The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons or other free carriers when electromagnetic

radiation, like light, hits a material. Electrons emitted in this manner can be

called photoelectrons. This phenomenon is commonly studied in electronic physics and in fields.

According to classical electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the

transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in
the intensity of light induces changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the
metal. According to this theory, a sufficiently dim light is expected to show a time lag between
the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron.

But the experimental results did not correlate with either of the two predictions made by classical
theory. Instead, experiments showed that electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of
light when it reached or exceeded a threshold frequency. Below that threshold, no electrons are
emitted from the material, regardless of the light intensity or the length of time of exposure to the
light.

Because a low-frequency beam at a high intensity could not build up the energy required to
produce photoelectrons like it would have if light's energy was continuous like a
wave, Einstein proposed that a beam of light is not a wave propagating through space, but rather
a collection of discrete wave packets (photons).

Emission of conduction electrons from typical metals usually requires a few electron-volts,
corresponding to short-wavelength visible or ultraviolet light. Emissions can be induced with
photons with energies approaching zero (in the case of negative electron affinity) to over
1 MeV for core electrons in elements with a high atomic number. Study of the photoelectric
effect led to important steps in understanding the quantum nature of light and electrons and
influenced the formation of the concept of wave–particle duality. Other phenomena where light
affects the movement of electric charges include the photoconductive effect (also known
as photoconductivity or photoresistivity), the photovoltaic effect, and the photoelectrochemical
effect.
Schematic of experimental apparatus to demonstrate the photoelectric effect. The filter passes light of certain
wavelengths from the lamp at left. The light strikes the curved electrode, and electrons are emitted. The
adjustable voltage can be increased until the current stops flowing. This "stopping voltage" is a function only of
the electrode material and the frequency of the incident light, and is not affected by the intensity of the light.

Emission mechanism
The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the
frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material
absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the
electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the
electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-
frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons sent over a given
interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough
energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not
depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent
frequency) of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and
the innermost electrons. The movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then
result in the emission of a photon.
Electrons can absorb energy from photons when irradiated, but they usually follow an
"all or nothing" principle. All of the energy from one photon must be absorbed and used
to liberate one electron from atomic binding, or else the energy is re-emitted. If the
photon energy is absorbed, some of the energy liberates the electron from the atom,
and the rest contributes to the electron's kinetic energy as a free particle
Photoemission can occur from any material, but it is most easily observable from metals
or other conductors because the process produces a charge imbalance, and if this
charge imbalance is not neutralized by current flow (enabled by conductivity), the
potential barrier to emission increases until the emission current ceases. It is also usual
to have the emitting surface in a vacuum, since gases impede the flow of
photoelectrons and make them difficult to observe. Additionally, the energy barrier to
photoemission is usually increased by thin oxide layers on metal surfaces if the metal
has been exposed to oxygen, so most practical experiments and devices based on the
photoelectric effect use clean metal surfaces in a vacuum.
When the photoelectron is emitted into a solid rather than into a vacuum, the
term internal photoemission is often used, and emission into a vacuum distinguished
as external photoemission.
Experimental observations of photoelectric emission
The theory of the source of photoelectric effect must explain the experimental
observations of the emission of electrons from an illuminated metal surface.
For a given metal surface, there exists a certain minimum frequency of
incident radiation below which no photoelectrons are emitted. This frequency is called
the threshold frequency. Increasing the frequency of the incident beam, keeping the
number of incident photons fixed (this would result in a proportionate increase in
energy) increases the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted. Thus the
stopping voltage increases (see the experimental setup in the figure). The number
of electrons also changes because of the probability that each photon results in an
emitted electron are a function of photon energy. If the intensity of the incident radiation
of a given frequency is increased, there is no effect on the kinetic energy of each
photoelectron.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted
photoelectron depends on the frequency of the incident light, but is independent of the
intensity of the incident light so long as the latter is not too high.
For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons
are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. An increase in the
intensity of the incident beam (keeping the frequency fixed) increases the magnitude of
the photoelectric current, although the stopping voltage remains the same.
The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a photoelectron is
very small, less than 10−9 second.

