1

Introduction to Applied Combustion

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The birth, growth, decay, and even ultimate death of many civilizations can be described
in terms of their specific cultural understanding and application of the principles of
combustion. For example, in both primitive and ancient cultures, fire was a mystery to be
feared and therefore often worshiped. In such circumstances, the control of fire often
provided certain groups with power either to improve or to destroy human existence. This
mystical belief concerning the nature of fire, or more precisely the combustion process
that caused it, was forever changed when Empedocles (ca. 490–430 B.C.) postulated his
famous belief that fire was but one of four constituent elements of all matter: earth, air,
fire, and water.
This idea was commonly held until the Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment,
when men such as Carnot (1796–1832) began to study the key nature of matter, energy,
and combustion. In his “Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire,” Carnot postulated his
now-famous thermodynamic cycle, which would convert a fraction of energy transfer
from a source, such as fire, into work, with the remaining energy, of necessity, being
rejected into a sink. This publication provided a theoretical basis for an absolute
temperature scale, contributed to the formulation of classical thermodynamics, and
spurred development of practical heat engines that helped to shape the Industrial
Revolution.
Tremendous progress was made by many individuals and organizations during the
twentieth century to push the knowledge and application of combustion science to new
limits. Many useful applications of combustion principles can be cited that have helped to
make the material quality of life in America far better than any culture in the recorded
history of civilization (see Figure 1.1). Applied combustion technology today helps to
move mankind rapidly and efficiently over the surface of the Earth, through the air, as
well as on and under the sea. The power of combustion has even taken men into orbit
around the Earth and out to the surface of the moon.

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2 Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 Typical applications of combustion science.

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 3

EXAMPLE 1.1 Carnot postulated an ideal thermodynamic cycle having the maximum
theoretical thermal efficiency, i.e., desired work output to required heat input. The
thermal efficiency η for the cycle shown below can be expressed as
Desired energy output Net work (power) T
η = = =1− L
Required energy input Heat (flux) added TH

where
TL = lowest cycle absolute temperature
TH = highest cycle absolute temperature

For a TL of 70°F calculate the required TH for a cycle thermal efficiency of (a) 20%, (b)
40%, (c) 60%, and (d) 80%.
Solution
1. Thermal efficiency:
TL TL
η =1− where TH =
TH (1 − η )
T L = 70 + 460 = 530°R

η TH
0.20 662.5 368.1
0.40 883.3 490.7
0.60 1,325.0 736.1
0.80 2,650.0 1,472.2
°R K

Comments: A high Carnot cycle efficiency implies cycle temperatures, which are
consistent with the combustion process.

1.2 ENERGY AND COMBUSTION

Prior to the present age of jet travel and space exploration, energy demands were
relatively low and energy was cheap. Until recent events including critical shortfalls in
certain crucial fuel reserves and environmental consciousness, very little motivation, or
even need, existed to develop an applied combustion engineering textbook. The material
covered in this text will focus principally on an engineering study of the energy
conversion aspects of combustion. Combustion in this dissertation will refer to any
relatively fast gas-phase chemical reaction that liberates substantial energy as heat. The
chemistry and physics of combustion, i.e., destruction and rearrangement of certain
molecules that rapidly release energy, require temperatures of 1620–2200°C (3000–4000°
F), take place within a few millionths of a second, and occur within a characteristic length
of a few angstroms.

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Table 1.1 Classification of Some Common Chemical Fuels

By phase By application

Naturally available Synthetically produced Heat transfer Power

Solid Space heating Stationary power plants

Coal Coke Process heat transfer Mobile propulsion systems
Wood Charcoal
Vegetation Inorganic solid waste
Organic solid waste
Liquid
Crude oil Syncrudes
Biological oils Petroleum distillates
Fuel plants Alcohols
Colloidal fuels
Benzene
Gas
Natural gas Natural gas
Marsh gas Hydrogen
Biogas Methane
Propane
Coal gasification

Chapter 1
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Introduction to Applied Combustion 5

