of every two
revolutions as for four-stroke engines. Two-stroke engines are mechanically simpler than
four-stroke engines, and have a higher specific power, the power to weight ratio. They
can use either spark or compression ignition cycles. One of the performance limitations
of two-stroke engines is the scavenging process, simultaneously exhausting the burnt
mixture and introducing the fresh fuel--air mixture into the cylinder. As we shall see,
a wide variety of two-stroke engines have been invented to ensure an acceptable level of
scavenging.
In 1858, J. Lenior (1822–1900), a Belgian engineer, developed a two-stroke engine
that developed 6 hp with an efficiency of about 5%. During the intake stroke, a gas--
air mixture at atmospheric pressure was drawn into the engine, and ignited by a spark,
causing the cylinder pressure to increase during the latter half of the stroke, producing
work. The return stroke was used to remove the combustion products through an exhaust
valve. The Lenior engine was primarily used in stationary power applications.
The first practical two-stroke engine was invented and built by Sir Dugald Clerk (1854-
-1932), a Scottish mechanical engineer, in 1878. Clerk graduated from Yorkshire College
in 1876, and patented his two-stroke engine in 1881. He is well known for his career-long

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contributions to improvement of combustion processes in large-bore two-stroke engines.

Clerk’s engine was made of two cylinders--one a working cylinder to produce power, and
the other a pumping cylinder to compress and transfer the intake air and fuel mixture
to the working cylinder. Poppet valves were used for intake flow, and a cylinder port
uncovered by the piston on the expansion stroke was used to exhaust the combustion
gases.
Karl Benz (1844--1929), a German engineer, successfully developed a 3.5 hp liquid-
fueled two-stroke engine with a carburetor and spark ignition in 1885. The ignition system
consisted of an electrical induction coil with a rotary breaker driven by the engine and a
re- movable spark plug fitted into the cylinder head, similar to what is found in today’s
engines. The engine was installed on a three-wheeled vehicle in 1886, the first “horseless
carriage”. The transmission was a two-chain arrangement that connected the engine to
the rear axle.

Figure 10.2.1: A cross scavenged 2 stroke engine

The principle of operation of a crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engine, developed

by Joseph Day (1855–1946), is illustrated in Figure 8.2.1. During compression of the
crankcase- scavenged two-stroke cycle, a subatmospheric pressure is created in the crankcase.
In the example shown, this opens a reed valve letting air rush into the crankcase. Once the
piston reverses direction during combustion and expansion begins, the air in the crankcase
closes the reed valve so that the air is compressed. As the piston travels further, it uncov-
ers holes or exhaust ports, and exhaust gases begin to leave, rapidly dropping the cylinder
pressure to that of the atmosphere. Then the intake ports are opened and compressed
air from the crankcase flows into the cylinder pushing out the remaining exhaust gases.
This pushing out of exhaust by the incoming air is called scavenging.
Herein lies one problem with two-stroke engines: the scavenging is not perfect; some

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Figure 10.2.2: Operating sequence of a third-port, loop-scavenged engine. (Walbro)

of the air will go straight through the cylinder and out the exhaust port, a process called
short-circuiting. Some of the air will also mix with exhaust gases and the remaining
incoming air will push out a portion of this mixture. The magnitude of the problem is
strongly dependent on the port designs and the shape of the piston top.

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Less than perfect scavenging is of particular concern if the engine is a carbureted

gasoline engine, for instead of air being in the crankcase there is a fuel--air mixture.
Some of this fuel--air mixture will short circuit and appear in the exhaust, wasting fuel
and increasing the hydrocarbon emissions. Carbureted two-stroke engines are used where
efficiency is not of primary concern and advantage can be taken of the engine’s simplicity;
this translates into lower cost and higher power per unit weight. Familiar examples include
motorcycles, chain saws, outboard motors, and model airplane engines. However, use in
motorcycles is decreasing because they have poor emission characteristics. Two-stroke
industrial engines are mostly diesel, and typically supercharged. With a two-stroke diesel
or fuel injected gasoline engine, air only is used for scavenging, so loss of fuel through
short-circuiting or mixing with exhaust gases is not a problem.

10.2.1 Third-port engines

Third- or piston-ported engines have three ports cast or milled into their cylinder liners.
The inlet port admits fuel to the crankcase, the transfer port conveys fuel from the
crankcase into the combustion chamber, and the exhaust port opens to the atmosphere.
First, let’s look at events above the piston during a full turn of the crankshaft. In
Figure 8.2.2-A the piston approaches the upper limit of travel, or top dead center (TDC),
and has compressed the air-fuel mixture above it. The piston has also uncovered the
inlet port to admit fuel and air from the car- buretor to the crankcase. Figure 8.2.2-B
illustrates the beginning of the power stroke under the impetus of expanding combustion
gases. As the piston falls, it first uncovers the exhaust port (Figure 8.2.2-C) and, a few
degrees of crankshaft rotation later, the transfer port (Figure 8.2.2-D). Fuel and air pass
through the transfer port and into the cylinder bore.
Meanwhile, much is happening in the crankcase. As the piston falls on the power
stroke, it partially fills the crankcase, reducing its volume, as shown in Figure 8.2.2-C.
Since the piston now covers the inlet port, the pressure of the air-fuel mixture trapped
in the case rises. Near bottom dead center (BDC) the piston uncovers the transfer port
and the pressurized fuel mixture passes through this port to the upper cylinder (Figure
8.2.2-D). The piston then rounds BDC and begins to climb, an action that simultaneously
compresses the mixture above the piston and creates a partial vacuum under it. Once
the inlet port opens, atmospheric pressure forces fuel and air from the carburetor into
the crankcase.
A problem with third-port engines is fuel reversion. At low speeds the crankcase fills
to overflowing. When the piston reverses at the top of the stroke, some of the charge can
flow back through the inlet port to the carburetor. A fog of oily fuel hovers around the
air cleaner, dirtying the engine and playing havoc with carburetor metering.

