Vehicle Emission Measurement

Andriannah Mbandi, PhD

Stockholm Environment Institute, Africa Centre

10-06-2019
 Combustion Process

Ideal Combustion λ = 1
O2

Fuel
CO2
O2 CO2
Fuel Fuel
CO2

O2
Combustion process
Lean Mixture λ > 1
O2
O2 O2

Fuel CO2

CO2
Fuel Fuel
O2 CO2

O2
O2
O2

Rich Mixture λ < 1

CO2 CO
O
Fuel
Unburnt
O2 Fuel Fuel
Fuel
CO2

O2
 Combustion gas: oxygen (O2)
• O2 levels inverse of CO levels-
without air injection system

• Lean Mixture: O2

• Rich Mixture: O2

• O2 content increases sharply

as λ>1
© http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nIhDLnTGMAE
 Combustion gas: carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Result of
complete
combustion
• Overall
combustion
and catalytic
converter
efficiency
• Not a pass or
fail gas
• CO2: 12-16%
 Combustion gas: carbon monoxide (CO)

• Incomplete combustion
• Excess fuel = rich mixture
• Partially burnt fuel
• Catalytic converter requires air/fuel ratio to vary lean to
rich
➢ Pre-catalytic converter: CO<1.5%
➢ After catalytic converter: CO~0%
• Feedback carburetted engine ran rich at idle: CO~9%
 Combustion gas: hydrocarbons (HC)

• Unburned fuel due to incomplete combustion

• All engines produce HC:

➢ Pre-catalytic converter: 150-300 ppm
➢ After catalytic converter: ~0 ppm

• Wasted fuel
➢ 1% partially burnt fuel produce 200 ppm HC
 Combustion gas: oxides of nitrogen (NOX)
• Primary contributor of ozone
• Formed under high T & P: not formed at idle or
light loads

• Lean mixture at high T: excess O2 molecules

combine to form NOX
• Exhaust gas recirculation(EGR): O2 and T
 Combustion gas: oxides of sulphur (SOX)

• High sulphur (S) content in fuel

➢ Reduction in S
content reduces
emissions in
exhaust
➢ Marine engines
have higher
contribution
© Bilfinger, 2014
 Combustion particles-particulate matter (PM)
• Formed in combustion cylinder and in the exhaust
system of the vehicle.
• Mostly attributable to heavy duty diesel vehicles

Mix (condensed) liquid & solid-Organic

or Inorganic

• Sulphates
• Nitrates
• Ammonia
• Sodium chloride
• Black Carbon
• Mineral dust
• Water
©ARB, 2009
 Source apportionment: what are the sources
of urban air pollution?

Source: Karagulian, F. et al. (2015) ‘Contributions to cities’ ambient particulate matter (PM): A systematic review of local source contributions at
global level’, Atmospheric Environment. doi: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.08.087.
 Impact of air pollution in Africa?

GBD (2016) Global burden of Disease Study 2015-Results by risk factor-country level (online data base-Viz Hub-GBD Compare). Seattle.
Available at: https://vizhub.healthdata.org/gbd-compare/.
 Petrol and Diesel Engines

Petrol Engine Diesel Engine

Spark Ignition Compression Ignition
Fuel/Air premixed before Fuel/Air not premixed
compression
Lower efficiency & Lighter Higher efficiency-High
compression ratio & Heavier
AFR:14.7 (predetermined) AFR: 20-100/1 (air injected not
controlled)
Emissions: More fuel, >CO2, less Emissions: less fuel, <CO2, >NOX
NOX and low PM Higher PM

Pollutants: CO, HC, NOX Pollutants: NOX, PM, Smoke

Units of measurement
Gases
O2: %
CO2: %
CO: %
HC: ppm
NOX: ppm

PM
Particulate Mass (µg/m3)
Particulate Number (#/km)

Smoke:
Opacity: %
Smoke density: m-1

Engine: λ, RPM, T, P
 Vehicle Emission Legislation

Emission limits

Standards
Test cycles

Test and
Measurement
Specifications
Regulations
Result Calculation
and reporting
specifications

© AVL, 2014
 Use of PEMS to measure gases & PM
GPS &
weather
probe

Exhaust
Flow
Meter
(EFM)

Weighing
Gas bench: CO/CO2 (NDIR) NOx
(NDUV), THC (FID)
Flow tube
power supply 110
Heated sample line VAC, 220
VAC or 12 VDC

Exhaust sample
 EU Emission legislation
Light Duty Heavy Duty

© AVL, 2014
Vehicle technology and fuel quality

DOC

TWC

DPF

ECU EGR
SCR

Adopted ICCT, 2012

 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
Diesel engine control emissions technology

• Reduces NOx (~90%) using urea as a

reductant within a catalyst system
• End product: N2, H2O and small CO2

©factsaboutscr, 2014

3 Way Catalytic converter (TWC)

Petrol engine control emissions technology
• Most vehicles sold have TWC
• use of TWCs with an oxygen sensor-based
closed-loop fuel delivery system
• Simultaneous conversion of the three
criteria pollutants-HC, CO, and NOx

© clickcarparts, 2014
 Inspection & Maintenance
I/M Standards-based on I/M requirement for operating
distribution of emissions vehicle + Linked to vehicle
levels Phased Approach: registration
Learning Adaptation
Set Inspection fees to support Capacity building Capacity building for all actors
I/M programs in I/M

Test CO HC NOX PM Smoke Cost Time Where?

