University of Benghazi Faculty of Engineering

Mechanical Engineering Department

Numerical analysis of a Compressible flow in a converging diverging

nozzle with various gases

A project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Mechanical Engineering

BY

HAMAD YOUSEF MOHAMMED 25159

AHMAD MOHAMMED HASSAN 25142

Supervisor

Dr. SALEH ETAIG

Spring 2021
Heat lab ME409

CONTENTS
Name of experiment Page number
1 Determination the flash point of fuels
and oils
2 Determination of viscosity of liquid
fuels and oils
3 Determination of calorific values of
fuels
4 Determination of calorific values of
solid fuels
5
6

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Aim from experiments lab

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Determination the flash point of fuels and oils

Introduction

The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a substance vaporizes into a gas, which can be
ignited with the introduction of an external source of fire, it is a convenient and reliable
classification of the flammability of many substances, there are three main categories:
Extremely flammable: flash point below 0 0C,
Highly flammable: flash point between 1-21 0C
Flammable: flash point between 55 0C

Typical values of the flash point for some flammable liquids

Substance Flash point, 0C

Diesel fuel 50 – 96
Ethanol 16 – 17
Methanol 11 – 12
Benzene -11.6
Acetone -20

There are two main methods of measuring a flash point – namely, open cup and closed up: open
cup flash point testing occurs when the substance is placed into a vessel which is open to the
outside atmosphere. Its temperature is then gradually raised, and an ignition source is passed
over the top of it at intervals. Once the substance “flashes” or become ignited, it has reached its
flash point.

On the other hand, closed cup flash point testing is conducted inside a sealed vessel and the
ignition source is introduced into the vessel. As a result, the substance is not exposed to the
elements outside of the vessel, which can have an interfering effect on the results of the test. This
in turn, also leads to lower flash points, because the heat is trapped inside, because it is lower, the
flash point is also safer for widespread use, and as such is more generally accepted.

The aim of the experiment

The objective of the experiment is to determine the flash point of various fuels/oils using the
pensky-martens closed cup flash tester.

Apparatus: Pensky- martens closed cup flash tester (PMCC). ( Refer to Fig.1)
This apparatus consists of a lid to cover the oil cup with sliding shutters with ports, oil stirring
mechanism, cast iron oil cup holder and electric heater with control. It can be used to determine
the flash point of petroleum in the temperature range from 40 to 3700 C by a manual or automated
PMCC, it is also used to determine the flash point of biodiesel in the temperature range of 60 to
0
190 C by automated PMCC apparatus.

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Heat lab ME409

Fig .1Pensky- Martens Closed Cup Flash Tester

Outline of method
In the pensky – marten s closed cup flash point test, a brass test cup is filled with the test
specimen and fitted with the cover. The sample is heated and stirred at slow and specified rates
depending on the fuel that being tested. An ignition source (pilot flame) is directed into a flash
that spreads throughout the inside of the cup is seen. The corresponding temperature is the flash
point.

Fig .2 schematic of pansky – marten’s closed cup flash point tester.

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Heat lab ME409

Observation:
Type of fuel/ oil used: Diesel
Heating process
S.N Temperature, ºC Observation
1 20 No flash
2 30 No flash
3 40 No flash
4 50 No flash
5 60 Flash
Cooling process
S.N Temperature, ºC Observation
1 70 Flash
2 60 Flash
3 50 No flash
4 40 No flash
5 30 No flash

Results:
60+50
The flash point of the given fuel/oil is = = 55 ºC
2

Conclusion:
This experiment is devoted to studying the flash point of different fuels. The diesel fuel was
selected to find the flash point in the laboratory according to the normal conditions of the
laboratory. Determining the flash value is very important. Therefore care must be taken when
calculating the flash point because it is used in determining the storage temperatures that will be
stored below the temperature. The flash point temperature and when we calculated the flash
point of the diesel fuel was within the specified range.

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Heat lab ME409

Determination of viscosity of liquid fuels and oils

The objective of the experiment

The objective of the experiment is to measure the viscosity liquid fuels/oils at different
temperature using the Falling Ball Viscometer.