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Figure 10.2.3: Operating sequence of a reed-valve engine that in the example shown
employs loop scavenging. The small tube on the lower left of the drawing transfers
crankcase pressure pulses to the fuel pump. (Deere and Company)

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10.2.2 Reed-valve engines

Although third-port engines are still encountered, many manufacturers prefer to control
crankcase filling with a reed valve installed between the carburetor and crankcase. The
valve, similar to the reed on musical instruments, opens and closes in response to crankcase
pressure (Figure 8.2.3-2). Utility engines make do with a single reed, or pedal, athwart
the intake port (Figure 8.2.3-3). High-performance engines employ a tent-like valve block
with multiple reeds. This arrangement provides a large valve area for better crankcase
filling (Figure 8.2.3-4). For mini-two-strokes, the position of the carburetor indicates the
type of inlet valve: when a reed is present, the carburetor mounts on the crankcase.

10.2.3 Scavenging
Scavenging is the term for purging the cylinder of exhaust gases. Unlike a four- cycle
engine, which devotes a full stroke of the piston to clear the cylinder, a two-stroke must
scavenge during the 100° or so of crankshaft rotation that the exhaust port remains open

Blowdown As the piston falls, it first uncovers the exhaust port and then, 5◦ or 10◦
of crankshaft rotation later, the transfer port. Blowdown occurs during this brief period
that, at wide-open throttle, occupies no more than one or two thousandths of a second.
In spite of its brevity, the blowdown phase is the primary mechanism for evacuating the
cylinder. The rapid opening of a port releases a high-pressure slug of exhaust gas that
trails a low-pressure zone or wave in its wake. Cylinder pressure momentarily drops be-
low atmospheric pressure. Responding to the pressure differential, the fresh charge moves
through the transfer port to fill the cylinder. At part throttle, crankcase pressure is less
than cylinder pressure. Were it not for the drop in cylin- der pressure that accompa-
nies blowdown, two-cycle engines would not run. The need to accelerate exhaust gases
quickly explains why exhaust ports for high-performance engines are rectangular rather
than round. It also explains why we must keep these ports and mufflers free of carbon
accumulations.

Charge scavenging What exhaust gas remains in the cylinder after blowdown must
be scavenged by the fuel charge, which enters the cylinder at velocities as high as 65
m/s. Charge scavenging takes two forms, neither of which can entirely eliminate short-
circuiting (term for the way incoming fuel escapes out the exhaust, as if one were trying
to fill a leaky bucket).
Cross scavenging
Deflector pistons were once standard ware on engines to induce scavenging. The fuel
charge enters through a single transfer port, rebounds upward off the deflector, and drives
residual exhaust gases out the exhaust port. While this design works well at moderate
speeds, at high speeds, the deflector can run hot enough to ignite the mixture.

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Figure 10.2.4: Cross scavenged engine

Figure 10.2.5: Loop scavenging

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Nor does the simple trajectory made by the incoming charge impact the area just above
the exhaust port, which remains a haven for exhaust gas. Other factors that mitigate
against cross scavenging include the awkward shape of the combustion chamber and the
weight penalty imposed by the deflector.
Loop Scavenging
Current practice, based on work carried on in Germany during the 1920s, is to use
loop, scavenging. Multiple transfer ports are arranged around the cylinder periphery
with their exit ramps angled to impart swirl to the charge (Figure 8.2.5). The minia-
ture cyclone fills the whole combustion chamber, sweeping exhaust gases out ahead of
it. In addition, the rapidly spinning mass of fuel and air has integrity, that is, it hangs
together so that less fuel short-circuits.

10.2.4 Engine Performance Parameters

With reference to the explanations given in Section 6.2.3 or Section 7.2.2, the dependence
of the performance parameters of the 2 stroke engine on the engine geometry, mean
effective pressure, fuel calorific value and torque (indicated as well as brake torque) is
clear.
.

10.2.5 Emissions
On the face of it, concern about emissions from thimble-sized engines seems frivolous.
But those who make their livings with handheld tools might see things differently. Or at
least, they should. According to the California Air Resources Board (CARB), an hour of
weed whacking is the emissions equiva- lent of driving 834 miles in a modern automobile.
It’s also true that two-cycle exhaust has a serious impact upon heath in the developing
world. An esti- mated 70 to 100 million motorcycles, mopeds, tuk-tuks, and tricycles vie
for space on the streets of Asiatic cities. These engines are believed to account for 70%
of India’s hydrocarbon emissions, 46% of the nation’s carbon monoxide emissions, and a
large fraction of its particulate matter1 .

10.3 Description of Test Rig

The test rig consists of a 2-S petrol engine (of a commercially produced scooter) connected
to a rope brake drum with a spring balance. The starter mechanism is the ’kick-starting’
system that is commonly found on scooters and motorbikes. The specifications of the
engine mounted and the various parameters required for running the test is given in the
following section. The test rig arrangement is made for the following measurements:
1
B. Wilson, “Direct Injection as a Retrofit Strategy for Reducing Emissions from Two-Stroke Cycle
Engines in Asia,” Dec., 2002, SAE 80523-1374.