In 1905, Einstein proposed an explanation of the photoelectric effect using a concept

first put forward by Max Planck that light waves consist of tiny bundles or packets of
energy known as photons or quanta.

Diagram of the maximum kinetic energy as a function of the frequency of light on zinc
Stopping potential
The relation between current and applied voltage illustrates the nature of the
photoelectric effect. For discussion, a light source illuminates a plate P, and
another plate electrode Q collects any emitted electrons. We vary the
potential between P and Q and measure the current flowing in the external
circuit between the two plates.
If the frequency and the intensity of the incident radiation are fixed, the
photoelectric current increases gradually with an increase in the positive
potential on the collector electrode until all the photoelectrons emitted are
collected. The photoelectric current attains a saturation value and does not
increase further for any increase in the positive potential. The saturation
current increases with the increase of the light intensity. It also increases with
greater frequencies due to a greater probability of electron emission when
collisions happen with higher energy photons.
If we apply a negative potential to the collector plate Q with respect to the
plate P and gradually increase it, the photoelectric current decreases,
becoming zero at a certain negative potential. The negative potential on the
collector at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called
the stopping potential or cut off potential.
 3.1 The photoelectric effect:

What is the photoelectric effect?

 If radiation of high enough frequency is shone onto the surface of a metal, it will
emit electrons instantly.
 For most metals, the required frequency is in the ultraviolet region.
o Because of the way atoms are bonded together in metals, metals contain
free electrons that are able to move about in the metal.
o The electron near the surface of the metal absorbs energy from the
radiation which makes them vibrate.
o If an electron absorbs enough energy, the bonds holding it can be broken
and the electron can be released.
o This is the photoelectric effect and the electrons being emitted are called
photoelectrons.

Main conclusions made from the photoelectric effect:

1. For a given metal, no electrons are emitted if the radiation has a frequency below
a certain value called the threshold frequency.
2. Photoelectrons are emitted with a variety of kinetic energies from zero to a
maximum value. (Value of maximum kinetic energy increases with the frequency of the
radiation).
3. Intensity of the radiation is the energy per second hitting an area of the metal.
Maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is unaffected by intensity of the radiation.
4. Number of photoelectrons emitted per second is proportional to the intensity of
the radiation, provided the the frequency is greater than the threshold frequency.

Problems:

 Minimum frequency depends upon the type of metal.

o Wavelength of the incident light must be less than a maximum value = to
the speed of light divided by the threshold frequency.
 Photoelectric emission occurs without any delay, instant.
o As soon as the incident radiation is directed at the surface of the metal,
provided the frequency exceeds the threshold frequency.

Threshold frequency:

 Wave theory says that for a particular frequency of EM wave, the energy carried
should be proportional to the intensity of the beam.
 The energy carried by the EM wave would also spread evenly over the
wavefront.
o This means that if an EM wave were shone on a metal, each free electron
on the surface would gain a bit of energy from each incoming wavefront, gradually each
electron would gain enough energy to escape the metal.
o The lower the frequency, the longer it takes for the electron to gain
enough energy to escape, provided that the wave is above the threshold frequency.

Kinetic energy of the photoelectrons:

 Greater the intensity of the wave, the more energy it transfers to to each electron.
o The kinetic energy increases with intensity.
o Wave theory can’t explain the fact that the kinetic energy depends only on
the frequency in the photoelectric effect.