Until physical and analytical tools such as the laser and modern high-speed
computer became available, the microscopic nature of the very combustion process itself
remained uncertain and impeded major progress in both scientific investigations and
engineering applications of this most basic and universal phenomenon. Currently,
combustion is a mature discipline and an integral element of diverse research and de-
velopment programs, ranging from fundamental studies of the physics of flames and
high-temperature molecular chemistry to applied engineering programs involved with
producing clean burning coal plants and low emissions high mileage combustion engines.
Recall the classical thermodynamic concept of an energy source defined as an
unlimited thermal energy reservoir and a sink as an unfillable thermal energy repository.
Life cycle engineering and energy conversion technology developments today recognize
that the Earth is a finite ecosphere with a delicately balanced environment that has limited
terrestrial resources. To appreciate the significance of an ideal energy resource, consider a
few of the conflicting requirements for a chemical fuel. It must be:

Nondepleting
Nonpolluting
Readily available
Economically viable
Politically neutral
Technically accessible
Legally valid
Socially acceptable
Aesthetically pleasing

A fuel can be considered as a finite resource of chemical potential energy, i.e.,

energy stored in the molecular structure of particular compounds that may be released via
complex chemical reactions. Chemical fuels can be classified in a variety of ways,
including by phase, availability, or even application (see Table 1.1). Some of the basic
ideal combustion engineering characteristics of a fuel include:

High energy density (content)

High heat of combustion (release)
Good thermal stability (storage)
Low vapor pressure (volatility)
Nontoxicity (environmental impact)

Pollution from internal and external combustion systems, such as automotive

engines, stationary power plants, and/or waste incinerators, results from an inability to
completely rearrange fuel molecules into complete and stable products. Understanding
combustion, therefore, becomes a major benefit to those in the environmental and air
pollution industries. Improved combustion, i.e., an ability to oxidize certain fuels (such as
solid, liquid, and gaseous hydrocarbon compounds) more completely, will impact power
machinery performance characteristics, help to reduce fuel consumption, and clean
emissions from stationary and mobility propulsion systems. This, in turn, could save
billions of dollars in foreign oil purchases.

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continuous/intermittent combustion

Figure 1.2 The critical fuel-engine interface.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Introduction to Applied Combustion 7

The study of energy and combustion goes beyond a general knowledge of the
physical and chemical nature of particular natural and/or synthetic fuel resources. It is an
integral part of the life cycle engineering assessment of any usable fuel resource
utilization starting with energy and economic issues relating to the raw materials found in
the Earth and ending with the final disposal of wastes generated from their use including:

Source energy conversion penalties (drilling, mining, or growing)

Fuel preparation penalties (distillation, pyrolysis, or gasification)
Fuel distribution penalties (transportation from source to application)
Fuel storage penalties (liquefaction, compression, cooling, or required envi-
ronmental controls)
Energy generation/conversion penalties (heat-transfer and power losses)
Environmental pollution control penalties (emissions reduction)

1.3 THE FUEL-ENGINE INTERFACE

Many crucial characteristics of combustion-driven heat engines are due, in fact, to their
fuel-engine interface (see Figure 1.2), including compatibility of fuels with specific
engines, pollutants generated by burning particular fuels in certain engines, general
energy input/output performance characteristics of individual engines operating on a
given fuel, and various interactions and efficiencies associated with those interfaces. Heat
engines can be categorized in several different ways such as internal versus external
combustion engines, continuous versus intermittent combustion engines, or spark- versus
compression-ignition combustion engines; see Figure 1.3. The performance and
emissions characteristics can differ widely between these various categories. Many
outstanding reference texts have been written dealing principally with traditional topics
covered in fundamentals of fuels and combustion. Other writers have produced excellent
dissertations treating in detail the particulars of certain heat engines such as boilers and
furnaces, spark-ignition engines, compression-ignition engines, and the gas turbine.
A need exists to improve the state of the art in engineering in a practical way in
order to increase combustion and related efficiencies of current power and propulsion
systems in use today as well as to develop new engines and new fuel alternatives to
operate thereon. George Huebner, chairman of the Environmental Research Institute of
Michigan, in an SAE paper entitled “Future Automotive Power Plants,” stated:
“Technical choices are being made that affect our nation’s major engineering decisions
for the future by those unskilled in the engineering profession and science of
combustion.” He further stated in the paper that “too much discussion of and
consideration [is] given to alternative power plants without consideration of the fuel
type.” (1) As Professor Oppenheim at the University of California has so succinctly
stated, “Further advances in engine technology should (a) minimize pollution emissions,
(b) maximize engine efficiency, and (c) optimize tolerance to a wider variety of fuels.”
(2) Engineering design, development, operation, and maintenance of heat engines now
require more than a cursory comprehension of fuels and engines.