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ˆ The rate of fuel consumption is measured by using the pipette reading

ˆ Air flow measured by manometer connected to a an air box

ˆ different mechanical loading achieved by operating the spring balance of the dy-
namometer

ˆ brake power measured by means of the mechanical dynamometer

ˆ engine speed measured by electronic digital rpm counter and

ˆ temperature at different points is measured by electronic digital temperature indi-

cator

10.3.1 Engine Specifications

Engine make : Bajaj

Number of strokes : 2
Number of Cylinders : 1
Fuel used : Petrol
kg
Density of fuel used : ≈ 710 m 3

Calorific value of the fuel : 42, 436 kJ

kg
Rated power : 2.35kW
Speed, N : 3000rpm
Bore, d : 70mm
Stroke, L : 66.70mm
Air Box Orifice diameter : 12mm
Air Box Orifice discharge coefficient : 0.64
Drum diameter : 34cm
Rope diameter : 24mm
Table 10.3.1: Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications

10.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Brake Power
T = (F1 − F2 ) × 9.81 × Ref f N.m
2πT N
bp = kW
60, 000

– T = T orque (N.m)
– F1 & F2 = Spring balance readings (kg)
(Rdrum +Rrope )
– Ref f = ef f ective radius = 2
(m)
– N = rotations per minute (rpm)

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ˆ Mass flow rate

(volume) × (ρD ) (10 × 10−6 ) × ρD

mf = = (kg/s)
time t
kg
– Density of petrol, ρp ≈ 710 m 3

– t =time taken for 10cc fuel consumption (s)

ˆ Specific fuel consumption,

ṁ × 3600 kg
sf c = ( /kW h)
bp

ˆ Input Power
mf × C.V (kW )
kJ
– C.V =Calorific value of fuel used = 42436 kg

ˆ Air consumption

ma = Cd × Ao × Va × ρa × 3600 (kg/h)

– Cd = 0.64 (given specification)

πr2 π0.0122
– A0 =area of orifice 4
= 4
= 1.131 × 10−4 (m2 )
– Va = speed of air flow,
s
hm ρw
Va = 2×g× × ( − 1) (m/s)
100 ρa

* hm = manometer reading (m/s)

* ρw & ρa are densities of water and air respectively (kg/m3 )

ˆ Air to Fuel Ratio (A/F)

A ṁa
=
F ṁf

10.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing proce-

dure
1. The Exhaust Lines connected to the overhead channel should be opened for the
smooth passage of burnt gases from the engine. Also ensiure that the oevrhead
exhaust channel blower is switched on.

2. Water supply to the engine for its cooling, as well as the dynamometer and the
calorimeter (if necessary or provided) has to be turned on.

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3. Always start the engine at Zero load.

10.5 Testing Procedure

1. Check the petrol level in the tank. Open the check valve to let fuel fill up above
the level marking on the pipette.

2. Start the engine using the kick starter and let it run for a couple of minutes to reach
a steady speed.

3. Once the engine is running at a steady speed (obtained from the tachometer read-
ing), close the check valve from the tank, and let the engine run using the petrol
from the pipette and note the time taken for 10cc fuel consumption for zero load.

4. Also note the manometer readings to compute the air flow into the cylinder.

5. Apply the load increment using the spring balance of the dynamometer and note
down the readings on both the scales. The difference between the two would give
the effective load applied on the engine.

6. Note down the temperature readings and also the engine speed from the digital
display.

7. Repeat the steps 1 to 4 for atleast three or more loadings so that the corresponding
performance curves maybe plotted.

10.6 Tabulation

Brake drum Spring balance Pipette Temperature Air flow

speed (rpm) reading (kg) reading (s) (mm of Hg)

Table 10.6.1: 2 stroke Petrol Engine - Table of Observations

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mf ma A ip bp sfc
Sl No. F
ratio ηbth (%)
(kg/s) (kg/s) (kW ) (kW ) (kg/kW h)

Table 10.6.2: 2 stroke Petrol Engine- Table of Results

10.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ ηbth vs bp

ˆ sf c vs bp

ˆ A
F
vs bp

References
1. Colin R. Ferguson Allan T. Kirkpatrick (2016), Internal Combustion Engines Ap-
plied Thermosciences, 3rd ed.; John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Sussex, UK

2. V.A.W. Hillier (2012); Hiller’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology 6th ed.
Revised by Calex, Nelson Thornes Ltd, UK

3. Paul Dempsey (2009); Two Stroke Engine Repair and Maintenance; McGraw-Hill
Education, New York, USA

4. Allan Bonnick (2008); Automotive Science and Mathematics; Butterworth-Heinemann

(Elsevier) Burlington, USA

5. Richard Stone (1999), Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Macmillan

Press Ltd, Hampshire, London

6. T. R. Seetharam (2014), Lecture notes on Thermodynamics for private circulation

7. Previous copy of Thermodynamics and IC Engines Lab Manual by Dr. V. Krishna

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Experiment 11

The Morse Test

11.1 Aim
Experimental determination of the Frictional power and the Indicated power and corre-
sponding performance parameters such as various efficiencies and fuel consumption.

11.2 Introduction
The Morse test consists of obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate
equipment. The test consists of making inoperative, in turn, each cylinder of the engine
and noting the reduction in engine power developed. With a gasoline engine each cylinder
is rendered inoperative by shorting the spark plug of the cylinder; and with a diesel engine
by cutting off the supply of fuel to each cylinder. It is assumed that the pum[ping and
friction losses are the same when the cylinder is inoperative as well as when firing. This
test is applicable only to multi cylinder engines.

N et indicated power per cylinder = gp − pp (11.2.1)

Frictional losses in the engine bearings, the valve train, and the piston and piston rings
are the main causes of the power loss that makes the brake power of an engine smaller than
the indicated power. The Morse test is an engine test that gives an approximate value
for the frictional losses and which also provides an approximate value for the indicated
power of a multi-cylinder engine.
The Morse test is conducted by first running the engine at some required engine speed
(constant) while coupled to a dynamometer. The speed is maintained by either adjusting
the throttle valve in SI engines or the pupm rack in CI engines. The first phase of the
test records the brake power of the engine when all cylinders are firing. Subsequently,
one cylinder is prevented from firing and the dynamometer load is adjusted to bring the
engine up to the same speed as it was when all cylinders were firing, the brake power
then being recorded. It is to be noted that the frictional power remains the same while,