Introduction:
Viscosity is a property of a substance that used to rate different liquids such as fuels and
lubricating oils. Dynamic viscosity is defined from the equation:

τ
μ=¿ du
dy

Where, μ is the dynamic viscosity (cp). τ is the shear stress and du/dy is the velocity gradient.

The higher the viscosity value, the greater is the force needed to move adjacent surfaces or to
pump oil through a passage. Viscosity is highly dependent on temperature, increasing with
decreasing temperature (Fig. 1 left). In the temperature range of engine operation, the dynamic
viscosity of the oil can change by more than an order of magnitude. Oil viscosity also changes
with shear, du/dy, decreasing with increasing shear, Shear rates within an engine range from very
low values to extremely high values in the bearings and between piston and cylinder walls. The
change of viscosity over these extremes can be several orders of magnitude. Common viscosity
grades used in engines are: SAE 5, SAE 10, SAE 20, SAE 30, SAE 40 and SAE 50; where the
abbreviation (SAE) stands for Society of Automotive Engineering.
The oils with lower numbers are less viscous and are used in cold - weather operation. Those
with higher numbers are more viscous and are used in modern high - temperature, high - speed
close tolerance engines. If oil viscosity is too high, more work is required to pump it and to
shear it between moving parts. This results in greater friction work and reduced brake work and
power output. Fuel consumption can be increased by as much as 15%. Also, starting a cold
engine lubricated with high - viscosity oil is very difficult.

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Heat lab ME409

Figure 1: Dynamic viscosity as a function of temperature for common engine oils (left) and
multigrade oils (right). (

Multi - grade oil was developed so that viscosity would be more constant over the operating
temperature range of an engine. When certain polymers are added to an oil, the temperature
dependency of the oil viscosity is reduced, as shown in Fig. 1. (right) These oils have low-
number viscosity values when they are cold and higher numbers when they are hot. A value
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Heat lab ME409

such as SAE 10W30 means that the oil has properties of 10 viscosity when it is cold (W =
winter) and 30 viscosity when it is hot. This gives a more constant viscosity over the operating
temperature range (Fig.1 right). Common viscosity grades used in engines are: SAE 10W 40,
SAE 10W 50, SAE 20W 40 and SAE 20W 50.

Apparatus: Falling Ball Viscometer. (refer to Fig.2)

Falling ball viscometer uses a simple but precise principle to measure the viscosity of Newtonian
liquids by measuring the time required for a ball to fall under gravity through a sample-filled.
The falling ball viscometer is used for quality control in various industries as well as in academic
institutions to illustrate scientific method. The ease of use and straightforward method for
recording time measurements ensures meaningful test results.

Figure 2: falling ball viscometer with a circulating bath permits rapid temperature control of
sample for more accurate and repeatable results.

Outline of method
The basic concept is to measure the elapsed time required for the ball to fall under gravity
through a simple-filled tube inclined at angle. The tube is mounted on a pivot bearing which
quickly allows rotation of the tube 180 degrees, thereby allowing a repeat test to run
immediately. Three measurements are taken and the average time it takes for the ball to fall is the
result. A conversion formula turns the time reading into a final viscosity value.

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Heat lab ME409

Figure 3: Schematic of falling ball viscometer: (1) sphere, (2) tube with sample fluid, (3, 4 and
5) ring markings on tube, (6) thermostatic liquid path, (7) thermometer, (8) pipe connection to
join the instrument to thermostat, (9) level.

Observation:

 Type of fuel / oil used: Engine oil

 Density of oil ρ0 = 0.89 gm/cm3
 Room temperature To = 20 oC.
 Ball specifications: Diameter: 14.29 mm, mass = 11.742 gm, density 7.7 gm/cm3 and ball
constant K = 4.5 (m.pa.cm3)/(g.s)

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 Heat lab ME409

S.N Temperature, oC Time, s

1 20 10
2 30 9
3 40 8
4 50 6
5 60 4
6 70 2

Calculation and Results:

 The density of oil at room temperature : ρ0 = moil /Voil

 The variation of oil density with temperature: ρi= ρ0−0.0037 (T i −T o)
 The dynamic viscosity (cp): µi=k × ( ρball −ρi ) × t b
 Draw the variation of viscosity with temperature.