Stopping potential:

 Electrons that escape from the metal plate can be pulled back by giving the metal
plate a sufficient positive charge.
 Minimum potential needed to stop it is called the stopping potential (Vs)
 At this potential, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted of the electron must
do extra work equal to e × Vs to leave the metal surface.
 Hence maximum kinetic energy is = e × Vs

Work function:

 When EM waves hits a metal, the metal’s surface is bombarded

by photons.
o If one photon collides with a free electron, the electron will
gain energy which is equal to hf (E=hf)
o Before an electron can leave the surface, it needs enough
energy to break free.
o This energy is called the work function (Φ) – Dependant
upon the metal.
 If the energy gained from the photon is greater than the work
function energy, the electron can be emitted.
 If the energy is lower, the electron will shake a bit and release
energy as a photon.
 The metal will heat but no electrons are emitted.
 Since for electrons to be released:
o
 Therefore, the threshold frequency must be:
o

Conduction electrons:

 Conduction electrons in a metal move randomly, like molecules

of gas.
 Average kinetic energy of a conduction electron depends upon
the temperature of the metal.
 Work function of a metal is the minimum energy need by a
conduction electron to escape from the metal surface when the metal
is at zero potential.
 The work function is of the order (10–19J) which is 20 times
greater than the average kinetic energy of a conduction electron in a
metal at 300 K
 When a conduction electron absorbs a photon, its kinetic energy
increases by an amount equal to the energy of the photon.
 If the energy exceeds the work function of the metal, the
conduction electron can leave the metal.
o If the electron does not leave the metal, it collides with the
other electrons and positive ions and it quickly loses its kinetic energy.

The vacuum photocell:
 a vacuum photocell is a glass tube that contains a metal plate,
referred to as the photocathode, and a smaller metal electrode
referred to as the anode.
 The diagram below shows a vacuum photocell in a circuit, when
light of a frequency greater than the threshold frequency for the metal
is directed at the photocathode, electrons are emitted from the
cathode and are attracted to the anode.
 The microammeter in the circuit can be used to measure the
photoelectric current.
o Proportional to the number of electrons per second that
transfer from the cathode to the anode.
o For a photoelectric current, I,  the number of
photoelectrons per second is I/e, where e is the charge of the electron.
 The photoelectric current is proportional to the intensity of the
light incident on the cathode.
o The light intensity is measure of the energy per second
carried by the light.
o Proportional to the number of photons per second incident
on the cathode.
o Each electron must have absorbed one photon to escape
the metal surface.
o Number of photoelectrons emitted per second is therefore
proportional to the intensity of the light.
 The intensity of the incident light does not affect the kinetic
energy of a photoelectron.
o No matter how intense the light is, the energy gained by a
photoelectron is due to the absorption of one photon only.
o Therefore the formula for the maximum kinetic energy of a
photoelectron is given by:

 The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted for a
given frequency of light is measured using a photocell.
 The measurements for different frequencies are plotted as a
graph of Ekmax against f, a straight line of the form, y=mx+c is
obtained.
o This is in accordance with the photoelectric equation.
o
o The gradient gives the planck constant.
o The X intercept gives threshold frequency:

o The Y intercept gives the work function:
 ( )

o
 3.3 Collisions of electrons with atoms:
The Electron Volt:

 Defined as the kinetic energy carried by an electron after it has

been accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 1 Volt.
 The energy gained by an electron (eV) is equal to the voltage (V)
 1 eV =1.6 x 10–19 Joules

Ionisation:

 An ion is a charged atom.

 The number of electrons in an ion is equal to the number of
protons.
 Formed from an uncharged atom by adding or removing
electrons from the atom.
 Adding electrons = negative.
 Removing electrons = positive.

Any process of creating ions is called ionisation:

 Alpha, beta and gamma radiation create ions when they pass
through substances and collide with the atoms of the substance.
 Electrons passing through a fluorescent tube create ions when
they collide with the atoms of the gas or vapour.