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Figure 11.2.1: Sample Morse test data for a four-cylinder petrol engine

the brake power is produced will be that with one cylinder less. The difference between
brake power with all cylinders working and that obtained when one cylinder is cut out
is the indicated power of the cylinder that is not working. This procedure is repeated
for each of the cylinders and the indicated power for the whole engine is the sum of the
power of the individual cylinders.
A typical Morse test calculation is shown in the following example.
The purpose of Morse Test is to obtain the approximate indicated power (ip) or
frictional power (fp) of a multi-cylinder engine. It is to be noted that the Morse test
is conducted at constant engine speed on a dynamometer. It consists of running the
engine, cutting out the firing of each cylinder in turn and noting the fall in brake power
(bp) each time while maintaining the speed constant. When one cylinder is cut off, power
developed is reduced and speed of engine falls. Accordingly, the load on the dynamometer
is adjusted so as to restore the engine speed. This is done to maintain frictional power
(fp) constant, which is considered independent of the load and proportional to the engine
speed. The observed difference in brake power (bp) between all cylinders firing and with
one cylinder cut off is the indicated power (ip) of the cut off cylinder. Summation of
indicated power (ip) of all the cylinders would then give the total indicated power (ip) of
the engine under test.

11.2.1 Multi-cylinder Engine

With the exception of some motorcycles, virtually all motor vehicle engines have more
than one cylinder. To understand the reasons for this it is necessary to consider the
limitations of the single-cylinder engine and the ways in which multiple cylinders overcome
these limitations.

11.2.1.1 Irregular torque output

The torque (twisting force) exerted upon the crankshaft of a single-cylinder engine fluctu-
ates widely during each cycle of operation. As shown in Figure 11.2.2, the torque reaches
its maximum value during the power stroke, however, during the exhaust, induction and
compression strokes some effort has to be applied to the crankshaft to keep it turning.

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Figure 11.2.2: Torque fl uctuations in a single-cylinder engine

The energy necessary to keep the crankshaft turning is provided by the flywheel, which
has stored some of the energy created during the power stroke. Although the maximum
torque developed may be high, its average or mean value is very much lower. (The mean
torque is that steady value of torque, which would do the same amount of work per
minute as the actual fluctuating torque.) The driving effort developed by the engine
(especially a single-cylinder engine) is therefore rather jerky, especially at low speeds: a
heavy flywheel is therefore necessary to give acceptable smoothness and ensure sufficient
energy is available to maintain crankshaft rotation between power strokes (primarily
at low engine speeds). Also, the transmission system must be capable of transmitting
the maximum torque developed (not just the mean or average torque), and is therefore
undesirably heavy in relation to the mean torque.
Figure 11.2.3 shows that if four cylinders are used and they are working in succession,
the mean torque is only a little less than the maximum torque. If a single- cylinder engine
is replaced by a four-cylinder engine where the four cylinders have a total capacity which
is the same as the single cylinder, each of the four cylinders individually produce a lower
maximum torque value than the large single cylinder. However, the mean torque of the
four cylinders is probably greater than that of the equivalent single-cylinder engine, and
torque delivery will be smoother. This increased mean torque can be transmitted by the
same transmission system as was needed for the single- cylinder engine which had a high
maximum torque.

11.2.1.2 Power output and engine speed

The power that an engine can develop is determined by the amount of air it can consume
per minute, i.e. its swept volume or cylinder capacity, and the speed at which it runs

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Figure 11.2.3: Torque fluctuations in a four-cylinder engine

(the greater the speed, the greater the number of induction and power strokes). However,
the inertia forces on the reciprocating parts of the engine limit the maximum engine
speed, and these forces depend upon the mass of these parts and their acceleration. As
is understood, the higher the engine speed, the greater the power that can be developed.
But engine speed is limited by the weight (mass) of its moving parts. For a given swept
volume the bore and stroke of a multi-cylinder engine are smaller than those of a single-
cylinder. As an example, a single-cylinder engine of 1 litre, which has an equal bore and
stroke of the same dimensions, would have a bore and stroke of approximately 108.4mm.
However, a 1000 cc four- cylinder engine would have four cylinders each of approximately
250cc, which implies that, each cylinder would have a bore and stroke of approximately
68.2mm (assuming that the bore and stroke were again equal). For the four-cylinder
engine the size and mass of each piston will therefore be smaller and the stroke shorter.
Therefore, at the same engine speed the inertia forces on the reciprocating parts of a
multi-cylinder engine will be considerably less than those in a single- cylinder engine.
The multi-cylinder engine can safely run at higher speed, develop greater power and have
longer life.

11.2.1.3 Balance

The inertia forces, which are caused by the acceleration of the reciprocating parts of
the engine, tend to cause vibration. To balance these forces and neutralize their effects,
equal and opposite forces must be introduced. This can only be done by additional
reciprocating parts making similar movements but in the opposite direction. While a
single-cylinder engine cannot be perfectly balanced, it is much easier in multi-cylinder
engines to neutralize much of the imbalance by having sets of pistons, connecting rods
and crankpins moving in opposite directions during crankshaft rotation. On a four-

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cylinder engine, it is traditional for two pistons to be travelling in the opposite direction
to the other two pistons, thus providing opposing forces which almost cancel out each
other.

11.2.1.4 Limitations on cylinder numbers

The advantages resulting from the use of more than one cylinder are not gained without
some sacrifices. One of the chief objections to the multi-cylinder engine is the greater
cost and complication due to the increased number of parts that have to be made and
assembled. Other difficulties arise in connection with fuel and ignition systems. For these
reasons the majority of motor vehicles use engines having four, six or eight cylinders. A
few small vehicles have used two-cylinder engines, while some large cars have used 12 or
even 16 cylinders, but these are exceptional cases.