S. Temperature, oC Time, s ρi= ρ0−0.0037 (T i −T o), Kg/m3 µi=k × ( ρball −ρi ) × t b, Kg/m.s
N
1 20 10 0.89 306.45
2 30 9 0.85 277.30
3 40 8 0.81 247.82
4 50 6 0.77 186.86
5 60 4 0.74 125.24
6 70 2 0.70 62.95

ρi= ρ0−0.0037 (T i −T o)

ρi=0.89−0.0037 (20−20)
3
ρi=0.89 gm/m

µi=k × ( ρball −ρi ) × t b

µi=4.5× ( 7.7−0.89 ) × 10

Kg
µi=306.45 .s
m

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Heat lab ME409

Conclusion
We observed in this experiment that there is a relationship between temperature and
viscosity at any time The temperature increased, the viscosity decreased, and there was a
relationship between viscosity and shear stress. As the shear stress increases, the viscosity
decreases
.

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Heat lab ME409

Determination of calorific values of fuels

Introduction
The heating value or calorific value of combustible material is an important property , which
may be used to evaluate out’s effectiveness foe using as a fuel and also the design of chemical
equipment’s where it is to be used. The calorific value may be defined as the quantity of heat
released by the complete burning of a unit mass of the field with oxygen. In case of gaseous fuel,
the heat released during the complete combustion of on cubic meter of gas at N.T.P (normal
temperature and pressure) i.e., 1 atm pressure as 0 C is the measure of calorific value. Whereas,
the calorific value solid fuel is measured per gram or per kg of solid fuel.
Liquid and gaseous fuels (in comparison to solid fuels) have many advantages. The most
important are: 1) easy and fast transmission though pipeline over long distances without
reloading and loss: 2) high lower heating values: 3) easy and complete combustion at low excess
air ration
In general, the calorific value of a solid or liquid fuel is the gross calorific, which is determined
as constant volume for a liquid fuel whereas for gaseous fuels at constant pressure. If the water
formed and liberated during combustion is in the liquid phase, at assumption that the products
are cooled to the initial temperature of the components involved in the combustion process, than
the corresponding calorific value is called gross calorific value or high calorific value. The net
calorific value or low calorific value corresponds to the process when the water formed during
combustion remains as steam. It is numerically equal to difference between the high heating
value and the amount of heat required to the separation of water contained in fuel.

Pare (1): Determination of Calorific Values of Gaseous Fuels

The aim of the experiment
The objective of the experiment is to measure the high heating value and the lower heating value
of gaseous fuels using the Junker's calorimeter.

Equipment: Junker’s Gas Calorimeter

This equipment consists of the calorimeter, gass flow meter, pressure govenor, graduated vassel
and thermometers as shown in fig 1.

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Thermometers

Calorimeter

Gas Graduated
Pressure Flow meter vessel
bottle Governor

Figure 1: Junker’s Gas Calorimeter

The Junker’s calorimeter is the most convenient equipment to the performing of measurement of
the heating value of gaseous fuels. This gas calorimeter works on the Junker's principle of
burning of a known volume of gas and imparting the heat with maximum efficiency to steady
flowing water and finding out of the rise in temperature of a measured volume of water.

The essential elements of the calorimeter are (refer to fig 2)

 A special gas burner (Bunsen burner) for combustion.
 A combustion chamber surrounded by double-walled cylindrical water jacket.
 Exhaust pip system directing the fuel gas through the water jacket to the outlet.
 Thermometers for reading inlet and outlet temperatures of water.
 Cylindrical housing the nickel-plated from the outside to reduce heat transfer by
radiation.