Idle Test χ χ low fast UK, EU
2-Speed idle Test χ χ low fast UK, EU
Snap or Free χ low fast California, SA
acceleration Test
IM 240 χ χ χ High Medium USA

Full load χ χ χ χ χ High Medium EU, USA,

Japan
 EU Emission I/M Standards
Source: EU directives 96/96 EC and 2001/9/EC
Year CO standard Lambda Test (Petrol)
(%) (λ)

< 1986 4.5 - Idle

> 1986 3.5 - Idle
With Catalytic converter 0.5 - Idle
0.3 0.97< λ < 1.03 2 speed idle

Year Turbocharged Naturally aspirant Test (Diesel)

< 1980 - -

> 1980 3.0 m-1 2.5 m-1 Free acceleration

 UK Emission MOT standards
Year Test Type (Petrol) Pass or Fail
All Visual Inspection Visual Black smoke/dense blue

>1975 Standard Emissions Gas Analyzer (non- CO :3.5%-4.5%

catalyst test) HC: 1200ppm

>1992 Basic Emissions Gas Analyzer & EC CO<0.2% HC<200ppm

Fast Idle 0.97 < λ <1.03

Normal Idle CO <0.3%

Year Turbocharged Normal Test (Diesel)

Opacity (m-1) Opacity(m-1)
<1979 - - Visual
1979-2008 3 2.5 Diesel fast pass
> 2008 1.5 1.5 Diesel fast pass
 • Decentralized: ~20 000
local car repair garages
• Test:
❑ Vehicle safety
❑ Road worthiness
❑ Exhaust emissions

© www.gov.uk/government/publications/your-car-and-the-mot2014

Age: 3 years old

Annual test Cost: £30-£130
Failure: notice & repair
Re-test: free or reduced fee
(defect/time)
Time: 45-60 min, 2 technicians ©hicksmotandservice, 2014
 California Air Resources Board (ARB)
• Heavy-duty trucks and buses: control excessive smoke emissions &
prevent tampering (>6000lb)
• Test-Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) J1667 snap acceleration
procedure-opacity measurement
• Test using PEMS

Allowable levels of Smoke Opacity

All post 1991 or newer engines Must not exceed 40% opacity

All pre-1991 engines Must not exceed 55% opacity

❑ Periodic Smoke Inspection Program (PSIP)

❑ Heavy-Duty Vehicle Inspection Program (HDVIP)
 South Africa-Cape Town Emission
Legislation
• Air Quality Management by-Law 2003, 2010
• Vehicles: Compression ignition (Diesel)
• Dark smoke (2010): Light absorption >=20%
• BP Hartridge smoke meter

2003 2010
Naturally aspirated 60 HSU 50HSU
2.125m-1 1.61m-1
18.57%

Turbocharged 66 HSU 56HSU

2.51m-1 1.191m-1
21.57%
©Oliver, 2014
Framework for Vehicle Emission
Measurement
 1. Micro-scale per vehicle: real-world vehicle
emission measurement

Mbandi, A. (2018) Assessing the contribution of road transport emission to air pollution and greenhouse gases in Africa: A disaggregate
study in Kenya. University of York
1. Micro-scale per vehicle: real-world
vehicle emission data
 2. Meso-scale: urban vehicle fleet
characteristics and activity

Mbandi, A.M.; Böhnke, J.R.; Schwela, D.; Vallack, H.; Ashmore, M.R.; Emberson, L. Estimating On-Road Vehicle Fuel Economy in Africa: A Case Study
Based on an Urban Transport Survey in Nairobi, Kenya. Energies 2019, 12, 1177
 2. Meso-scale: urban vehicle fleet
characteristics and activity

Mbandi, A.M.; Böhnke, J.R.; Schwela, D.; Vallack, H.; Ashmore, M.R.; Emberson, L. Estimating On-Road Vehicle Fuel Economy in Africa: A Case Study
Based on an Urban Transport Survey in Nairobi, Kenya. Energies 2019, 12, 1177
 3. Macro-scale: Assessment of the impact of
road transport policies on air pollution and
greenhouse gas emissions in Kenya

Mbandi, A. (2018) Assessing the contribution of road transport emission to air pollution and greenhouse gases in Africa: A disaggregate
study in Kenya. University of York
 3. Macro-scale: Air pollution,
Greenhouse Gas emissions in
Kenya, 2010

Mbandi, A. (2018) Assessing the contribution of road transport emission to air pollution and greenhouse gases in Africa: A disaggregate
study in Kenya. University of York.