11.2.2 Measurement Components

11.2.2.1 Water brake/ Hydraulic dynamometer

A dynamometer is a device used for measuring the torque and brake power required to
operate a driven machine. Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two types. They
are, i) Power Absorption Dynamometers and Power Transmission Dynamometers. The
working principles have bveen elaborated in Section 9.4.2.
The water brake dynamometer is a hydraulic or fluid power absorption system. It
works on the principle of dissipating the power in fluid friction rather than in dry fric-
tion. Basically, this type of loading utilizes a pump driven by an engine. Engine torque
is transmitted through the pump utilizing the viscous nature of water. As the pump im-
peller rotates, a torque will be transmitted through the water and will be resisted by the
pump casing. The pump casing is allowed to move or rotate, permitting casing torque to
be measured using a brake arm and scale technique similar to the prony brake mentioned
previously. Constant water flow rate will maintain a constant load as long as the viscosity
(water temperature) is kept constant, whereas variations in loading can be accomplished
by adjusting the water flow rate through the brake. This type of dynamometer is com-
patible with a wide range of engine speeds and sizes. It is a more stable system than a
prony brake and will not stall as easily as the prony when a load is varied.
Hydraulics is the application of converting mechanical energy using an incompressible
fluid and returning it to mechanical work. There are several important advantages of
hydraulic systems, including variable speed, rapid reversibility, high control bandwidth ,
and high power to weight ratios.
Hydrokinetic or ‘hydraulic’ dynamometers (water brakes). With the exception of the
disc dynamometer, all machines work on similar principles (Figure 11.2.4). A shaft carries
a cylindrical rotor which revolves in a watertight casing. Toroidal recesses formed half
in the rotor and half in the casing or stator are divided into pockets by radial vanes set

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Figure 11.2.4: Hydrokinetic dynamometer, principle of operation:

..................(a) section through dynamometer;
..................(b) end view of rotor;
..................(c) development of section a–a of rotor and casing;
..................(d) representation of toroidal vortex

at an angle to the axis of the rotor. When the rotor is driven, centrifugal force sets up
an intensive toroidal circulation as indicated by the arrows in Figure 2.a. The effect is to
transfer momentum from rotor to stator and hence to develop a torque resistant to the
rotation of the shaft, balanced by an equal and opposite torque reaction on the casing.
A forced vortex of toroidal form is generated as a consequence of this motion, leading
to high rates of turbulent shear in the water and the dissipation of power in the form of
heat to the water. The centre of the vortex is vented to atmosphere by way of passages
in the rotor and the virtue of the design is that power is absorbed with minimal damage
to the moving surfaces, either from erosion or from the effects of cavitation. The pictures
on the following pages may be read in series order to understand the working of a water
brake dynamometer.

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11.3 Description of Test Rig

11.3.1 Engine Specifications

Engine make : Rajkot

Number of strokes : 4
Number of Cylinders : 1
Fuel used : Petrol
kg
Density of fuel used : ≈ 710 m 3

Calorific value of the fuel : 43,100 kJ

kg
Rated power : 2.35 kW
Speed, N : 3000rpm
Bore, d : 70 mm
Stroke, L : 66.70 mm
Air Box Orifice diameter : 20 mm
Air Box Orifice discharge coefficient : 0.6
Alternator efficiency : 85 %
Table 11.3.1: Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications

11.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters

Mathematically the indicated power developed during the process can be expressed as,

Xk
ip1 + ip2 + . . . + ipk = ipn = bpT otal + f pT otal (11.3.1)
n=1

When one cylinder is cut off,

cut − of f Xk
ip>

+ ip
1 2+ . . . + ipk = ipn = bpT otal − bp1 = bp(T otal−1) + f pT otal (11.3.2)
n=1

Subtracting 12.2.3 from 12.2.2 we get,

ip1 = bpT otal − bp(T otal−1) (11.3.3)

the indicated power of all cylinders can be calculated

ip1 , ip2 , ip3 , . . . ipn , = bpT otal − bp(T otal−n) (11.3.4)

wher, n is the number of the cylinder that was cut-off.

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11.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing proce-

dure
1. The Exhaust Lines connected to the overhead channel should be opened for the
smooth passage of burnt gases from the engine. Also ensiure that the oevrhead
exhaust channel blower is switched on.

2. Water supply to the engine for its cooling, as well as the dynamometer and the
calorimeter (if necessary or provided) has to be turned on.

3. Always start the engine at Zero load.

11.5 Testing Procedure

1. Before starting the engine check the fuel supply, lubrication oil, and availability of
cooling water.

2. Set the dynamometer to zero load

3. Run the engine till it attains the working temperature and steady state condition.
Adjust the dynamometer load to obtain the desired engine speed. Record this
engine speed and dynamometer reading for the bp calculation.

4. The spark-plug is shorted for one cylinder

5. Dynamometer load is reduced so as to restore the engine speed to the initial value.
Record the dynamometer reading for bp calculation.

6. Connect the cut off cylinder and run the engine on all cylinders for a short time.
This is necessary for the steady state conditions.

7. Repeat steps 4, 5, and 6 for the other cylinders one by one and record the dy-
namometer readings for each cylinder.

8. Bring the dynamometer load to zero and disengage the dynamometer before stop-
ping the engine.

9. Using the observed and recorder data, do the necessary calculations.

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11.6 Tabulation

Calorific Value of Fuel

Engine Speed No. of Cylinders
(kJ/kg)

Table 11.6.1: Morse Test - Table of Observations

Dynamometer Brake Power, ip of the cut

Sl Cylinders
Reading, bp off cylinder,
No. Working
(KW ) (KW ) (KW )
1. 1−2−3
2. 1
− 2 − 3
3. 1 − 2
− 3
4. 1 − 2 − 3

Table 11.6.2: Morse Test - Table of Results

References
1. Martyr A.J. & Plint M.A. (2007); Engine Testing Theory and Practice 3rd ed.,
Butterworth-Heinemann (Elsevier), Oxford, UK

2. V.A.W. Hillier & Peter Coombes (2004), Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology, 5th ed., Nelson Thornes Ltd., Cheltenham, UK