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Figure 2: The scheme of Junker’s calorimeter. It consists of: (1) Over flow of water supplied to the
calorimeter, (2) overflow of water discharged out the calorimeter, (3) water supply to the
.
calorimeter, (4) water discharge from the calorimeter, (5) flue gas outlet, (6) tube to drain the
water from the flue gas,(7) water inlet temperature sensor and (8) water outlet temperature
sensor.
Experimental Procedures and observations
The order of the procedure at measurement is as follows:
1) Read the room ambient temperature, oC and the barometric pressure,
2) Turn on the cooling water flowing through the calorimeter,
3) Open the gas valve and light the Bunsen burner and adjust the amount of air flowing to the
burner that way, so the gas would be used as in the complete and total combustion,

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4) adjust the streams of cooling water and condensate by the valve at the inlet,
5) Weighed empty and dry vessels for receiving condensate and cooling water,
6) Wait about 10 minutes until the system be in steady operating condition,
7) record time run for one revolution of gas flow meter,
8) For a complete cycle of gas flow meter read:
 the water temperature at the inlet of the calorimeter (Tw1) oC,
 the water temperature at the outlet of the calorimeter (Tw2) oC,
 the flue gas temperature at the outlet of the calorimeter (Tex) oC,
 gas burned during the revolution (Vg) m3,
 the temperature of gas in gas meter (Tg) oC,
 The over - pressure in the U-pipes, located on the gas meter mmHg.

9) weighed the vessels with the condensate and the cooling water (kg),
10) Repeat the operations of points 8 and 9.

Calculations and Result

Based on date collected and by assuming constant specific heat Cp for water = 1 Kcal/Kg. oC
= 4.186 KJ/Kg. oC the higher calorific value of gaseous fuel (gross heating value) can be
calculated via:
mw ¿ c pw∗(T w2 −T w1 )
QHHV = … … … … … … … … (1)
Vg

kcal kJ
Where the unit of QHHV is 3 or 3 depends on the value and units of cp used in the equation
m m
(1).
The net colorific value or lower heating value is calculated via:

mcw
QLHV = QHHV - h … … … … … … … … (2)
Vg l

Where mcw the mass of condesate water h1 the latent heat of water, which is equal to
mcw
2255.4KJ/Kg. The term ( h ) represents the heat required to condense per unit volume of gas
Vg l
burnt.

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Reduction of the high heating value and lower heating value gas to the dry and normal
conditions:
Reduction coefficient RC:

Ts
∗P m
Rc = T g
Ps

Where Ts is the absolute temperature at standard conditions = 273 K, Ps is the standard absolute
pressure minus saturated temperature and Pm is the pressure at meter.
Usually the ratio of (Pm / Ps) is nearly equation to 1, therefore it can be assumed that Ps = Pm. In
this case (Rc = Ts/Tg) and the higher and lower calorific valuse at standerd conditions can be
calculated as follows:
QLHV QLHV
QHHV = and QLHV =
Rc Rc

Data:
Following experiments data were obtained when a gas was tested in Junker's gas calorimeter:
Parameter Value
3
Gas burnt in calorimeter 0.08 m
Pressure of gas supply 0.4 Cm of Hg
Barometer reading 75.5 Cm of Hg
Temperature of gas 13 Degree centigrade
Weight of water heated by gas 28 Kg
Temperature of water at inlet 10 Degree centigrade
Temperature of water at outlet 23.5 Degree centigrade
Steam condensed 0.06 Kg

Determine the higher and lower calorific values per meter cube of gas at temperature of 0 oC and
barometric pressure of 76 cm Hg

Calculation
mw ¿ c pw∗(T w2 −T w1 )
QHHV =
Vg

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28∗4.186∗(23.5−10)
QHHV =
0.08

QHHV = 19046.3 KJ/m3

mcw
QLHV = QHHV - h
Vg l
0.06
QLHV = 19046.3- ∗2255.4
0.08
QLHV = 17354.75 KJ/m3

Ts
∗P m
Rc = T g
Ps

273
∗75.5
Rc =¿ 286
76
Rc =¿ 0.948

QLHV
QHHV =
Rc
19046.3
QHHV =
0.948
QHHV = 20085.40 KJ/m3

QLHV
QLHV =
Rc
17354.75
QLHV =
0.948
QLHV = 18306.698 KJ/m3

Conclusion
HCV (higher calorific value) and LCV (lower calorific value) are two measurements of heat
liberated from the combustion of a unit mass of fuel. Also, HCV is also known as the gross
calorific value while LCV is known as the net calorific value.

