Lecture: “Gene interactions.

Realization of genetic information on the organism level”

Plan of the lecture:
1. Mechanism of gene interactions
2. Interactions of allelic genes. Multiple alleles
3. Lethal action of genes
4. Interactions of non-allelic genes
5. Genotype-environment interaction
6. Penetrance, expressivity
7. Pleiotropy
8. Modifier genes

The contributions of genes to phenotypic traits are modified by interactions with other genes and the
environment.
The goal of this lecture is to review the importance of gene-gene and gene-environment interactions
in the expression of the phenotype. Gene-gene interactions include interactions between different alleles of
a gene (intra-allelic gene interactions), and between different genes (inter-allelic gene interactions).

In the 20th century, the geneticists have extended Mendelian principles not only to diverse organisms,
but also to patterns of inheritance more complex than Mendel actually described.
But relationship between genotype and phenotype is rarely so simple.
By now, geneticists found out a lot of other patterns of inheritance. These patterns are referred to the
non-Mendelian Genetics because many facts can not be clarified using Mendel’s Laws. But some of them
can be clarified by gene interaction, i.e., by simultaneous influence of different genes on different characters.

1. Mechanism of gene interaction

Now we know that genes are segments of the DNA that code for a particular polypeptide in the form
of a specific sequence of its base pair. The polypeptide chain may act as a structural protein and form cellu-
lar organelle or form proteinaceous biochemical such as hemoglobin, insulin, or serve as an enzyme and
catalyze some chemical reaction. In other words, a polypeptide may contribute to a morphological or a func-
tional trait (phenotype) of an organism.
Proteins are the endproducts of gene expression, and so gene interactions are interactions between
proteins that are controlled by these genes (Genes do not interact directly [with the exception of such cases
as synapsis and crossing-over in meiosis] !).
Hereby, gene interaction has biochemical basis.
Types of Gene Interactions
Gene interactions can be classified as:
- interaction of allelic genes
- interaction of non-allelic genes
[ A reminder:
§ allelic genes are genes located in the identical loci of homologous chromosomes;
§ non-allelic genes are genes located in the different loci of homologous chromosomes or
in the non-homologous chromosomes ]
 INTRA-ALLELIC GENE INTERACTIONS
2. Interactions of allelic genes
Alleles can interact with each other in complex ways: complete dominance, incomplete domi-
nance, codominance, and superdominance (overdominance).

Complete dominance
Mendel’s laws describe a relatively simple pattern of inheritance: each character is determined by one
gene, for which there are only two alleles, one completely dominant to the other. This type of gene interac-
tion is called complete dominance.
In complete dominance both heterozygotes (Aa) and dominant homozygotes (AA) have the same
phenotype. In complete dominance, the dominant allele must produce enough of its protein product so, that
a single copy of the dominant allele (as in a heterozygote) gives the maximum phenotypic response.
Inheritance patterns of some human traits also obey Mendelian laws and correspond to complete
dominance. An English physician Archibald Garrod (1857-1936) was the first to connect a human disorder
with Mendel's laws of inheritance. He also proposed the idea that diseases came about through a metabolic
route leading to the molecular basis of inheritance.
In 1903, Garrod demonstrated that human diseases were transmitted according to Mendel’s laws, and
in particular, a disease alkaptonuria (black urine disease). A.Garrod collected family history information (as
well as urine) from his patients and revealed the ratio of 3:1 (dominant/recessive relationship, autosomal
recessive disease) in affected families that corresponded to Mendelian principles of inheritance. He noted
that affected individuals excrete homogentisic acid in their urine as a result of the breakdown of dietary pro-
teins. Garrod postulated that the disease was due to a defect in an enzymatic pathway - “inborn error in me-
tabolism”. It was also the first suggestion that genes can code for enzymes.
Typical examples of dominant human traits are dark color of hair and eyes, thick lips, big nose, long
and wide ears and also some deformities and diseases, for instance, extra finger (polydactyly), elliptocyto-
sis, achondroplasia, congenital dislocation of the hip.