3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nSNkB0BXnHM

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Experiment 12

Variable Compression Ratio Petrol Engine

12.1 Aim

12.2 Introduction
Variable compression ratio is a technology to adjust the compression ratio of an internal
combustion engine while the engine is in operation. This is done to increase fuel efficiency
while under varying loads. Higher loads require lower ratios to be more efficient and vice
versa. Variable compression engines allow for the volume above the piston at ’Top dead
centre’ to be changed. For automotive use this needs to be done dynamically in response
to the load and driving demands.
A key contribution of Nicholas August Otto was his finding that compressing the air
and fuel mixture prior to combustion gives an increased efficiency. As has been shown in
the previous experiments, the ideal Otto cycle efficiency derived, yields

1
η =1− (12.2.1)
rcγ−1
Current SI engines have a compression ratio around 10, due to autoignition (knock)
of the air and fuel mixture. Increased heat transfer, friction losses, mechanical stress, and
emission of unburned hydrocarbons also play a role in the useful compression ratios.
Variable compression ratio engines take two steps towards improved engine efficiency.
One is the removal of the design trade-off between compression ratio (efficiency) and en-
gine knocking, so that the best possible compression ratio for the current driving situation
can be obtained. The other is that it offers the possibility for significant downsizing and
supercharging for improved fuel economy. The basic idea is simple: use a high compres-
sion ratio during low loads for high efficiency and, as the load increases, the compression
ratio is decreased to match the knocking. Figure 12.2.1 shows a schematic description of
a variable compression engine where the cylinder is hinged to the crank case and can be
tilted by a hydraulic crank mechanism. Different tilt angles result in different clearance
volumes.

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Figure 12.2.1: A VCR engine working on cyclinder tilt mechanism

Courtesy: Modeling and Control Of Engines And Drivelines (2014) by Eriksson and Nielsen

Various attempts have been made to develop engines with a variable compression ratio.
One such system uses a split piston that expands due to changing hydraulic pressure
caused by engine speed and load. For example, some two-stroke cycle engines have been
built which have a sleeve-type valve that changes the slot opening on the exhaust port.
The position where the exhaust port is fully closed can be adjusted by several degrees of
engine rotation. This changes the effective compression ratio of the engine.
Harry Ricardo built the first known variable compression ratio engine as a test engine
in the 1920s to study knock in aircraft engines. Variable compression ratio was achieved by
raising or lowering the cylinder and cylinder head of the engine relative to the crankshaft.
This work led to the devel- opment of the octane rating system that is still in use today.
Variable compression ratio engines have subsequently been investigated for decades, but
none have been commercially produced due to mechanical complexity, difficulty of control,
and cost. Some of the variable compression ratio engines that have been investigated are
shown in Figure 12.2.2 and include the following:

ˆ Adjustable piston. An early concept for variable compression ratio was the use
of an adjustable piston in the cylinder head. Adjusting the piston changes the
clearance volume at top dead center, thereby altering the compression ratio. Ford
and Volvo have evaluated this concept in the past.

ˆ Hydraulic piston. Teledyne Continental Motors developed variable compression

ratio pistons for both 1790 cu. in. and 1360 cu. in. tank engines to achieve very
high output while limiting peak cylinder pressure by reducing compression ratio.
The variable compression ratio piston consisted of a moveable top that used engine
oil pressure to extend the piston top for the highest compression ratio. To limit peak
cylinder pressure, a pressure relief valve in the piston allowed the piston top to move
downward, thereby reducing compression ratio (Grundy et al. 1976). Ford patented

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a similar concept in the 1980s (Caswell 1984). Mercedes has also experimented with
a similar concept (Joshi 2012).

ˆ Articulated cylinder head . Saab introduced its system at the 2000 Geneva
Motor Show. In the Saab system, one side of the cylinder head with integrated
cylinders is attached to the crankcase with a hinge, and a lifting mechanism is
placed on the other side of the crankcase. The cylinder head can pivot up by four
degrees to increase the volume of the combustion chambers, thereby lowering the
compression ratio. Saab claimed that the technology could change the compression
ratio from 8:1 to 14:1 while the engine was running (Evans 2009).

ˆ Rocker arm. Peugeot introduced its system at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show. In
the Peugeot system, each piston is attached to a rocker arm and the center of the
rocker arm is connected to the crankshaft. An intermediary gear is added to the
other end of the rocker arm. Hydraulic jacks in the engine block next to the cylinders
manipulate a gear rack to raise or lower the rocker arm gear in order to change the
length of the piston stroke, thereby changing the volume of the combustion cham-
ber and, consequently, the compression ratio (Evans 2009).

ˆ Eccentric big end rod bearing . Waulis Motors Ltd’s pat- ented concept uses
an eccentric wheel on the connect- ing rod big end bearing. The eccentric wheel
includes a gear that meshes with a ring gear. Rotating the ring gear will adjust the
position of the eccentric wheel, thereby adjusting the clearance volume at top dead
center.

ˆ Eccentric crankshaft bearing . Gomecsys has developed a fourth-generation

variable compression ratio engine. This system houses the crankshaft bearings
within eccentric wheels contained within the cylinder block. Rotating the eccentric
wheels changes the clearance volume at top dead center. FEV has developed a
similar variable compression ratio engine.

ˆ Eccentric piston pin. An eccentric piston pin has also been proposed as a means
of varying the clearance volume at top dead center.

ˆ Multi-link rod-crank. Nissan has developed a variable compression ratio engine

in which an extra linkage is mounted to the crankshaft in place of the connecting
rod. The connecting rod is connected to this linkage. The linkage is also connected
to an actuator shaft so that the compression ratio can be changed (Joshi 2012).