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combustion-driven
heat engines

Chapter 1
Figure 1.3 Combustion-drive heat engine family tree.

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 9

Table 1.2 Chemical Path for Fuel Combustion

Fuel (Reactants)
Storage—compression, liquefaction
↓
Transportation—pumping
↓
Preparation—vaporization, atomization
↓
Induction—mixing, injection
↓
Fuel (Products)
Ignition—thermal, electric
↓
Chemical conversion—internal/external combustion
↓
Energy transfer—heat and/or work
↓
Extraction—exhaust, pollution control

1.4 ENGINEERING SCIENCE AND COMBUSTION

The physical requirements and the thermochemical path that a fuel undergoes to produce
heat and/or power will be developed in this text; see Table 1.2. In order to correctly
formulate basic theories of combustion, analysis must be correct both qualitatively
(physics and chemistry) and quantitatively (mathematics). Classical physics and
chemistry utilize a fixed mass of material (control mass or closed system) to describe the
conversion laws of mass, momentum, and energy. Consider, for example, the motion of
an exhaust gas solid particulate as shown in Figure 1.4. r Position and velocity of the
particle are functions of space and time, and velocity V is a function (represented by
) of space and time V x, y, z , t . In this instance, specific material is identified and
followed using particle or Lagrangian analysis.
Because of the nondescript nature of fluid elements in combustion flow fields and
the complexity of chemical activity therein, the unsteady three-dimensional nature of
combustion is also written in Eulerian or field terminology. In this instance, a particular
point in space is identified and observed. Note also that basic conservation laws are
developed using a fixed volume (open system or control volume) system terminology.
Figure 1.5 illustrates the flow
r of reactive gases through a stationary flame front in which
the field velocity vector V , in this case, describes a velocity vector at a point ( x0 , y0 , z0 )
in time. Mathematically, formulation of the conservation laws, such as mass conservation,
will be different depending on type of analysis used, i.e., Lagrangian versus Eulerian. In
addition, many problems are readily defined in terms of an infinitesimally small system
using differential calculus; whereas others are more easily stated in finite geometries
using integral calculus. It should be apparent that in some cases, engineering treatment of

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10 Chapter 1

very basic and simple physical phenomena of combustion may require very complex
analytical tools; whereas, in other instances, one can use a very simple analysis to provide
insight into a very complex phenomenon.
Various physical parameters, termed dimensions, represented with brackets, [ ], are
selected to quantitatively express the physics of combustion. A base group of these
defined principal or primary dimensions such as length and time are then used to express
other secondary dimensions including velocity, i.e., length divided by time. Arbitrary and
useful magnitudes, or units, for these physical parameters are established and maintained
under the supervision of the General Conference on Weights and Measures. Two systems
of dimensions and units will be used in this book, Système International (SI) and English
Engineers. Table 1.3 lists some basic and secondary dimensions and units of combustion.
Often it is necessary to change units in engineering calculations by use of identities
termed conversion factors. Several useful conversion factors are found in Appendix A.1.

Figure 1.4 Lagrangian (particle) representation of combustion.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Introduction to Applied Combustion 11

Figure 1.5 Eulerian (field) representation of combustion.