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Determination of Calorific Values of Solid Fuels

OBJECTIVES
The objective of the experiment is to measure the higher heating value of solid fuels, using the
bomb calorimeter.

Introduction
The heating value or calorific value of a combustible material is an important property, which
may be used to evaluate its effectiveness for using as a fuel and also for the design of chemical
equipment where it is to be used. The calorific value may be defined as the quantity of heat
released by the complete burning of a unit mass of the fuel with oxygen. So, the calorific value
for solid fuel is measured per gram or per Kg of fuel.
In general, the calorific value of a slid or liquid fuel is the gross calorific, which is determined at
constant volume for a liquid fuel, whereas for gaseous fuels at constant pressure. If the water
formed an liberated during combustion is in the liquid phase, at assumption that the combustion
products are cooled to the initial temperature of the components involved in the combustion
process, then the net calorific value or low calorific value corresponds to the process when the
water formed during combustion remains as steam. It is numerically equal to difference between
the high heating value and the amount of heat required to the separation of water contained in
fuel.

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Apparatus
Bomb CALORIMETER

Procedures
1) Add 1gm of fuel sample in the crucible and it into the bomb
2) Add 10ml (10gm) of distilled water and connect the fuse to the lid wires.
3) Pressurize the bomb with oxygen and place it inside the jacket. Fill the jacket with 2000m
(2000gm) of water. Assemble the calorimeter and start stirrer and note down the initial
temperature of water.
4) Record the temperature of the water bath accurately using a precision thermometer at an
interval of 1minute for 5 minutes and ignite the charge at the start 5th minute.
5) Keep recording the temperature every minute till constant temperature is attained.
6) Open the bomb carefully.

Calculation:
Mass of fuel (mf )=1gm

Water in bomb (m1 ¿ = 10gm

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Water in calorimeter (m2 ¿ = 2000gm

Water equivalent of calorimeter ( m3) = 1000gm

Cp for water = 1 Kcal/Kg C =4.186 KJ/Kg C

Q HHV =[ mw ∗Cp∗∆ T ] /mf

mw isthe total mass of water =(m1 +m2+ m3)

∆ T iscorrected temperature rise=[ ( T 12−T 5 ) +T c ] .

T 12And T 5 are the final and the initial temperature of the water sample. T c Is the temperature
correction for radiation losses.

Initial period Main period After combustion

Time (min) Temp (C) Time (min) Temp (C ) Time (min) Temp (C )
0 20 6 20.5 12(End) 24
1 20 7 21 13 23.9
2 20 8 21.5 14 23.8
3 20 9 22 15 23.6
4 20 10 22.5 16 23.4
5 (Firing) 20 11 23 17 23.2

Q HHV =[ mw ∗Cp∗∆ T ] /mf

T 12=27.9 C

T 5=24 C

T c=0.1
∆ T =[ ( T 12−T 5 ) +T c ] .

∆ T =[ ( 27.9−24 )+ 0.1 ] =4 C

mw =(m1+ m2+ m3 )
mw =10+ 2000+1000=3010 gm

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mf =10 gm

[
Q HHV = 3.01
Kg∗4.186 KJ
KgC ]
∗4 C /0.01 Kg= 4705.064KJ/Kg

If we use 1 Kcal/Kg:

Q HHV =[ mw ∗Cp∗∆ T ] /mf

[
Q HHV = 3.01
Kg∗1 Kcal
KgC ]
∗4 C /0.01 Kg= 1204Kcal/Kg

Results:

We noticed in this experiment that in the main period there was no ignition, and for me a
change in temperature occurred, and in the period in which the ignition occurred the
temperature began to increase and the period during which after ignition the temperature
reached the maximum possible, meaning that the ignition was completely complete and
thereafter. It started to decrease gradually

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Heat lab ME409

Engine performance test

Objective
Learn the basic procedures of engine testing; verity, measure, and interpret engine
performance and how this performance changes when the test condition change.