12.2.1 Advantages
Gasoline engines have a limit on the maximum pressure during the compression stroke,
after which the fuel/air mixture detonates rather than burns. To achieve higher power

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Figure 12.2.2: A VCR engine working on cyclinder tilt mechanism

Courtesy: Cost, Effectiveness, And Deployment Of Fuel Economy Technologies For Light-Duty Vehicles
(2015)

outputs at the same speed, more fuel must be burned and therefore more air is needed.
To achieve this, turbochargers or superchargers are used to increase the inlet pressure.
This would result in detonation of the fuel/air mixture unless the compression ratio was
decreased, i.e. the volume above the piston made greater. This can be done to a greater
or lesser extent with massive increases in power being possible. The down side of this
is that under light loading, the engine can lack power and torque. The solution is to be
able to vary the inlet pressure and adjust the compression ratio to suit. This gives the
best of both worlds, a small efficient engine that behaves exactly like a modern family
car engine but turns into a highly tuned one on demand.
Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) is becoming increasingly desirable as oil prices in-
crease and car buyers have an increased interest in fuel economy. In addition, Global Cli-
mate Warming requires measures from the international community. To the Automobile
industry, it means stricter limits to car emissions, especially CO2 . Variable compression
ratio is one cost effective way of achieving these targets. In addition, VCR allows free
use of different fuels besides petrol e.g. LPG or ethanol.
The cylinder head can be altered by using a hydraulic system which is connected to
the crank shaft and responds according to the load and acceleration required.

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12.3 Description of Test Rig

12.3.1 Engine Specifications

Engine make : Rajkot

Number of strokes : 4
Number of Cylinders : 1
Fuel used : Petrol
kg
Density of fuel used, ρpetrol : ≈ 710 m 3

Calorific value of the fuel, CV : 43,100 kJ

kg
Rated power : 2.2 kW
Speed, N : 3000rpm
Bore, d : 70 mm
Stroke, L : 66.70 mm
Air box orifice diameter, da : 12 mm
Air box orifice discharge coefficient, Cd : 0.62
Compression ratio, rc
: 6, 8, 10
(using various cylinder heads)
Generator Efficiency, ηG : 0.85
Energy Meter Efficiency, ηE : 0.70
revs
Energy meter constant, k : 750 kW −h

Table 12.3.1: Single cylinder VCR Petrol Engine Test Rig Specifications

12.3.2 Required Theoretical Parameters

ˆ Volumetric efficency,

Vs
ηvol = × 100 (12.3.1)
Vt
Vs = swept volume at ST P
Ts
Vs = Va × Ta
(m3 )
Vs =Ta →Ambient temperature (K), Ts → Standard temperature = 288K
Vs =Va →Actual volume of air intake (K)
√ m3
Vs = 60 × Cd × 2 × g × ha min
πd20
a= 4
; d0 =orifice diameter (m)
hw ρw
ha = ρa

Vs =ha →manometric air head (mm)

Vs =hw →manometric water head reading (mm)
Vs =ρw , ρa →densities of water and air
Vt = theroretical volume

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π×D2 N m3
Vt = 4
×L× 2 min
Ts
Vs = Va × Ta
(m3 )
Vs =L → stroke= 0.0667 m, L → speed (rpm)

ˆ Total Fuel Consumption (tf c)

10×10−6 ×60 kg


Mass flow rate mf = t
× ρpetrol min

ρpetrol →Density of petrol, t = time taken for 10cc fuel consumption

 
kg
tf c = mf × 60 (12.3.2)
h

ˆ Air-fuel Ratio

A ma Va × ρq
= = (12.3.3)
F mf mf

ˆ Brake Power (from Generator)

I ×V
bpG = (kW ) (12.3.4)
1000 × ηG

ˆ Brake Power (from Energy Meter)

3600 × N × ηE
bpE = (kW ) (12.3.5)
k × tN
– N =no. of revolutions of energy meter
– tN =time taken for N revolutions

ˆ Specific Fuel Consumption (sf c)

 
tf c kg
sf c = (12.3.6)
bpG kW − h

ˆ Input Power

tf c × CV
Input P ower = (kW ) (12.3.7)
60 × 60
ˆ Brake thermal efficiency

bpG
ηbth = × 100 (12.3.8)
Input P ower

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12.4 Precautions to be taken before Testing proce-

dure
1. The Exhaust Lines connected to the overhead channel should be opened for the
smooth passage of burnt gases from the engine. Also ensiure that the oevrhead
exhaust channel blower is switched on.

2. Water supply to the engine for its cooling, as well as the dynamometer and the
calorimeter (if necessary or provided) has to be turned on.

3. Always start the engine at Zero load.

12.5 Testing Procedure

1. Fill the tank with petrol. And ensure that the cranck case has sufficient lubricating
oil

2. Ensure that the loading on the dynamometer is zero before starting and the dy-
namometer torque arm is perfectly horizontal

3. Connect the control panel to electrical mains: 440V, 3-phase, 15A with neutral
connection

4. Select the compression ratio by using the proper combination of head and spacer.
Connect the head giving the required compression ratio onto the cylinder. Care
needs to be exercised when changing the head after the first run due to the high
temperature.

5. Keep the engine throttle to fully open position

6. Change the ignition switch to ON position

7. Lock the dynamometer torque arm and start the engine

8. Switch on electrical load resistance to the desired value

9. Unlock the torque arm and make it horizontal for each change in the electrical
loading

10. For each value of electrical load, note down speed, temperature, time taken for 10cc
fuel consumption andthe time for 5 revolutions of energy meter and manometer
reading

11. Tabulate the values for different electrical loads and obtain the necessary results

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12.6 Tabulation

Comp. Speed, Fuel Manometer Energy Temp Voltage Current

Ratio (rpm) consumption (cm) meter revs, (°C)
time (sec) hL hr ha tN (sec) T1 T2 V I
6:1
6:1