Incomplete dominance
Works on problems of heredity have shown that the dominance is not of universal occurrence and
there are many examples of incomplete dominance in which the genes of an allelomorphic pair express
themselves partially when present together in the hybrid. As a result the heterozygotes (Aa) are phenotypi-
cally intermediate between two homozygous types (AA × aa).
For instance, when red snapdragon plants are crossed with white snapdragon plants, all the F1 hy-
brids have pink flowers. This third phenotype results from the heterozygote flowers having less red pigment
than the red homozygotes. The breeding of the F1 hybrids produces F2 offspring with a phenotypic ratio of 1
red to 2 pink to 1 white. In incomplete dominance we can distinguish the heterozygotes from the two homo-
zygous varieties, and the genotypic and phenotypic ratios for the F2 generation are the same, 1 : 2 : 1. The
segregation of the red and white alleles in the gametes produced by the pink-flowered plants confirms that
the genes for flower color are heritable factors that maintain their identify in the hybrids; that is, inheritance
is particulate.
 It is incomplete dominance – the kind of inheritance of allelic genes where a cross between organ-
isms with two different phenotypes (AA × aa) produces offspring with a third phenotype that is a blending
(Aa) of the parental traits. Incomplete dominance is manifested when the interacting enzymes are slightly
different in their activity.
In humans, traits with incomplete dominant inheritance are size of nose, salience of lips, size of mouth
and eyes, distance between eyes, hair types (straight, wavy) and such hereditary disorders as Friedreich’s
ataxia, cystinuria are inherited according to principle of incomplete dominance. For any character, the domi-
nant/recessive relationship we observe depends on the level at which we examine phenotype; e.g., con-
sider a fatal recessive Tay-Sachs disease, inherited disorder of lipid metabolism when crucial enzyme
hexosaminidase does not work properly. Brain cells of Tay-Sachs babies lack a crucial lipid-metabolizing
enzyme. Thus, lipids accumulate in the brain, causing the disease symptoms and ultimately leading to
death.
At the organism level of normal versus Tay-Sachs phenotype, the Tay-Sachs allele qualifies as a re-
cessive (aa).
At the biochemical level, however, we observe intermediate phenotype characteristic of incomplete
dominance. The hexosaminidase enzyme deficiency can be detected in heterozygotes who have an activity
level of the lipid-metabolizing enzyme that is intermediate between individuals homozygous for the normal
allele and individuals with Tay-Sachs disease. Heterozygous individuals are genetically programmed to
produce only 40-60% of the normal amount of an enzyme that prevents the disease.

Codominance
Codominance is a kind of gene interaction, in which the heterozygotes express both dominant pheno-
types. In human, an example is AB type of ABO blood system. The heterozygote fully expresses both alleles.
Blood type AB individuals produce both A and B antigens. Since neither A nor B is dominant over the other
and they are both dominant over O they are said to be codominant.

Multiple alleles
In some cases a gene for a character may exist in many alternative alleles.
For example, gene responsible for the color of eyes in Drosophila fruit fly exists in 20 alternative al-
leles. These forms of a gene are due to mutation of a single wild type. When more than two allelic forms of
wild type are located on the same locus in a given pair of chromosomes, they are known as the series of
multiple alleles.
Now, if there are 4 or more possible phenotypes for a particular trait, then more than 2 alleles for that
trait must exist in the population.
Another example of multiple alleles is the inheritance of coat-color in domestic rabbits. In rabbits coat
color is determined by 4 alleles. The dominant allele C causes full color of coat. Recessive homozygotes
(cc) have white (albino) color of coat. However, there are still some alleles of this gene, having own pheno-
type in homozygous condition - chinchilla (cchcch), Himalayan (chch). The allele cch is dominant to the alleles
ch and c, and at the same time is recessive to the allele C. The same as allele cch, allele ch is dominant to
the allele c and is recessive to the allele cch. In that way, dominance is relative property of genes.
 In human population, one of examples of multiple allelism is inheritance of ABO blood types involving
three alleles (i, IA, IB). Some traits are controlled by far more alleles. The human HLA system (histocompati-
bility gene complex), which is responsible for identifying and rejecting foreign tissue in our bodies, can have
at least 30,000,000 different genotypes. The histocompatibility gene complex consists of at least four genes
located upon the chromosomes of sixth pair, and each gene has up to about 100 alleles.It is the HLA sys-
tem which causes the rejection of organ transplant. Unless identical twins tissue transplantation is generally
unsuccessful. The host immune system reacts to produce antibodies which destroy the transplant.
The phenomenon of multiple allelism results in phenotypical heterogeneity of human populations.
Now, if there are 4 or more possible phenotypes for a particular trait, then more than 2 alleles for that trait
must exist in the population.