Introduction
Internal combustion engine: A mechanical device that converts thermal energy to mechanical
energy. The thermal energy is produced from the combustion of hydrocarbons in presence
oxygen in exothermic reaction commonly called combustion reaction. In these type engines,
products of combustion works as the working fluid and the combustion takes place inside the
cylinder. Example: petrol engine and diesel engines.

Importance of engine test

 To find out performance before mass production and fitting it into a vehicle.
 To improve the design and configuration, to integrate new materials and technology
 Historically, the test basically was to find out the power and fuel consumption, also
to test effectiveness of cooling, vibration and noise, lubrication, controllability.
 Modern regulation force engines to reduce harmful emission and comply stringent
regulations, therefore test is getting more and more sophisticated.

Basic instrumentation for Engine Test

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 Power/torque measurement
 Engine speed measurement
 Air flow rate measurement
 Fuel flow rate measurement

Type of Dynamometers
A dynamometers must be capable to allowing the engine to develop torque engine speeds. The
main types are:
 Mechanical dynamometer
 Water dynamometer
 DC dynamometer
 AC dynamometer
 Eddy current dynamometer

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Procedure
1) Make sure that the test engine- Dynamometer assembly is coupled properly as
2) Make sure that the test engine fuel tank has enough fuel for the test,
3) Switch on the electrical and water supplies to the test bed
4) Open the fuel taps on your fuel gauge fuel to flow to the test engine. If necessary, tap
the fuel line to remove any air bubble.
5) Start the engine
6) Set throttle position at WOT
7) Adjust engine speed control to 500 rpm.
8) Allow the engine to run for few minutes until it reaches normal operating temperature
and runs steadily.

Theory
The power deliver by the engine
bp =2πnT

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The air mass flow rate ṁa and the fuel mass flow rate ṁf are normally related by air to fuel ratio
(A/F):
ṁa
(A/F)=
ṁf

The brake specific fuel consumption(b sfc ) is defined as the fuel flow rate per unit power output:
ṁf
(bsfc )=
bp
Brake thermal efficiency ηth :

bp bp
ηth = =
Q¿ ṁf QLHCV ηC

ηC is the combustion efficiency (assumeηC =98 %) and Q LHCV is the lower heating calorific value
of the fuel.

Calculation

Barometric pressure = 1 bar temperature=293 K

Throttle position =100% fuel type = Gasoline
Heating value of fuel =44000 kJ/kg fuel density: 740 kg/m3

N=1000rpm
T =100 N.m
2∗3.14∗1000
bp=2πnT= ×1000 =10466.7W=10.466KW
60
ṁa
(A/F)=
ṁf

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15 ṁa
= =ṁa=45 kg /hr
1 3

ṁf
(bsfc )=
bp
3 kg/h 3 kg
= = =0.286 kg/Kw.hr
10.4666 kw 10.4666 kw . h

10.4666 kw
bp bp 3 kg
ηth = = = ∗44000 kJ =0.29127
Q¿ ṁf Q LHCV ηC 3600 s
∗0.98
kg
ηth =29.127 %

Engine Engine Fuel Manifold bp ṁa (bsfc ) ηth

speed Torque flow Vacuum Kw Kg/hr
rpm (N.M) kg/hr Pressure Kg/Kw.hr
kpa
1000 100 3 1 10.4667 45 0.286623 0.2912811
1500 112 5 1 17.58406 75 0.284349 0.2936113
2000 120 7 1 25.12008 105 0.278662 0.2996034
2500 128 9 1.2 33.49344 135 0.268709 0.3106998
3000 132 11 1.2 41.44813 165 0.265392 0.3145836
3500 134 13 1.2 49.08882 195 0.264826 0.3152557
4000 136 15 1.8 56.93885 225 0.263441 0.3169138
4500 138 17 2 64.99821 255 0.261546 0.3192098