To illustrate a proper use of dimensions and units, consider Newton's second law,
which describes the physical relationship between force [F], mass [M], and acceleration
[a] for a fixed mass.
r r
F ~ M ⋅a (1.1)

where dimensionally

[F ] ~ [M ][L] [t ]2
Since [F], [M], [L], and [t] are distinct dimensions, Newton's second law is more
appropriately written quantitatively as
r r
F = M ⋅a g 0 (1.1a)

where
r r
g 0 = M ⋅a F (1.1b)

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Table 1.3 Basic Dimensions and Units

12
Units

Dimensions Système International English System of Engineers

(SI)

Primary
Force [F] Pound force (lbf)
Mass [M] Kilogram (kg) Pound mass (lbm)
Length [L] Meter (m) Feet (ft)
Time [t] Second (sec) Second (sec)
Temperature [T] Kelvin (K) Rankine (°R)

Secondary
Force [F] Newton (kg⋅m/sec2)

Pressure [F]/[L]2 Pascal (N/m2) psf (lbf/ft2)

Energy [F][L] Joule (N⋅m) Btu (ft⋅lbf)
Power [F][L]/[t] watt (J⋅sec) horsepower or hp (ft⋅lbf/sec)
Viscosity [M]/[L][t] Poises (kg/m⋅sec) (lbm/ft⋅sec)
Kinematic viscosity [L]2/[t] Stokes (m2/sec) (ft2/sec)

Some principal constants

Standard pressure 101 kPa (1 atm) 14.7 lbf/in2 (1 atm)

Chapter 1
Absolute temperature K = °C + 273 °R = °F + 460
Standard acceleration g = 9.8066 m/sec2 g = 32.1740 ft/sec2
g0 1.0 kg⋅m/N⋅sec2 32.1740 ft⋅lbm/lbf⋅sec2

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 13

Dimensionally, the constant g 0 becomes

g 0 = [M ][L] [F ][t ]2

which gives Newton's second law dimensional equality since

2
M L t
F = 2
= F
M L F t
In SI, the primary dimensions and units are

[M] kilogram, kg
[L] meter, m
[t] second, sec

From physics, a force of 1 newton is the force that will accelerate 1.0 kg at 1.0
m/sec2 or

(1.0kg)(1.0m sec 2 )
g0 = = 1 kg ⋅ m N ⋅sec 2
(1 N)

Now the unit of force, the newton, is a derived quantity, i.e., 1 N = 1 kg⋅m/sec2, and
1N
g0 = = 1.0
1N

Note that g 0 in SI is actually dimensionless with a unit magnitude. However, using

g 0 , in the form 1 kg⋅m/N⋅sec2 in equations where g 0 appears, will allow many equations
to come out in correct units with ease and, therefore, g 0 will be carried throughout this
text.
In Engineers units, the primary dimensions and units are

[F] pound force, lbf

[M] pound mass, lbm
[L] foot, ft
[t] second, sec

Again, from physics, 1 lbf will accelerate 1.0 lbm at 32.1740 ft/sec2 or, in this
instance,

(1.0 lbm)(32.1740 ft sec 2 )

g0 =
(1 lbf)
= 32.1740 lbm ⋅ ft lbf ⋅ sec 2

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14 Chapter 1

Often, many problems can be understood when fundamental physical charac-

teristics of matter, or properties, are stated in either dimensional or dimensionless form.
In this text, capital letters generally denote extensive properties, lowercase letters imply
intensive properties, and a superscript bar indicates molar properties. To illustrate, recall
the concept of pressure, P, which is force/unit area or

[P] = [F ] [L]2
Density ρ is mass/unit volume or

[ρ ] = [M ] [L]3
Specific volume v is volume/unit mass or

[v] = [L]3 [M ] = 1 [ρ ]
Specific weight γ is weight/unit volume, and, since “weight” is a force due to gravity,
Newton’s second law can then be used to express γ as

[γ ] = [F ] [L]3 = [M ] ⋅ ( g g 0 ) [L ]3

or
γ = ρ ⋅ (g g0 ) (1.2)

Specific gravity, S.G., is the density of a fluid to that of a reference fluid and is
dimensionless.