Ionisation energy of a gas atom =eV

Excitation by collision:

 Using gas-filled tubes with a metal grid between the filaments

and the anode, we can show that gas atoms can absorb energy from
colliding electrons without actually being ionised.
o Process is known as excitation, which happens at certain
energies.
o It is a characteristic of the atoms of the gas.
o If a colliding electron loses all its kinetic energy when it
causes excitation, the current due to the flow of electrons through the
gas is reduced.
o If the colliding electron does not have enough kinetic
energy to cause excitation, it is deflected by the gas atoms with no
overall loss of kinetic energy.
 The energy values at which an atom absorbs energy are known
as excitation energies which can be determined for the atoms in the
gas-filled tube by increasing the potential difference between the
filament and the anode and measuring the pd when the anode current
falls.
o For example, two prominent excitation energies of a
mercury atom are 4.9eV and 5.7 eV meaning that the current would
fall at 4.9V and 5.7V
 When excitation occurs, the colliding electron makes an electron
inside the atom move from an inner shell to an outer shell.
 Energy is needed for this process, because they atomic electron
moves away from the nucleus of the atom.
 Excitation energy is always < ionisation energy of the
atom, because the atomic electron is not removed completely when
excitation occurs.

3.6 Wave-particle duality:

Diffraction:

 When a beam of light passes through a narrow gap, it spreads

out, a scientific principle called diffraction.
 Diffraction can only be explained using waves.
o If light was a particle, then the light particles would either
be too big or just pass straight through the gap and the beam would
be unchanged.
o

 
Photoelectric effect:

 The particle-like-nature is observed in the photoelectric effect

 It proves that when light is directed at a metal surface, an
electron at the surface is absorbed a photon of frequency f, the kinetic
energy of the electron is increased by hf.
o The electron can escape if the energy it gains from the
photon exceeds the work function of the metal.

Matter waves:

 If light has a dual wave-particle nature, particles of matter also

have a dual wave-particle nature.
 Electrons in a beam can be deflected by a magnetic field.
o This is evidence that electrons have a particle-like nature.
o The idea that matter particles also have a wave-like nature
was first considered by Louis de Broglie in 1923. (de Broglie
hypothesis)
 By extending the ideas of duality from photons to matter
particles, Broglie put forward an idea that:
o Matter particles have a dual wave-particle nature
o The wave-like behaviour of a matter particle is determined
by the de Broglie Wavelength, λ, which is related to the momentum, p,
of the particle by means of the following equation:


o The de Broglie wavelength of a particle can be changed by
altering the velocity of the particle.

Evidence for de Broglie’s hypothesis:

Electron diffraction:

 The wave-like nature of electrons was discovered when de

Broglie put forward his hypothesis, which demonstrated that a beam of
electrons can be diffracted
 The following diagram below shows hows this can be done.

 
How this can be achieved:

 A narrow beam of electrons in a vacuum tube is directed at a thin

metal foil.
o A metal is made up of many tiny crystalline region.
o Each region or grain consists of positive ions arranged in a
regular pattern.
o The rows of atoms cause the electrons in the beam to be
diffracted, just as a beam of light is diffracted when it passes through a
slit.
 The electrons in the beam pass through the metal foil and are
diffracted in certain directions only, as shown in the diagram above.
o They form a pattern of rings on a fluorescent screen at the
end of the tube.
o Each ring is due to electrons diffracted by the same amount
from grain of different orientations at the same angle to the incident
beam.

o
 The beam of electrons is produced by attracting electrons form a
heated filament wire to a positively charged metal plate, which has a
small hole at the centre.
o Electrons that pass through the hole form the beam.
o The speed of the electrons can be increased by increasing
the potential difference between the filament and the metal plate.
 Makes the diffraction rings smaller, and because of an
increase in speed, the de Broglie wavelength gets smaller, so less
diffraction occurs and the rings become smaller.

Electron microscope:

 Shorter wavelengths give smaller diffraction effects.

 Used in electron microscope.
 Diffraction effects blur detail on an image,
o If you want to resolve tiny detail in an image, a shorter
wavelength is needed.
 Light blurs out detail more than “electron-waves” do.
 Therefore, the microscope can resolve finer detail than a light
microscope.
o Therefore it can be used to look at tiny things like a strand
of DNA.