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5000 140 19 2.3 73.2669 285 0.259326 0.3219422

5500 130 21 2.5 74.83691 315 0.28061 0.2975228
6000 120 23 2.7 75.36024 345 0.305201 0.2735509

140
130
120
bp(KW)
110
100
90 Torque(N.M)
80
70 bsfc (kg/Kw.hr)
60
50 fuel mass rate(kg/hr)
40
30
manifold vacuum
20 pressure (Kpa)
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

140
130
120
110
100
90
80
Torque
70
Eeeiciency
60 power
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

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Conclusion :
We noticed in this experiment that as the engine speed increases (rpm), the torque increases with
it until it reaches its highest value and then begins to decrease and the fuel flow increases and the
reason is to increase the speed and increase the pressure in the engine

Exhaust Gas Analysis

Introduction
Flue gas is the mixture of gases resulting from combustion and other reactions in combustion
equipments like engines and boilers, composed largely of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, water vapour, and often sulfur dioxide, excess O2 and sometimes serving as a source
from which carbon dioxide or other compounds are recovered. Based on the fuel composition
flue gases are formed, a fuel having carbon and hydrogen compounds generates flue gas
containing oxides of carbon and hydrogen. To check the combustion efficiency of I.C engines, it
is essential to know the constituents of the flue gases being exhausted.

Objective of the Experiment

To know the working principle of Orsat analyzer and the very basic principle of measuring CO2,
O2, CO and N2 emission parameters.
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Orsat Gas Analyzer

An Orsat gas analyzer is a piece of laboratory equipment used to analyze a gas sample (typically
fossil fuel or flue gas) for its oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content. Orsat
apparatus consists of a water-jacketed measuring burette, connected in series to a set of three
absorption pipettes, each through a stop-cock to absorb different gases.

Pipette 1: Contains ‘KOH’ (caustic soda or potassium hydroxide; 250g KOH in 500mL of
boiled distilled water) to absorb CO2.

Pipette 2: Contains an alkaline solution of ‘pyrogallic acid’ (25g pyrogallic acid + 200g KOH
in 500ml of distilled water) to absorb O2 and CO2.

Pipette 3: Contains an acid solution of ‘cuprous chloride’ (100g cuprous chloride + 125 ml
liquor ammonia + 375 ml of water) to absorb CO, O2 and CO2.
The other end is provided with a three-way stop-cock, the free end of which is further connected
to a U-tube packed with glass wool for avoiding the incoming of any smoke particles, etc. The
graduated burette is surrounded by a water jacket to keep the temperature of the gas constant
during the experiment. The lower end of the burette is connected to a water reservoir by means
of long rubber tubing.

Figure 1: Orsat analyzer

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Working Principle of Orsat analyzer

Typical flue gas analyzers measure the quantity of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxygen
by a chemical absorption principle. Based on the absorption factor of these three components
their respective absorbing solutions are selected in three different pipette compartments. When
the gas is passed into these pipettes consecutively, where each component is separated in
sequence, helps to know the volume drop from initial flue gas volume. Water vapour in flue gas
removed by adsorption on solid calcium chloride and then passed into three pipettes. It is
necessary that the flue gas is passed first through potassium hydroxide pipette where CO2 is
absorbed, then through alkaline pyrogallic acid pipette where only O2 will be absorbed (because
CO2 has already been removed) and finally through cuprous chloride pipette, where only CO will
be absorbed (because CO2 and O2 has already been removed). At last the remaining amount of
flue gas is assumed to contain N2 only.

Procedure
1) The whole apparatus is thoroughly cleaned, stoppers greased and then tested for
airtightness. The absorption pipettes are filled with their respective solutions to level just
below their rubber connections.

2) Their stop-cocks are then closed. The jacket and levelling reservoir are filled with water.