EXAMPLE 1.2 Oxygen is the principal oxidant in most combustion processes. For O2,
at 25°C and 101 kPa absolute pressure, calculate (a) the specific gas constant R, J/kg⋅K;
(b) the specific volume v, m3/kg; (c) the density, ρ, kg/m3; and (d) the specific weight γ,
N/m3.

Solution

1. Specific gas content:

R 8,314.34 J kg mole ⋅K
R= =
MW 32 kg kg mole

a. RO 2 = 259.82 J kg ⋅K

2. Specific volume:
RT (259.82 N⋅m kg ⋅K )(25 + 273K)
v= =
P (101kN m 2 )(1,000 N kN )

b. v = 0.767 m 3 kg

3. Density:

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 15

1 1
c. ρ = = = 1.304 kg m 3
v 0.767 m 3 kg

4. Specific weight:
g (9.8066 m sec 2 )
d. γ = ρ = (1.304 kg m 3 )
g0 (1.0 kg ⋅m sec 2 ⋅N)
= 12.79 N m 3

Comment: Note that, in part (d), if g0 is omitted, γ = m⋅kg/sec2⋅m3 and, since 1 N ≡ 1

m⋅kg/sec2, γ = N/m3. By carrying g0 through the calculation although the quantity is unity
and dimensionless, the answer comes out in correct units with ease.

Many important relations will be expressed in terms of these properties. Recall, for
example, the ideal gas law that relates pressure P, volume V, mass m or moles N, and
temperature T of a substance. Several forms are shown below.
Mass basis: P = P m, V , T (1.3)
PV = mRT (1.3a)
Pv = RT (1.3b)
P = ρ RT (1.3c)

or

Molar basis: P = P N , V , T
PV = NR T (1.4a)
Pv = R T (1.4b)
P = ρ RT (1.4c)

where the universal gas constant R is equal to

⎧8,314.34 J/kgmole ⋅ K
⎪82.057 atm ⋅ cc/gmole ⋅ K
⎪⎪
R = ⎨1,545.3 ft ⋅ lbf/lbmole ⋅ °R
⎪1.987 cal/gmole ⋅ K
⎪
⎪⎩1.987 Btu/lbmole ⋅ °R

Now the specific gas constant R can be determined as

PV = mRT = NR T

or
R = ( N m) ⋅ R

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16 Chapter 1

From dimensional analysis, [N]/[m] is moles per unit mass or molecular weight MW, and
R
R= (1.5)
MW

1.5 ENGINEERING AND APPLIED COMBUSTION

Today's world makes it essential for engineers to grasp both fundamental principles (or
science) and fundamental practices (or technology) in order to implement all the many di-
verse activities necessary to conceive, manufacture, and maintain useful products for the
benefit of mankind in the 21st century. Most of the relevant engineering profession to this
end can be classified into one of three distinct skill areas: theory, design, and operation;
see Figure 1.6 and Table 1.4. Theory can be considered to be the part of engineering that
focuses on precise formulation and development of basic principles and laws. Theory, a
predominantly abstract and traditionally academic-centered activity, involves individual
skills development utilized to predict specific characteristics of systems and devices.
Design encompasses those segments of engineering that address the standardization and
utilization of codes and practices. Many design rules have their roots in the manufactur-
ing or operational realm of engineering. Design work is frequently accomplished using
teams requiring individuals with project and/or managerial skills. Design utilizes individ-
uals with achievements in a broad range of academic and training-centered skills in order
to produce specific characteristics of systems and devices. Operation deals lastly in the
field with all those aspects and actions necessary in order to protect specific charac-
teristics of systems and devices. Operation utilizes a select group of individuals with
focused training and people-centered skills having commitment to reliably maintain
critical components and devices. It should be apparent that operational techniques are
interrelated with both elements of theory and design.
Most undergraduate engineering curricula in the United States are based on four-
year programs with emphasis on basic foundational theoretical subject matter. There is
greater pressure now being placed on the university system to provide students with more
design tools and experience. Operational and/or industrial experience occurs in only a few
institutions that have co-op studies. Some debate exists as to whether there is sufficient
time and even a need for introducing all these three skills at the college level.
The traditional notion was that engineering education and its related disciplines
produced individuals whose abilities would span all three skill areas. Graduating
engineers whose exposure had been predominantly to one skill area, that of theory, would
have successful careers able to span all three. Another related concept was that if an indi-
vidual prepared for competency in one area their preparation was sufficient for a career in
the other areas. The reality and complexity of today’s rapidly changing technical commu-
nity, however, require engineers to be introduced to all three important and different skills
in order to be prepared to choose for specialization in one. One of the key aspects of the
American Board of Engineering Technology (ABET) 2000 criteria is to produce gradu-
ates with more than just technical skills.