Overdominance is a kind of gene interaction, in which the phenotypic expression of the heterozy-
gous condition exceeds the phenotype of the homozygous dominant condition. The example of overdomi-
nance is the phenomenon of heterosis resulting from the total effect of similar action of heterogeneous ge-
netic processes.

3. Lethal action of genes

Genes which become a cause for death of individuals carrying them are called as lethal genes. Le-
thal alleles can be dominant and recessive. In crossing of heterozygous carriers, expected ratio comes
equal to 2:1, because the presence of a lethal gene in homozygous condition often leads to the embryonic
death during the early stages of development.
In humans examples of lethal genes are brachidactyly (dominant trait), thalassemia and sickle-cell
anaemia (recessive traits, these diseases are also called haemoglobinopathies).
Thalassemia is hereditary disorder of haemoglobin synthesis.
Haemoglobin is protein, located in erythrocytes. It carries out the transport of oxygen. Haemoglobin molecule has
two components, the "haeme" part, containing the iron atom and globin portion, formed by four polypeptide chains. In
HbA (haemoglobin in adult) these are two α chains and two β chains. The α -chain has 141 amino acids and β-chain has
146 amino acid. The α-chain is coded by α gene on chromosome 16. The β-chain is coded by β gene on chromosome 11.
Since they are located on different chromosomes, mutation may involve either α-chain or β-chain.
The disease leads to the decreased production and increased destruction of RBCs.
Thalassemia is originated in the Mediterranean region, so its name is derived from a Greek word “tha-
lassa” meaning “the sea”. It is also called Mediterranean anaemia according to its distribution.
In talassemia the structure of haemoglobin is not defective however the rate of synthesis of any one
of polypeptide chains is lowered. This synthesis rate reduction of one chain leads to excess of other having
normal synthesis rate, and creates problems with maturation and survival of erythrocytes.
There are two groups of the disease: α-talassemia, which is characterized by a lowered rate of syn-
thesis or an absence of synthesis of α chains and β-talassemia (defect in β chain synthesis). β -talassemia
occurs more frequently and is caused by mutation or deletion of β gene on chromosome 11. Homozygotes
for this gene perish in 90-95% of cases. Living homozygotes have severe anaemia, which is called talas-
semia major or Cooley’s anaemia. The most striking diagnostic character of talassemia is appearance in
great number of target-like erythrocytes.
 Symptoms: severe anemia, and the oxygen depletion in the body becomes apparent within the first 6
months of life. If left untreated, death usually results within a few years.

INTER-ALLELIC GENE INTERACTIONS

The genes of an individual do not operate isolated from one another, but obviously are functioning in
a common cellular environment. Thus, it is expected interactions between genes would occur. It means that
a trait can be controlled by numerous genes, perhaps up to 100 or more.
4. Mechanism of inter-allelic gene interaction
Most cell processes are the culmination of a set of reactions linked together into a pathway. Each of
the reactions is controlled by a different enzyme, and each enzyme is the product of a separate gene.
Enzyme 1 Enzyme 2
Molecule A → Molecule B → Molecule C

In the hypothetical pathway above, molecule A is converted into molecule B by enzyme 1 and mole-
cule B is then processed to become molecule C by enzyme 2. If either enzyme 1 or enzyme 2 is defective,
molecule C cannot be manufactured, producing a mutant phenotype. Defects in enzyme 1 or 2 may show
up as one or two mutant phenotypes. The result of defects in such pathways leads to modified Mendelian
phenotypic ratios for crosses. The simplest cases of gene interaction to consider are those in which only
two genes are interacting to produce a single phenotype, normally.
There are various ways in which genes at different loci can interact with each other.
Non-allelic genes can interact with each other in complex ways: complementation, epistasis, poly-
genic inheritance

Complementation: 9:7 Ratio. Example: Flower color in sweet pea.

Complementation is a kind of gene interaction where the manifestation of a character is determined
by presence of two dominant genes of different allelomorphic pairs simultaneously (A_B_).
If two genes are involved in a specific pathway and functional products from both are required for ex-
pression, then one recessive allelic pair at either allelic pair would result in the mutant phenotype. This is
graphically shown in the following diagram.

If a pure line pea plant with colored flowers (genotype = CCPP) is crossed to pure line, homozygous reces-
sive plant (= ccpp) with white flowers, the F1 plant will have colored flowers and a CcPp genotype. The nor-
mal ratio from selfing dihybrid is 9:3:3:1, but interactions of the C and P genes will give a modified 9:7 ratio.
The following table describes the interactions for each genotype and how the ratio occurs.

Genotype Flower Color Enzyme Activities

9 C_P_ Flowers colored; anthocyanin produced Functional enzymes from both genes
3 C_pp Flowers white; no anthocyanin produced p enzyme non-functional
3 ccP_ Flowers white; no anthocyanin produced c enzyme non-functional
1 ccpp Flowers white; no anthocyanin produced c and p enzymes non-functional
Because both genes are required for the correct phenotype, such interaction is called complementary
gene action (complementation).

Duplicate gene action: 15:1 Ratio. Example: Kernel Color in Wheat.

For this type of pathway a functional enzyme A or B can pro-
duce a product from a common precursor. The product gives
color to the wheat kernel. Therefore, only one dominant allele
at either of the two loci is required to generate the product.
Thus, if a pure line wheat plant with a colored kernel (genotype
= AABB) is crossed to plant with white kernels (genotype = aabb) and the resulting F1 plants are selfed, a
modification of the dihybrid 9:3:3:1 ratio will be produced. The following table provides a biochemical expla-
nation for the 15:1 ratio.
Genotype Kernel Phenotype Enzyme Activities
9 A_B_ colored kernels functional enzymes from both genes
3 A_bb colored kernels functional enzyme from the A gene pair
3 aaB_ colored kernels functional enzyme from the B gene pair
1 aabb colorless kernels non-functional enzymes produced at both genes

If we sum the three different genotypes that will produce a colored kernel we can achieve a 15:1 ratio. Because
either of the genes can provide the wild type phenotype, this interaction is called duplicate gene action.

Epistasis
Sometimes the effect of gene interaction is that one gene masks (hides) the effect of another gene at
a different locus, a phenomenon known as epistasis. Epistasis was first defined by the English geneticist
William Bateson in 1907.
Epistasis is the interaction of two or more genes to control a single phenotype.
Epistasis should not be confused with dominance, which refers to the interaction of genes at the same
locus (allelic genes). The cause might be that both genes produce enzymes which act in the same bio-
chemical pathway. In epistasis,
§ the gene that does the masking is called the epistatic gene
§ the gene whose effect is masked is a hypostatic gene
Epistatic genes may be recessive or dominant in their effects.
Example 1: 12:3:1 Ratio. Phenotype: Fruit Color in Squash
With this interaction, fruit color in squash is recessive to no color at one allelic pair. This recessive allele
must be expressed before the specific color allele at a second locus is expressed. At the first gene white colored
squash is dominant to colored squash, and the gene symbols are W=white and w=colored. At the second gene
yellow is dominant to green, and the symbols used are G=yellow, g=green. If the dihybrid is selfed, three pheno-
types are produced in a 12:3:1 ratio. The following table explains how this ratio is obtained.
Genotype Fruit Color Gene Actions
9 W_G_ White Dominant white allele negates effect of G allele
3 W_gg White Dominant white allele negates effect of G allele
3 wwG_ Yellow Recessive color allele allows yellow allele expression
1 wwgg Green Recessive color allele allows green allele expression
Because the presence of the dominant W allele masks the effects of either the G or g allele, this type of in-
teraction is called dominant epistasis.
Example 2: 13:3 ratio. Phenotype: Malvidin production in Primula
Certain genes have the ability to suppress the expression of a gene at a second locus. The produc-
tion of the chemical malvidin in the plant Primula is an example. Both the synthesis of the chemical (con-
trolled by the K gene) and the suppression of synthesis at the K gene (controlled by the D gene) are domi-
nant traits. The F1 plant with the genotype KkDd will not produce malvidin because of the presence of the
dominant D allele. What will be the distribution of the F2 phenotypes after the F1 was crossed?

Genotype Phenotype and genetic explanation

9 K_D_ no malvidin because dominant D allele is present
3 K_dd malvidin productions because dominant K allele present
3 kkD_ no malvidin because recessive k and dominant D alleles present
1 kkdd no malvidin because recessive k allele present

The ratio from the above table is 13 no malvidin production to 3 malvidin production. Because the ac-
tion of the dominant D allele masks the genes at the K locus, this interaction is termed dominant suppres-
sion epistasis.
Suppressor - a genetic factor that prevents the expression of alleles at a second locus; this is an ex-
ample of epistatic interaction

Recessive epistasis
The presence of recessive alleles at one locus makes useless the presence of dominant alleles at
another locus. This happens if two enzymes are needed in series; "the chain breaks" if either link fails.
Examples: coat color of labrador retriever dogs, color coat in mice, Bombay phenomenon in human.
Example 1: 9: 3 : 4 (9:7) Ratio. Example: coat color of mice.
In the example of epistasis, two of the genes responsible for
coat color are:
· Gene B - determining whether hair has bands:
- dominant allele (B) - results in hair with bands and
agouti coat (brown),
- recessive allele (b) - homozygotes have no bands and
their coat is black.
· Gene C - affecting early steps of production of an enzyme
responsible for pigment production:
- dominant allele (C) - normal pigment production,
- recessive allele (c) - homozygotes block all of the pig-
ment production and are albino.
A Black mouse BBCC is crossed with an Albino mouse
bbcc. All F1 offspring will be black mice BbCc .
 Then if we cross mice from the F1 generation (BbCc × BbCc), the gametes each mouse could pro-
duce would be (BC, Bc, bC, and bc).
The F2 would be = 9 black : 3 brown : 4 albino
In epistasis involving coat colour in mice, alleles at the gene C alter the phenotypic effect of alleles at
the gene B - cc mice will all be albinos irrespective of their genotype at gene B! So, genotype cc at gene C
is epistatic to gene B.

Example 2: Bombay phenomenon in human

There are many examples of epistasis. Epistatic interactions in human are associated with the genes
taking part in the regulation of ontogenesis and immune system. One of the first to be described in humans
is the Bombay phenotype, involving the ABO blood group system. Individuals with this phenotype lack a
protein called the H antigen (genotype hh), which is used to form A and B antigens. Even though such in-
dividuals may have A or B genes, they appear to be blood group O because they lack the H antigen.
Epistatic interactions make it difficult to identify loci conferring risk for complex disorders.
To locate interacting loci involved in the genetic origins of complex diseases requires collecting DNA
samples from a large number of families where two or more individuals have the disorder. Such large-scale
studies are usually difficult to conduct.

5. Genotype-environment interaction

The expression of a gene can be altered not only by other genes, but also by the environment. Such
environmental variables as light, temperature, and nutrition can sharply affect the translation of a genotype
into a phenotype.
For example, Siamese house cats have light color except on their ears, nose, tail, and paws. The
expression of gene responsible for this hair color pattern is temperature-sensitive. The enzyme that cata-
lyzes the production of dark pigment in these cats is unable to work at the normal body temperature. In
lowering of temperature the enzyme is activated and can produce pigment that darkens the ears, paws and
tail. Thus, the phenotype of an organism is a function of the interactions of genotype and environment.
Temperature also affects primrose flower color and fur of Himalayan rabbits.
In buttercup plant (Ranunculus peltatus), leaves below water-level are finely divided and those above
water-level are broad, floating, photosynthetic leaf-like leaves.

6. Penetrance, expressivity
The degree of gene expression is called expressivity. The environment influence on the expressiv-
ity of the genotype may lead to problems in correct diagnosis and interpretation of pedigree, especially in an
autosomal dominant inheritance. Clinically, variable expressivity of the genotype is exhibited by mild, mod-
erate or severe form of the disease. Examples of dominant genes expressivity are different degrees of cleft
lip and cleft palate, bifurcation of pendulous palate, different depth of cotiloid cavity, different degree of
polydactyly.
One and the same trait may show in some organisms and be absent in others, having the same
gene. The proportion of individuals with a given genotype that actually show the expected phenotype is
called the penetrance of the genotype for a given population. For example, in humans blood groups inheri-
tance in system ABO has 100 % of penetrance, inheritance of epilepsy - 67% , diabetes mellitus - 65% ,
congenital dislocation of the hip - 25%.
It is necessary to remember, that genes responsible for pathologic traits can have different pene-
trance and expressivity. Changing the environment conditions one can influence on the development of a
trait. For example, in an autosomal recessive disorder called phenylketonuria (PKU), an enzyme phenyla-
lanine hydroxylase is deficient. This enzyme deficiency leads to accumulation of phenylalanine in the blood
(0,5-0,6 g/l instead of 0,003-0,04 g/l in the norm) and its transformation into phenylpyruvic acid and other
toxic metabolites. It causes severe mental retardation, phenylketonuria (passing phenyl kitones in urine),
hypopigmentation, etc. Prescription of phenylalanine-free diet prevents the development of mental retarda-
tion in children with PKU.

Polygenic Inheritance
Polygenic inheritance is a pattern responsible for many traits which are governed by the cumulative
effects of many genes. Polygenic traits are not expressed as absolute or discrete characters. Polygenic
traits are recognizable by their expression as a gradation of small differences (a continuous variation). Hu-
man polygenic traits include height, weight, eye color, intelligence, skin color, many forms of behavior.
The biological role of polygeny is to increase of trait stability.

7. Pleiotropy
Pleiotropy is the effect of a single gene on more than one characteristic. There are two kind of plei-
otropy: primary and secondary. In primary pleiotropy the gene shows own multiple actions simultaneously.
Examples of such conditions are osteogenesis imperfecta, Marfan’s syndrome, Hartnup disease.
In osteogenesis imperfecta, the basic defect is in collagen synthesis. This accounts for multiple sec-
ondary effects like brittle bones, osteosclerosis, blue sclerae, etc. In another condition called Marfan’s syn-
drom primary defect lies in synthesis of elastic fibres. This exhibits in pleiotropic manifestations such as
skeletal, ocular and cardiovascular anomalies. Marfan’s syndrom is recognized clinically in patients who
have spindly digits, a high-arched palate and in whom there is a tendency to lens dislocation. The main
cardiac complications are aortic dilatation and aortic valve regurgitation.
In Hartnup disease, mutation of gene causes disorder of tryptophan absorption in intestine and tryp-
tophan reabsorption in canaliculi of kidneys. The membranes of epythelial cells in intestine and in canaliculi
of kidneys are striked simultaneously.
In secondary pleiotropy, a primary phenotypic effect of gene leads to multiple secondary effects devel-
oped one for other. Examples of such conditions are sickle-cell anaemia, phenylketonuria, galactosemia.
The sickle cell anaemia is caused by gene (HbS), which is lethal in homozygous condition. It was
found that the β globin chain of HbS is different from HbA. Valine replaces glutamic acid in the sixth position
of β chain in HbS molecule. In heterozygotes under anoxic conditions, sickle haemoglobin forms long, nee-
dle-like tactoids, which deform the red cell into the characteristic sickle shape. The presence of large num-
ber of sickled cells in small blood vessels impairs blood flow to the tissues causing hypoxia and local acido-
sis with further sickling of red cells. This leads to anaemia, splenomegaly and weakness. The red cells tend
to cluster, that in one’s turn causes thrombosis, infarction and ischaemia. Sickle-celled individuals suffer
from a number of problems, all of which are pleiotropic effects of the sickle-cell allele.

9. Modifier Genes
Instead of masking the effects of another gene, a gene can modify the expression of a second gene.
Modifier genes are those that have small quantitative effects on the level of expression of another
gene.
In mice, coat color is controlled by the B gene. The B allele conditions black coat color and is domi-
nant to the b allele that produces a brown coat. The intensity of the color, either black or brown is controlled
by another gene, the D gene. At this gene, the dominant D allele controls full color whereas the recessive d
allele conditions a dilute or faded expression of the color expression at the B gene. Therefore, if a cross is
made among mice that are BdDd, the following phenotypic distribution will be seen:
§ 9 B_D_ (black)
§ 3 B_dd (dilute black)
§ 3 bbD_ (brown)
§ 1 bbdd (dilute brown)
The D gene does not mask the effect of the B gene, rather it modifies its expression.