3) The three-way stop-cock is opened to the atmosphere and reservoir is raised, till the
burette is completely filled with water and air is excluded from the burette.

4) The three-way stop-cock is now connected to the flue gas supply and the reservoir is
lowered to draw in the flue gas in the burette. The sample gas mixed with some air is
present in the apparatus. So the three-way stop-cock is opened to the atmosphere, and the
gas expelled out by raising the reservoir. This process of sucking and exhausting of gas is
repeated 3-4 times, so as to expel the air from the capillary connecting tubes, etc. Finally,
gas is sucked in the burette and the volume of the flue gas is adjusted to 100 ml at
atmospheric pressure.

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5) For adjusting final volume, the three-way stop-cock is opened to atmosphere and the
reservoir is carefully raised till the level of water in it is the same as in the burette which
stands at 100 ml mark. The three-way stop-cock is then closed finally.

6) The stopper of the absorption pipette containing caustic potash solution is opened and all
the gas is forced into this pipette by raising the water reservoir.

7) The gas is again sent to the burette by lowering the water reservoir. This process is
repeated several times to ensure complete absorption of CO2 by KOH solution.

8) The unabsorbed gas is finally taken back to the burette, till the level of solution in the CO 2
absorption pipette stands at the constant mark and then, its stop-cock is closed.

9) The levels of water in the burette and reservoir are equalized and the volume of residual
gas is noted. The decrease in volume-gives the volume of CO 2 in 100 ml of the flue gas
sample.

10) The volumes of O2 and CO are similarly determined by passing the remaining gas through
alkaline pyrogallic acid pipette and cuprous chloride pipette respectively.

11) The gas remaining in burette after absorption of CO2, O2 and CO is taken as nitrogen.

Observation and Results

Amount of flue gas sample = 100 ml.
Amount of CO2 = (100 – X) ml; X = Final volume of flue gas taken out from the KOH pipette.
Amount of O2 = (X – Y) ml; Y = Final volume of flue gas taken out from the alkaline pyrogallic
pipette.
Amount of CO = (Y – Z) ml; Z = Final volume of flue gas taken out from the cuprous chloride
pipette.
Amount of N2 = Z ml.
Precautions

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a) The reagents in the absorption pipette 1, 2 and 3 should bring to the etched
mark levels one-by-one by operating the reservoir bottle and the valve of
each pipette. Then their respective valves are closed.

b) All the air in the reservoir bottle is expelled to atmosphere by lifting the
reservoir bottle and opening the three-way to atmosphere.

c) It is quite necessary to follow the order of absorbing gases: CO 2 first, O2

second and CO last.

Some Modern and Industrial Exhaust Gas Analyzers

Generally, the analyzers have two versions: Cross-stack analyzers and analyzers with a
measuring probe.

Advantages of Cross-stack analyzer

- Measurement across section of the channel; this produces results with high statistical
representation.

- Determination of gas concentrations in real time; this means very fast measurement,
results reflect the current state of the process.

- Non-contact measurement; therefore suitable for use with aggressive or corrosive gases.

- Very short response times.

- Very low maintenance requirements.
Analyzers for direct gas analysis are available as complete devices systems. Gas components
such as CO, CO2, SO2, NO, NO2, O2, NH3, and H2O are measured directly in the measurement
location.

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Figure 2: Cross-stack method

Advantages of Probe technique

- For applications with high dust concentrations.
- Also suitable for difficult measurement tasks such as overpressure, wet gases or very high
gas concentrations.

- Suitable for checking engine exhaust emissions from different types of engines.

Some Industrial Applications:

- Power stations and district heating stations.
- Domestic furnaces, cracking lime and cement kilns.
- Quench and tempering furnaces.

With extractive gas analysis, the analyzers measure numerous gas components, for example
SO2, NO, NO2, CO, CO2, O2, HCI, NH3, H2O, mercury, hydrocarbons, and total carbon.

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Figure 3: Nova Portable Engine Exhaust Analyzers

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