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 17

Table 1.4 Basic Skill Areas of Professional Engineering Practice

Theory Design Operation

Precise formulation: General application: Specific utility:

engineering physics engineering codes engineering tools
and/or chemistry and/or rules and/or practices
Basic principles: Complex programs: Particular problems:
differential and statistical and basic math and
integral calculus numerical analysis geometry
Education-centered: Educ./train-centered: Training-centered:
requiring abstract requiring project requiring people
mental skills managerial skills motivational skills
necessary for system necessary for system necessary for system
prediction production protection

Figure 1.6 Visualization of the engineering profession.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

18 Chapter 1

A group of participants at the 1995 Conference of the Engineering Deans at Rens-

selaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, NY, recently observed: “The engineering profession
assumes that its graduates must be immediately productive and so educates them for their
first job. The result is undergraduate programs that stress technical depth and an ethic that
says real engineers do not stray far from their technical orientation. In reality, the careers
of most engineers evolve within a few short years to include responsibility for the super-
vision of people, money, resources, and multidisciplinary projects. How engineers deal
with these responsibilities depends on the breadth of their education and on their ability to
communicate effectively.” Or, as Woodrow Leake of the American Society of Engineer-
ing Education in Washington, D.C., said, “The days of rigid specialization in one disci-
pline or sub-discipline [are gone].”
Over the years, for example, the traditions of the aerospace community have been
such that areas within theory, design, and operational engineering (represented by Figure
1.6) have worked closely together on many specific projects. As such one can find in-
stances throughout the aviation and aerospace history where the three segments have even
had overlapping activities. However, through much of the history of land-based S&T en-
gineering development not many occasions have existed where theory, design, and op-
erational efforts were in close harmony. The three aspects shown in Figure 1.6 were often
independent efforts and widely separated until recently with the appearance of activities
such as concurrent engineering practices and just-in-time manufacturing, and the value
chain. Table 1.5 lists critical issues of operation, design, and fundamentals presented in an
integrated format, which is often useful for assessment and development purposes with
these modern concurrent engineering efforts.
The U.S. industry today faces greater international competition and economic pres-
sure to produce and operate better and environmentally benign products for public use in
shorter time, for less cost, and of higher quality. Current engineering practices are being
supplemented by a new paradigm of design for use through simultaneous engineering,
interdisciplinary teams, new electronic engineering tools, and consortiums. Future
engineers will be employed in internationally structured industries built around market-
driven, goal oriented, and empowered teams. Engineering goods and services will be
required to be designed, developed, and manufactured with many environmental criteria,
as well as operated, maintained, and disposed of through use of concurrent engineering
practices. Combustion principles and applications today will play a significant role in
many important fuel-engine life cycle engineering activities.
Figure 1.7 illustrates the classic path along which successful technology devel-
opments have most frequently progressed in going from an idea or concept to a useful
configuration. The process begins with a theory of physical attributes, and develops using
modeling from basic laws, usually expressed in terms of simple physics and simple com-
ponents. A theoretical model is translated into a design stage by passing successfully
through the research laboratory, where simple testing validates or extends the initial basic
theory. In the research lab, the nature of physics or the component characteristics of ex-
periments are more complex than the original model developed from theory. Success at
the research laboratory level allows a design engineer to transfer applied knowledge to
industry through the development of a prototype, in which an even more complex testing
establishes success or failure of the complete concept at the design level. Success at the
design level results in production of a manufactured product which is then subjected to
complex use, at which point success or failure is again redefined.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Introduction to Applied Combustion 19