8:1
8:1

10:1
10:1

Table 12.6.1: Variable Compression Engine - Table of Observations

Volumetric Total fuel Brake Input Brake Sp. fuel

Comp. consump. Air fuel consump.
efficiency power power thermal
Ratio ratio
   
kg kg
(%) hr (kW ) (kW ) eff. (%) kW −hr

6:1
6:1

8:1
8:1

10:1
10:1

Table 12.6.2: Variable Compression Engine - Table of Results

12.7 Graphs to be plotted

ˆ sf c vs bp

ˆ ηbth vs bp

ˆ A
F
vs bp

ˆ ηvol vs bp

References
1. Engineering Fundamentals of the Internal Combustion Engine (2004), Willard W.
Pulkrabek, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, USA

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2. Cost, Effectiveness, And Deployment Of Fuel Economy Technologies For Light-Duty

Vehicles (2015), Board on Energy and Environmental Systems, National Research
Council, The National Academy of Sciences, Washington, USA

3. Modeling and Control Of Engines And Drivelines (2014), Lars Eriksson and Lars
Nielsen, John Wiley & Sons Lt, Sussex, UK

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Index

CO2 , 85 contamination, 17
cooling, 78
absolute humidity, 80
cooling coil, 90
absolute viscosity, 24, 32, 33
cooling load, 89
acetone, 20
CoP, 78
adiabatic calorimeters, 47
air chamber, 36 degree of saturation, 79
air conditioning, 78 dehumidification, 78
antifreeze, 82 diesel engine, 87
azeotropic, 84 dilatant, 26
dilelectric strength, 83
benzene, 31
discharge pressure, 82
benzoic acid, 51
dry air, 79
bingham plastic, 26
dry bulb temperature, 79
bomb, 47, 49
dry bulb thermometer, 80
bomb calorimeter, 44, 48, 51
dynamic viscosity, 24
brine, 82
bucket, 47 efflux, 29
bulk viscosity, 24 efflux time, 26, 29, 31, 32, 36
energy equivalent, 44, 46, 51
calcium chloride, 82
Engler viscometer, 29
calorimeter, 44, 45
ethylene glycol, 82
calorimetry, 44
exhaust valve, 2
capillary viscometers, 28
expansion device, 89
centipoise, 25
extensional viscosity, 24
CFC, 85
CFC, 83 falling ball viscometers, 28
charging pressure, 47 fire point, 16, 17, 21, 22
chemical stability, 83 fixed opening, 90
closed cup, 17, 21 flammability, 17
coefficent of performance, 78 flammability, 83
combustion, 44 flash point, 16, 17, 20–22
combustion bomb, 49 flow cup, 31
compressor, 87 Ford viscosity cup viscometer, 29
condenser, 87
global warming, 81

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global warming, 83 ODP, 85

gross heat, 45 ODP, 83
gross heat of combustion, 45 open cup, 17, 20
GWP, 83, 85 orifice, 29, 31
orifice viscometers, 28, 29
HC, 85
ozone depletion, 83
HCFC, 85
ozone layer depletion, 81
HCFC, 83
heat capacity, 46 Pensky-Martens, 17–19
heat of combustion, 46 poise, 25
heating, 78 positive displacement, 87
hermetic, 87 Prandtl number, 26
HFC, 85, 86 pressure ratio, 82
humidification, 78 primary refrigerants, 81
humidity, 78, 80 propylene glycol, 82
humidity ratio, 79 psuedoplastic, 26
humidity relative, 80 psychrometer, 80
hydro fluoro carbons, 86 psychrometry, 79
hydrostatic head, 29
R11, 85, 86
ignition fuse, 50 R12, 84–86
ignitors, 18 R134a, 83–85, 90
index mark, 20 R22, 85, 86
isentropic index, 82 R502, 85, 86
isoperibol calorimeters, 47 Redwood number, 33
Redwood seconds, 32
jacket, 47 Redwood Viscometer, 23, 34, 35, 38
kinematic viscosity, 24, 25, 33 Redwood viscometer, 29–32
refrigerant, 81
Lab Safety Precautions, 2 relative humidity, 80
latent heat, 82 Reynolds number, 26
locking device, 20 rheology, 24
lubricating oil, 23 Rheopectic, 27
rotational viscometers, 28
miscibility, 83
moist air, 79 sample holder, 50
Multigrades, 28 saturated air, 79
Saybolt Furol viscometer, 36
net heat, 45
Saybolt Furol viscosity, 36
net heat of combustion, 45
Saybolt Second Furol, 26
newtonian fluid, 24, 26
Saybolt Second Universal, 25, 26
non-newtonian fluid, 24, 26–28
Saybolt Universal Second, 26

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Saybolt Universal Seconds, 36, 37 vibrational viscometers, 28

Saybolt Universal viscosity, 36 viscometers, 28
Saybolt Viscometer, 35, 36 viscosity, 23, 28, 83
Saybolt viscometer, 29 volatile, 20
Saybolt Viscometer Cup, 38 volumetric heat of combustion, 46
secondary refrigerants, 81
warming index, 83
shear force, 26
water equivalent, 46
shear rate, 26
water value, 46
shear viscosity, 24
wet bulb temperature, 79
shear-thickening, 26
wet bulb thermometer, 80
shear-thinning, 26
Shell viscosity cup viscometer, 29 Zahn cup viscometer, 29
solvent, 20 zeotropic, 84
specific gravity, 33 zero load, 2
specific heat, 82, 83
specific humidity, 80
SSF, 26
SSU, 25, 26
stokes, 25
suction pressure, 82
SUS, 26, 36

T-s diagram, 89
test flame, 21
test rigs, 2
TEWI, 83
thermal conductivity, 83
thermo control bath, 31
thermocouples, 18
thermometer, 18, 37
thermometers, 51
thixotropic, 27
toluene, 20
Tonnage of Refriegeration, 78
toxicity, 83
TR, 78

ultrasonic viscometers, 28

vapour absorption refrigeration, 81

vapour compression refrigeration, 81
variable opening, 90

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