Figure 1.7 The classical path of technology development.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Table 1.5 Advanced Combustion Technologies Evaluation Issues

20
Operational assessment issues Manufacturing assessment issues Research assessment issues

1.1 DUTY CYCLE 2.1 PRODUCT QUALITY GOALS 3.1 SCIENTIFIC MATURITY
1.1.1 run time 2.1.1 performance objectives 3.1.1 suitable patents granted
1.1.2 startup/restart 2.1.2 emission criteria 3.1.2 published records
1.1.3 shutdown 2.1.3 process control definition 3.1.3 history of technology
1.1.4 stop 2.1.4 cost of development 3.1.4 technology transfer value
2.1.5 time to market 3.1.5 proof of basic concepts
1.2 RISK ASSESSMENT 3.1.6 breadth of scientific support
1.2.1 failure analysis 2.2 PROCESS CONTROL
1.2.2 safety & operability 2.2.1 capability assessment 3.2 BASIC RESEARCH
1.2.3 impact on operation 2.2.2 baseline of basic unit size 3.2.1 laboratory fundamental testing
2.2.3 technology compatibilities 3.2.2 modeling and scaling criteria
1.3 TECHNOLOGY INTEGRITY 2.2.4 technology installation impacts 3.2.3 identification of technology gaps
1.3.1 vibration 2.2.5 man-machine interface 3.2.4 chemistry/physics/biology
1.3.2 shock
1.3.3 noise 2.3 DESIGN CONTROL 3.3 APPLIED RESEARCH
1.3.4 corrosion 2.3.1 process design 3.3.1 maturity of basic principles
1.3.5 fire & explosions 2.3.1 manufacturing design 3.3.2 alternative technology assessment
2.3.3 assembly design 3.3.3 destruction chemistry demonstration
1.4 MAINTENANCE 2.3.4 life cycle design 3.3.4 breadboard systems
1.4.1 reliability & availability 3.3.5 solution to technology gaps
1.4.2 inspections/repair 2.4 FABRICATION RESOURCES
1.4.3 manning requirements 2.4.1 industrial supply chain status
2.4.2 manufacturing materials status
1.5 MATURITY 2.4.3 e-commerce
1.5.1 operating history
1.5.2 technology suitability 2.5 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 1
1.5.3 technology acceptability 2.5.1 design of experiments
1.5.4 operational economics 2.5.2 prototype testing
2.5.3 FMEA evaluation
2.5.4 training materials

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Introduction to Applied Combustion 21

Figure 1.6 can also be helpful when visualizing the science and technology (S&T)
of engineering technology development. Classic R&D efforts as described in Figure 1.7,
for example, usually move on a tortuous path; starting from theory, and progress to the
others areas, i.e., design and operation, to a final product. Today S&T of advanced
technologies can be visualized as initiating within any of the three segments but then
moving simultaneously through all three segments using directed and focused basic and
applied R&D efforts in order to achieve successful and rapid implementation as a
product. Figure 1.6 can thus be useful to illustrate and even clarify how specific
interactions or lack thereof occur between theory, design, and/or operation during any
given engineering S&T development effort.
Technology and literature in various fields of basic and applied combustion are
expanding at an exponential rate. The professional journals and work related activities are
now presenting new areas of interest not covered in many classic texts. A new approach
is necessary in engineering literature to introduce important foundation and applied
aspects of combustion in such a way as to develop a proper overview of major areas in
the discipline, to provide basic knowledge that will enable practicing engineers to stay
current in their field and to create motivation for further study. It is the author’s intent that
Applied Combustion provides a broader purview of the subjects and will enable the
reader an ability to develop a better and broader in-depth understanding of the subject for
future professional development.

PROBLEMS

1.1 Energy equivalents in various dimensions and units are often useful in combustion
calculations. Determine the equivalent value of 1 hp in (a) ft⋅lbf/hr; (b) Btu/hr; and
(c) kW.
1.2 Determine the equivalent temperature in Kelvin for an absolute temperature of (a)
500; (b) 1,000; (c) 1,500; and (d) 2,000°R.
1.3 One kg of carbon will theoretically release approximately 33,000 kJ/kg of energy
by complete combustion. Calculate the amount of energy that would ideally be
obtained if the carbon mass could be completely converted into nuclear energy (E =
mc2), kJ/kg.
1.4 The specific volume of gasoline is approximately 0.0238 ft3/lbm. Find (a) its
density, lbm/ft3; (b) its specific weight, N/m3; and (c) the mass of fuel in a 20-gal
tank, lbm.
1.5 Standard atmospheric condition in theoretical combustion calculations is often
stated as 14.7 psia. Calculate the standard atmosphere in (a) lbf/ft2; (b) ft H2O; (c)
mm Hg; and (d) Pa.
1.6 The specific gravity of a fuel is expressed as S.G. 60°F , indicating that both the
oil and water are measured at a temperature of 60°F. A diesel fuel has a specific
gravity at 60°F of 0.8762. Determine (a) the density of the fuel, lbm/ft3; and (b) the
specific weight of the fuel, lbf/gal.
1.7 A 100-liter tank is to hold H2 gas at 25°C and 400 kPa. Calculate (a) the mass of H2
contained in the vessel, lbm; (b) the specific volume of H2, ft3/lbm; and (c) the
density of H2, lbm/ft3.

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

22 Chapter 1

1.8 Air is to be supplied to the combustor can of a gas turbine. Inlet conditions for the
air are 740°F and 174 psia. The mass flow rate of air is 9,000 lbm/min. Determine
(a) the volumetric flow rate for the air, ft3/min; and (b) the molar flow rate for the
air, lbmole air/min.
1.9 An automobile will consume about 0.4 lbm fuel/hr for each horsepower of power
developed. Assume that gasoline can release 19,000 Btu/lbm of energy. Determine
(a) the thermal efficiency of the engine, %; and (b) heat rejection rate, Btu/hp.
1.10 A stationary steam-driven electric power plant has a thermal efficiency of
approximately 35%. For a 750,000 kW unit, calculate (a) the ideal required heat ad-
dition, Btu/min; (b) the ideal amount of nuclear material required to produce this
energy, lbm/yr; and (c) the amount of coal necessary to produce this energy if the
coal has an energy content of approximately 12,000 Btu/lbm coal.
1.11 The ideal combustion energy content of a fuel is expressed in terms of its heating
value. The approximate heating values of three important energy resources are
listed below:

Natural gas 1,000 Btu/ft3

Coal 12,000 Btu/lbm
Crude oil 138,000 Btu/gal

Determine the fuel energy equivalents of (a) natural gas to fuel oil, ft3/gal; (b) coal
to natural gas, lbm/ft3; and (c) crude oil to coal, gal/ lbm.
1.12 The fuel energy equivalence of a natural gas and coal supply is 0.78 m3 gas/kg coal,
while the fuel energy equivalence of crude oil to coal is 0.092 m3 oil/kg coal. If the
heating value of coal is approximately 29,075 kJ/kg, determine (a) the energy
equivalence of natural gas to oil, m3 gas/m3 oil; (b) the heating value of natural gas,
kJ/m3; and (c) the heating value of the fuel oil, kJ/m3.
1.13 Refer to the three fuels given in Problem 1.11 and their heating values to determine
the fuel economic equivalence of (a) coal, $/ton; and (b) gas, $/ft3. Assume that oil
is priced at $75/bbl (42 gal).

© 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC