ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO. 1

INTRODUCTION

An anti-lock braking system or anti-skid braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system
that allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface
according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up (ceasing
rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an automated system that uses the principles
of threshold braking and cadence braking which were practiced by skillful drivers with previous
generation braking systems. It does this at a much faster rate and with better control than many
drivers could manage.

ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry and
slippery surfaces; however, on loose gravel or snow-covered surfaces, ABS can significantly
increase braking distance, although still improving vehicle steering control.

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have been improved
considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically
control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known as electronic brake force distribution (EBD), traction control system,
emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO. 2

CONTRUCTION

The purpose of Anti-lock Braking system (ABS) is to control the rate at which individual wheels
accelerate and de-accelerate through the regulation of the line pressure applied to each
foundation brake. The control signals, generated by the controller and applied to the brake
pressure modulating unit, are derived from the analysis of the outputs taken from wheel speed
sensors. Thus, when active, the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) makes optimum use of the
available friction between the tyres and the road surface.

COMPONENTS OF ANTI-LOCK BREAKING SYSTEM (ABS)

There are four main components of the ABS:

 SPEED SENSOR
 VALVES
 PUMP
 CONTROLLER
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

SPEED SENSOR

The purpose of the speed sensor is to monitor speed of each wheel and then to determine the
acceleration and de-acceleration of the wheels. It consist of exciter(a ring with notched teeth)and
a wire coil/magnet assembly which generates the pulses of electricity as teeth of exciter pass in
front of it.

VALVES

The function of the valves is to regulate the air pressure to brakes during Anti-Lock Braking
System (ABS) action.They are placed in the brake line of the each brake controlled by the ABS.
In most of the cases ,the valve has three positions:

 In position one, the valve is open and the pressure from the master cylinder is passed
through the brake.
 In position two, the valve blocks the line resulting in isolating the brake from master
cylinder.
 In position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from brakes.

PUMP

The purpose of the pump is to regulate or restore the pressure back to the brakes that has been
released by the valves.

CONTROLLER

The controller of the Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) consists of Electronic Control
Unit(ECU) which processes all the ABS information and signal functions. The ECU gets the
information from all the wheels and then control or limit the brake force to the each wheel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO. 3

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The basic theory behind anti-lock brakes is simple. It prevents the wheels from locking up, thus
avoiding uncontrolled skidding. ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases
stopping distances on dry and slippery surfaces.

WORKING OF ABS OR ANTI-LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

 When the brakes are applied ,fluid is forced from the master cylinder to the HCU inlet
ports with the help of open solenoid valves that are contained in the HCU, then through
the outlet ports of HCU to the each wheel.
 The rear part of the master cylinder feeds the front brakes and vice-versa.
 After the fluid in inserted in each wheel, the wheel starts locking-up.
 When the control module senses that wheel is going to lock up, it closes the normally
open solenoid valves for that wheel.
 The anti-lock break control module then looks at anti-lock break sensor signal from the
affected wheel.
 Once the affected wheel comes back up to the speed, then the control module returns the
solenoid valve to there normal condition.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO. 4

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages of Antilock Braking System (ABS):

1. ABS maintains vehicle steer ability and stability during panic braking.
2. It reduces braking distance by up to 10% or more especially on wet surfaces.

Disadvantages of Antilock Braking System (ABS):

Perhaps the only disadvantage of ABS is its higher cost. At present, purchasing an ABS installed
bike or car costs significantly to the customer. However, this higher cost is completely offset by
the improved safety this system provides. Also, the auto industry is working on developing a
low-cost version of the antilock braking system.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO. 5

COMPARISON BETWEEN ABS AND DRUM BRAKE

Drum Brakes

1. Drum brakes were the norm for cars back in the day, and they still exist on many old cars
today. This is because it isn’t a bad braking system, and if properly maintained it does
work effectively, even if it does have its design flaws.
2. How it works is that when you apply the brake pedal, a hydraulic system causes a curved
brake ‘shoe’ to press against the inside of a round drum which rotates along with the
wheel. This contact produces friction to slow the car down, and hopefully, stop.
3. Early cars used this brake system on all four wheels, and some cars today use a front-disc
/ rear-drum configuration. While the brake shoes are made of a heat-resistant friction
material, it is inevitable that wear and tear does occur and they’ll need replacing.
4. Replacement of the components isn’t that cheap and can be a mechanic’s nightmare. It’s
a tedious, finicky process compared to disc brakes, which are just a case of popping on a
fresh set of pads and rotors.
5. The other issue with drum brakes is that they’re not that effective on steep hills. If you
happen to be descending with a heavy load, they tend to lose grip because of the heat
build-up within the drum known as ‘brake fade’.

ABS Brakes

1. Most car manufacturers switched the front brakes to disc brakes in the 1970s, because the
front brakes are where most of the stopping takes place. Today, the majority of cars will
have disc brakes on both the front and back wheels. As well as being more effective than
drum brakes in certain situations, they are cheaper and some also offer the added
advantage of ABS or ‘Anti-lock Braking System’.
2. ABS has been around since 1929 when it was first used on airplanes, but it wasn’t used in
cars until the early 1970s when Chrysler introduced an ABS brake they called the ‘Sure
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Brake’. Other car manufacturers followed suit and in 1993, Lincoln was the first
manufacturer to use the ABS system exclusively on all their vehicles.
3. ABS works by using wheel sensors on the disc brakes and is designed to help the driver
steer and avoid skidding while applying the brake pedal. If a wheel does try to lock up,
ABS reduces braking on that wheel by pulsating the disc brake pads which allows you to
turn the vehicle while braking.
4. The best way to use ABS is to apply steady and constant pressure and don’t pump the
brake pedal. Not all cars that are equipped with ABS perform the same, so it’s a good
idea to learn what the braking characteristics of your vehicle are so you know what to
expect.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHAPTER NO.6

FEATURE AND BENEFITS

FEATURES BENEFITS

Control of steering Increases steering ability

and vehicle stability
during braking
Fail-safe If the electrical/electronic
electrical/electronic system fails, the ABS is
system shut off
Traction control It is an optional feature
that controls excessive
wheel spin during
acceleration
ABS Indicator Lamp Informs the driver or
technician that an ABS
fault has occured
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Conclusion
1. Statistics show that approximately 40 % of automobile accidents are due to skidding.
2. These problems commonly occur on vehicle with conventional brake system which can
be avoided by adding devices called ABS.
3. If there is an ABS failure, the system will revert to normal brake operation. Normally the
ABS warning light will turn on and let the driver know there is a fault.

REFERENCE

1. http://www.metalbiz.com.au/the-difference-between-abs-brakes-and-old-drum-brakes/
2. http://www.esafety-effects-database.org/applications_16.html
3. https://carbiketech.com/antilock-braking-system-working/
4. https://www.scienceabc.com/innovation/abs-sensors-anti-lock-breaking-system-
technology-cars-work.html
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilock_braking_system#Operation
6. Google Search Engine

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

ABSTRACT
LISTOFFIGURES

LISTOFTABLES

INTRODUCTION 1
1 Problem statement 2
2 Aim of objective 3
3 Scope of the work 3
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

4 Methodology 3
1.1 Over View Of Helicopter Vibration 5
1.1.1 Helicopter Vibration Reduction Methods 6

1.1.2 Passive Helicopter Vibration Reduction 6

1.1.3 Active Helicopter Vibration Reduction 6

1.1.4 Higher Harmonic Control(Hhc) 6

Active Control Of Structural Response(Ascr)

Semi-Active Vibration Reduction Technology

Comparison Of Three Techniques

LITERATURE REVIEW 7

VIBRATION MEASUREMENTS 9

3.1 Electric grass trimmer description 10

3.2 Experimental modal analysis 11

3.3 Design Of Tunable Dual Mass Vibration Absorber (Tva) 17

DESIGN OF ABSORBER 18

4.1 4.1 The detailed dimensions of the parts of the absorber 19

PROJECT PLAN 22

CONCLUSION 22

REFERENCES 23

ABSTRACT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ment is having maximum sale, which includes cars like

Maruti Alto, Tata Indica, etc. Driver seat is one of the main

In India, small car seg

Maruti 800, SUZUKI Swift,

ects to be considered while defining comfort in a moving vehicle. The

asp

analysis concentrates on driver seat because driver comfort is of main concern since it i

the most occupied seat in any

addition to sitting, the driver job is to manipulate different controls and concentrate

parallel on many aspects. The research work aims at studying the vertical vibrations

curren

vehicle and the occupancy is for longer duration. In

transferred to the human body via seat.

The work is an attempt towards studying dynamic characteristics of driver seat

for comfort through objective evaluation. For objective evaluation, two tests were

conducted; Seat Effective Amplitude Transmissibility (SEAT) test and Ride Comfort

Index test under two different conditions i.e. car level and seat level testing on Car A

and Car B'. Both tests were carried out under controlled conditions.

Car level test was carried out on 4-Poster simulator, which can simulate exact

road conditions in vertical direction whereas seat level testing is done on electro-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

dynamic shaker, which simulates sinusoidal signals. Results of experimentations i.c.

accelerations at seat base and seat mount were compared with reference standard ISO

2631-1(1997) which indicated average Root Mean Square (RMS) of Car 'A' and Car

B' is 0.007 and 0.008 Km/s respectively. Hence according to ISO 2631- 1(1997), both

cars fall into 'Fairly uncomfortable zone'. SEAT Test revealed transmissibility in two

'erent positions (Front most and rearmost position). In front most position,

transmissibility is 65.66% and 204% for Car 'B, and Car 'A' respectively, whereas

transmissibility is 63.56% and 145% for Car B' and Car 'A' in rearmost position of

seat

LIST OF FIGURES

Sr no

Content

Page no

Shaker test sct-up

Frequency Domain Data: Car

10

Frequency Domain Data: Car A' Position

Front

Frequency Domain Data. Car 'B' Seat

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Position: Rear

Frcquency Domain

Data: Car ‘B' Seat

Position Front

Car 'A' & 'B'-SEAT % vs

Seat Locations

Four Poster Set-up

Car 'A' Seat Response: (Road Profile 1-50

Hz)

15

Car 'B' Seat Response: (Road Profile 1-50

Hz)

LIST OF TABLES

Page no

Content

Sr no

Weighing Factors as per Location & Axis of

Measuremcnt

12
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Results-Car 'A' & 'B, SEAT % vs Seat Locations

Results for Vehicle Level Testing for Car 'A'

Results for Vehicle Level Testing for Car 'B'

Results for Ride Comfort index Vehicle Lcvel Testing

17

for car 'A' & Car B'

17

Ride Comfort Indcx

INDEX

Sr. no

Content

Page no

Acknowledgement

Abstract

List of figures

List of Tables

Introduction
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Literature review

Objectives

Methodology

Result

Future scope

Conclusion

References

1V

18

19

20

21

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VIBRATION ANALYSIS

1. INTRODUCTION

Hertzberg defines ride comfort is absence of discomfort. Ride comfort analysis

is one of the important aspects of the vehicle from performance point of view. For

objective evaluation of Ride comfort, two tests were conducted namely SEAT% (Seat
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Effective Amplitude Transmissibility) test and Ride Comfort Index test under two

different condition.e. car level and seat level testing and their comparison with

benchmark car. Both tests had been carried out under controlled conditions

(Experimental works in laboratory were considered as controllable) and results were

correlated with reference standard ISO 2631- 1(1997)

1.1 DEFINITIONS:

SEAT % : Seat Effective Amplitude Transmissibility (SEAT) is a non-dimensional

measure of the efficiency of a seat in isolating the body from vibration or shock.

SEAT values have been widely used to determine the vibration isolation efficiency

of a seat. SEAT% value is defined as:

I.

Vibration on the seat

x 100

SEAT %

Vibration on the floor

Ride Comfort Index : It is the qualitative measure of comfort as per reference

2.

Cs standard IS2631-1[1997

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2. LITERATURE REVIEW
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

VIBRATION ANALYSIS ON DRIVER SEAT FOR SMALL CARS

The previous study shows that in men the problem of low back pain (LBP) is

more as comparc to the women & also in that rescarch we found that the percentage of

men having LBP are farmers compare to blue & white collar employees. The following

papers give some brief introduction about the topic.

A. A J. Scarlctt ct al, (2009) was conducted a study to quantify whole-body

vibration (WBV) emission and estimated exposure levels found upon a range of modern,

agricultural tractors, when operated in controlled conditions performing selected

agricultural operations and while performing identical tasks during _on-farm' use. The

potential consequences of operator WBV exposure limitations, as prescribed by the

European Physical Agents (Vibration) Directive: 2002 (PA(V)D), upon tractor usage

patterns were considered. Tractor WBV emission levels were found to be very dependent

upon the nature of field operation performed, but largely independent of vehicle

suspension system capability (due to the dominance of horizontal vibration). However,

this trend was reversed during on-road transport. Few examples (9%) of tractor field

opcrations approached or exceeded the PA(V)D Exposure Limit Value (ELV) during 8 h

operation, but this figure increased (to 27%) during longer working days. However

virtually all (95%)-on-farm" vehicles exceeded the Exposure Action Value (EAV)

during an 8-h day. The PA(V)D is not likely to restrict the operation of tractors during an

8-h day, but will become a limitation if the working day lengthens significantly.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

B. Ch. Sreedhar, et al, (2008) have been developed and optimized with an anti-

vibration suspension system (Tempered Springs) for agricultural tractor. These seats were

examined and determined their static and dynamic physical characteristics. These seats

are designcd on thc basis of ISO standards and an artificial track was used to simulate a

farm field based on BIS to examine vibration the transmissibility of the seats when

installed in tractor. The results indicated that the transmissibility from under the scat to

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VIBRATION ANALYSIS

on the seat in the vertical direction was approximately 0.22, and little reduction of

vibration was observed in the fore-aft direction. The results of these experiments indicate

hat significant differences exist between the characteristics of tempered springs and non-

tempered springs of seat. This suggests that the oblique seats with tempered springs are

applicable to the agricultural ficld. Considcrable cffort has been made to establish thc

optimum design parameters for tractor seats. Further reductions in the level of ride

vibrations experienced by tractor seats appear to be necessary and some possible methods

of achieving significant improvements have been outlined. Standardized (ISO) methods

of agricultural vehicle WBV mcasurcment require further developmcnt to permit

quantified effectiveness of tractor WBV-design during in-field operation. C. E.H

Shiguemori et al., (2005) Inverse problems in vibration is a proccss of

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

determining parameters bascd on numerical analysis from a comparison between

mcasurcd vibration data and its predicted values provided by a mathematical model. In

this work the displacement data have been chosen in order to identify the stiffness matrix

which will cause a changing in the time-history of the system displacement. This is an

inverse problem, since the stiffness matrix evaluation is obtained through the

determination of thc modificd stiffness coefficients. In this work, the artificial neural

network technique is applied to the inverse vibration problem where the goal is to

estimate the unknown timc-dependent stiffness coefficients simultaneously in a two

degree-of-freedom structure, using a Multilayer Perceptron Neural Network model

Numerical experiments have been carried out with synthetic expcrimental data

considering a noise level of 1%. Good recoveries have been achieved with this

methodology.

D. M.J. Griffin et. al, (2005) has bccn investigated the transmission of ro, pitch

and yaw vibration from the floor of a small car to the seat backrcst. There are complex

multi-axis motions on the floors of cars, with combined translational and rotational

componcnts. The vibration is transmitted through car seats and contributes to the

vibration discomfort of drivers and passengers. Most previous studies of the transmissio

of vibration through car seats have assumed a single-input model in which vertical

vibration at the seat base contributes to vertical vibration at the surface supporting the

occupant. A small number of studies have investigated the transmission of horizontal

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

seat

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Vibration from the seat base to the seat surfacc but there have been a few investigations of

e transmission of fore-and-aft, lateral or vertical vibration to the backrest. Using multi

nput modcls of seat transmission, two reccent studies have investigated the extent to

which the fore-and-aft, lateral and vertical vibration at a car floor contributed to forc-and-

aft, lateral and vertical vibration at a seat backrest. It was found in these studies that the

vibration on a car floor differed between the four corners of the seat base, implying that

there were rotational (i.e. roll, pitch and yaw) inputs to the seat. The transmission of

rotational vibration from the non-rigid scat base to fore-and-aft, latcral and vertical

vibration at the scat backrest was investigated using single- and multi input models. It

was found that, pitch and roll vibration together with translational vibration at the seat

base, made significant contributions to seat backrest vibration

E. TP. Gunston et al., (2004) Many off-road machines are equipped with a

suspension seat intended to minimize the vibration exposure of the opcrator to vertical

vibration. The optimization of the isolation characteristics of a suspension seat involves

International Journal of Enginccring Rcsearch and Gencral Science Volume 3, Issue 4

July-August, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 366 www.ijergs.org consideration of the dynamic

responscs of the various cormponents of the seat. Ideally, the seat components would be
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

optimized using a numerical model of the seat. However, seat suspensions are complex

with non-linear characteristics that are difficult to model; the development of seat

suspensions is therefore currently more empirical than analytical. This paper presents and

compares two alternative methods of modeling the non-linear dynamic behavior of two

suspension seats whose dynamic characteristics were measured in the laboratory. A

lumped parameter model', which roprcsented the dynamic responses of individual seat

components, was compared with a global _Bouc-Wen model having a non-linear

degree-of-freedom. Predictions of the vibration dose value for a load placed on the seats

were compared with laboratory measurements. The normalized r.m.s. errors between the

predictions and the mcasurcments were also determined. The median absolute difference

between the measured and predicted seat surface vibration dose values over all test

conditions for both models was less than 6% of the measured value (with an inter-quartile

range less than 20%). Both models were limited by deficiencies in the simulation of top

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end-stop impacts after the load lifted from the seat surface. The lumped parameter model

appears best suited to the development of the overall design of a suspension seat.

F. Adarsh Kumar et al., (2001) were measured the vibrations conducted on

different sizes of tractors under varying terrain conditions. Analysis has been done in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

terms of root mean square (rms) accelerations in one-third-octave band and International

Standard Organization (ISO) weighted overall rms. The values were compared with ISO

2631-1, 1985 and 1997 standards. The comparisons reveal that measured vibrations

exceed the _8 h exposure limit' in one-third-octave frequency band procedure of ISO

2631-1 (1985) on both farm and non-farm terrains. In the overall ISO-weighted rms

acceleration procedure of ISO 2631-1 (1997) in all farm and nonfarm terrains working

time of 3 h exceeded the upper limit of & health guidance caution zone'. A tractor-

operator model was adapted for prediction of the rms accelerations on the ISO 5008

track. This model gave results for vibration exposure similar to measured values. Effect

of whole-body vibrations on degenerative changes in the spine of 50 tractor-driving

farmers was evaluated by comparing them with a control group of 50 non-tractor-driving

farmers matched for age, sex, ethnic group, land holding and work routine. All

participants were interviewed in detail for occurrence of low back pain, examined

clinically and a magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the lumbar spine region was

obtained. Evaluation of data revealed that the tractor-driving farmers complain of

backache more often than non-tractor-driving farmers but there was no significant

objective difference in clinical or magnetic resonance imaging between the two groups

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PROBLEM STATEMENT

To study and analysis of the vibrations that are transferred to the human body via
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

driver seats of the small cars vehicles by the experimental setup.

3. OBJECTIVES

To study vehicle vibration transferred to human body via seats.

1.

Dynamic characteristics of driver seats.

2.

3. Damping characteristics under steady conditions.

4. Understand the relationship between frequency and vibration

5. Understand natural frequency and resonance

6. Understand vibration amplitude, the relation between displacement, velocity and

acceleration

7. Understand time and frequency and domains

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4. METHODOLOGY

SEAT % TEST (COMPONENT LEVEL TESTING)

SEAT % experimental analysis carried out on driver seat is to evaluate gains.

seat effective amplitude transmissibility, and attempted to understand seating systems'

damping characteristics under steady state conditions. During laboratory tests, Shaker

Machine is used to generate sinusoidal signal. Due to safety factor, a mass system with
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

dead load weighted about 50kg (which is about the sitting weight of an avcragc-sizc

person on a seat) was used in the laboratory dynamic test. This test was carried out by

increasing the frequency, from 5 Hz until 100 Hz.

The instrumentation and set-up used for the test is as follows (Fig.1):

Shaker universal testing machine,

Tri-axial accelerometers: 3 Nos. Positions 1: Shaker table, Positions 2:Seat mount,

Positions 3:Seat Base.

1.

2.

3Data acquisition unit,

4. Post processor,

5. Rigid dummy: 50 kgs (equivalent to seating weight)

SEATPAN ACCELEROMETER

DUMMY COK

SEAT

SEATFAURE

POST

DATA

TABLE

PROCESSING AQUISITION
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TABLE ACCELEROMETER

UNIT

UNT

(ELECTRCDNAMC)

LDS SHAKER

SHAKER SEAT TEST

Figure 1. Shaker Test Set-up

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Input data was obtained from the acceleromctcr installed at the seat mounts,

whercas output data would be obtained from the scat pad accelerometer put on the seat

base. The acceleration results are listed as per different experimental conditions. The

test was carried out on seat with dummy loaded on it. Output graphs were in terms of

accelerations vs time (time domain output), accelerations vs frequency (frequency

domain output), and transmissibility vs frequency.

Seat % Output:

Seat values were obtained for car 'A' and car 'B' driver seat by importing the

post-processed (power spectrum) data from the analyzer into the Microsoft Excel

program. The "ride on the seat (output) is the integral of frequency-weighted

experienced on the seat, whereas the "ride on the floor, (input) the integral of

frequency-weighted experienced on the floor. From the basic knowledge of integral, this
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

equation can be stated as the ratio of the area under the graph of "ride on the seat" to the

area under the graph of"ride on the floor", as below:

x 100

SEAT(96)

Where, Gs (D Accelerations at seat basc (output),

Gf() Accelerations at tlooring (input),

Wb (): Frequency Weighing factor.

Frequency Weighing for Driver Seat:

With ref. to ISO 2631-1 (Table 1), frequcncy wcighing Wb(f) for Car 'A' and Car 'B'

seat in "Z" axis is considered as "Wk"-1.

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Cs

able 1. Weighing Factors as per Location & Axis of Measurement

LocationAxis Weighing Name Axis Weighting Factor

0.8

0.5

0.4

Xb

Back Rest Yb
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Zb

Wc

Wd

Wd

Wd

Seat

0.63

0.4

0.2

0.25

0.25

0.4

Rx

We

We

We

Rz

Xf

Yf

Zi
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Feet

Wk

Evaluation of Dominant Frequencies and Transmissibility (Gains) Analysis

Using the set-up explained above and input as sinusoidal signal (Acceleration:

1G, Frequency swept: 5Hz-100Hz, frequency sweep interval: 1Hz) acceleration at the

shaker table was givcn and response at different positions of seat was found out. Result

determined the dominant frequency and gains (transmissibility) between different

points of seat for Car 'A' and Car 'B'.

Rear seat Position and fig3 shows response for Car ‘A'-Front seat Position and

fig 4 shows response for Car 'B -Rear seat Position and fig 5 shows response for Car

B Front seat Position

Dominant frequencies in both cases were found out which is around 5 Hz.

Transmissibility (SEAT %) for car 'A' and Car"B, in both seat positions (rear and

front) was calculated, (Table2 and Fig. 6)

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DYNAMIC SEAT TEST ON 4 POSTER SET-UP

Dynamic tests were carried out on 4 Poster simulator which is used to simulate

exact road profile and conditions in the vertical directions. During the test, sinusoidal

offset signal and random signal were generated by 4 poster simulator. In this test, a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

subject weighted about 50kg was used in the laboratory dynamic test

The instrumentation and set-up used for the test is as follows (Tig. 7);

1. Four poster simulator,

2. Tri-axial accelerometers: 3 Nos

a. Positions 1: Shaker table,

b. Positions 2: Seat mount,

c. Positions 3: Seat Base.

ROCESSDI0

0H

US

Figure 7. Four Poster Set-ups

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Data acquisition unit,

1.

2. Post processor,

3. Rigid dummy: 50Kgs

This test was carricd out by increasing the frcquency, from 1 Hz until 50 Hz taking

input as theroad profile for both car 'A' and car B'. There were two kinds of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

test, input dataand output data. Input data was obtained from the accelerometer installed

at the seat mounts,whereas output data would be obtained from the seat pad

accelerometer put on the seat base.

data in the

Evaluation of Transmissibility (Gains) and Dominant Frequencies

Using the set-up explained above and input as sinusoidal signal (amplitude: 5mm,

Frequency swept: 1Hz-50Hz, frcquency sweep interval: 1Hz) acceleration at the four

poster was given and response at the different positions of seat was found out. Result

determined the dominant frequency and gains (transmissibility) betwecn different points

of seat for Car 'A' and Car 'B'. Seat response for Car 'A' and Car 'B'. The

transmissibility and natural frequency of seat 'A' and B' are determined using this

response and its adverse effect on human body is indicated in Car 'A' and Car

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Combined RMS (av) indicated in Table 5 is used to find out Ride Index as per IS02631-

1 (1997) as shown in Table 6 and calculated using following relation,

2212

Where,awx : Weighted RMS acceleration w.r.t. axis x, awy Weighted RMS

acceleration w.r.t. axis y, awz : Weighted RMS acceleration w.r.t. axis z,

av Combined R.M.S., k : Multiplying factors

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Xx Display

R WH

3031 터

512E4

216420

02

237%-+

Figure 8. Car 'A' Seat Responsc: (Road Profile 1-50 Hz)

xy Display

ral Cen

DUU1374

282E.7

inl Ch2R

531E-8

n Ch 96

Figure 9. Car 'B' Seat Rcsponsc:(Road Profile 1-50 Hz)

Scanned with

CamScaSVPM's College of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

Table 3. Results for Velhicle Level Testing for Car 'A'

Vehicle Level Testing for Car'A'

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Adverse Effects on

Human Body Limbs as

per BA7054 41 w.r.t.

natural frequency

Road

profile 5mm

Transmissibilitv

AccelerationNatural

Freq. (Hz)

1) General fatigue (axial)

in Spinal column,

2) Respiratory difficulties

in Thora:x

0.00922

10.94

0.553

Table 4. Results for Vehicle Level Testing for Car 'B'

Vehicle Level Testing for Car'B'

Adverse Effects on Human

Road
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Natural

Acceleration

profile_5mmBody Limbs as per BA7054

(Hz)Transmissibility4) w.r.t. natural frequency

re

(m/ร ้า

I) General fatigue (axial) in

Spinal column,

2) respiratory difficulties.

0.34

10,04

0.00848

Scanned with

Cam SVPM's College of Engineering, Mechanical Enginccring

CS

Table 5: Results for Ride Comfort Index Vehicle Level Testing for Car 'A' and

Car 'B'

RMS Values av (km/s)

Car 'B'

Car 'A'
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Seat

Mount

Seat

Mount

Seat

Base

Seat

Base

0.006

0.009

Road Profile0.008

0.006

0.008

0.007

Avg. Value

ISO ComforF

Fairly UncomfortableFairly Uncomfortable

Index

Table 6. Ridc Comfort Index

Comfort Index
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Not Uncomfortable

A little uncomfortable

Fairly uncomfortable

Uncomfortable

Very uncomfortable

Extremely uncomfortable

RMS Acceleration (km/s)

Less than 0.000315

0.000315 to 0.00063

0.0005 to 0.001

0.0008 to 0.0016

0.00125 to 0.0025

Greater than 0.002

Road profile simulation illustrated indicates that, Ride Index for Car "A, is better than

Car 'B' which means Car 'A' as a whole system (vehicle level) is better as compared to

ar 'B'.

cs S

nMs College of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering

CamsScanner

5. RESULT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Results for Vehicle Level Testing for Car'

The result conclude according to the acceleration natural frequency (Hz) road

profile transmissibility which will adverse effect on body limbs with respect to natural

frequency

1. General fatigue (axial) in spinal columın

2. Respiratory difficulties in thorax

For Vehicle Level Testing for Car 'B'

The result conclude according to the acceleration (0.00848), natural frequency

(10.04) (hz), road profile transmissibility (0.34), which will adverse effect on body limbs

with respect to natural frequency.

1. General fatigue (axial) in spinal column

2. Respiratory difficulties in thorax

Cs Scanned with

CamScanner

6. FUTURE SCOPE

The design of seat suspensions having linear stiffness and damping characteristics

involves a tradeoff between three performance measures. These measures are:

suspension range of motion, 2) improved average vibration isolation (weighted average

across a wide exposure spectrum), and 3) improved isolation at the frequency of peak

transmissibility. To overcome the limitations associated with this tradeoff, nonlinear

 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

mechanical properties are used here in the design of a seat suspension. From the infinite

mber of possible nonlinear mechanical characteristics, several possibilities that showed

romise in previous studies were selected. The selected nonlinear force deflection

relationship (stiffness) of the seat is described by a combination of cubic and linear terms.

The selected damping behavior of the seat is described by a combination of a linear term

and a position-dependent term. A lumped parameter model (linear-human/nonlinear-seat)

of the human/seat-suspension coupled system and a robust direct search routine are used

to obtain pseudo-optimal values of the seat design parameters (mass, stiffness, and

damping) via simulation in the time domain. Results indicate that the optimal nonlinear

seat suspension is significantly better than the optimal linear seat suspension in overall

nu

ibration isolation characteristics.

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7. CONCLUSIONS

Observations based on the experimentations conducted on Car 'A' and Car 'B' are:

In seat level testing, SEAT value indicates, Car B' seat damps the vibration whereas

Car A' seat amplifies the vibrations at seat top.

In vehicle level testing, overall vehicle is considered for testing vibrations in vertical

direction. According to ISO2631-1(1997), the Ride Index for both cars 'A' and 'B' are
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

in 'Fairly Uncomfortable' zone

CS Scanned with

CamScanner

8. REFERENCES

1. Hertzberg H T E, "The Human Buttocks in Sitting: Pressures, Patterns, and

Palliatives", SAE Paper, No. 72005, 1972

2. IS14917 (Part-1):2001, ISO10326-1:1992, MechanicalVibration - Laboratory

Method for Evaluating Vehicle Seat Vibration - (Part 1 Basic Requirements)

ISO 2631-1 (1997): Mechanical Vibration and Shock - Evaluation of Human

Exposure to Whole Body Vibration- Part 1: General requirements. (Page No. 14

16)

BA7054 Standard: Human Vibrations

A. A J. Scarlett et al, (2009) European Physical Agents (Vibration) Directive: 2002

PA(V)D).

3.

4.

5.

6. E. T.P. Gunston et al., (2004) International Journal of Engineering Research and

General Science Volume 3, Issue 4, July-August, 2015 ISSN 2091-2730 366

www.i1ergs.or
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FAdarsh Kumar et al., (2001) ISO 2631-1, 1985 and 1997 standards.

CamScanner

162295702 uniri pdl.pdf Adobe Reader

Hei Window
Rear
bumper
Door
Rear wing
Front wing
Wheel arch
Front
Fig (3.2) Car body parts
3.3.1. Outer construction
This can be likened to the skin of the body and is usually considered as that portion of
panel
or panels which is visible from the outside of the car.
3.3.2. Inner construction
This is considered as all the brackets, braces and panel assembies that are used to give
the car strength. In some cases the entire panels are inner construction on one make of car
and a
combination of inner and outer on another.
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3.3.3. Shroud and Dash panel assembly
The shroud and dash assembly is a complex structure connecting the two body sides
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

across the car. This panel forms the front bulkhead of the body and is usually formed by
assem-
Bling together several smaller panels. (Dash and shroud panies) which are joined by
welds to
form an integral unit. In some cases the windscreen frame is Integral with the dash panel
or cowi.
Which may be extend upward around the entire wind screen opening so that the upper
edge of
the cowl panel forms the front of the roof panel.
In this case, the windscreen pillars, 1.e., the narrow sloping constructions, at either side of
windscreen opening or part of the cowl panel, Inother construction only a portion of the
windscreen
pillar is formed as part of the cowl.
The cowl is sometimes called the fire wall because it is the partition between the passen.
ger and engine compartments and openings in the cowl_accommodate the necessary
controls.
wiring and tubing that extends from one compartment to the other. The instrument panel,
which
is usually considered as part of the cowl panel although it is a complex panel in itself.
provides a
mounting for the instruments necessary to check the performance of the vehicle during
operation.
Cowl panels usually have both inner and outer construction, but in certain constructions
only the
upper portion of the cowl around the windscreen is visible. On many vehicles the front
door hinge
pillar is also an integral part of the cowl.
3.3.4. Front side member assembly
This is an integral part of the front-end assembly it connects the front wing valences to
the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cowl or dash assembly it is designed to strengthen the front end it is the part of the
crumble zone.
giving lateral strength on impact and absorbing energy by deformation during a collision.
It is also
helps to support the engine and suspension units.
--.-.Accombly
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3.3.3. Shroud and Dash panel assembly
The shroud and dash assembly is a complex structure connecting the two body sides
across the car. This panel forms the front bulkhead of the body and is usually formed by
assem-
Bling together several smaller panels. (Dash and shroud panies) which are joined by
welds to
form an integral unit. In some cases the windscreen frame is Integral with the dash panel
or cowi.
Which may be extend upward around the entire wind screen opening so that the upper
edge of
the cowl panel forms the front of the roof panel.
In this case, the windscreen pillars, 1.e., the narrow sloping constructions, at either side of
windscreen opening or part of the cowl panel, Inother construction only a portion of the
windscreen
pillar is formed as part of the cowl.
The cowl is sometimes called the fire wall because it is the partition between the passen.
ger and engine compartments and openings in the cowl_accommodate the necessary
controls.
wiring and tubing that extends from one compartment to the other. The instrument panel,
which
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

is usually considered as part of the cowl panel although it is a complex panel in itself.
provides a
mounting for the instruments necessary to check the performance of the vehicle during
operation.
Cowl panels usually have both inner and outer construction, but in certain constructions
only the
upper portion of the cowl around the windscreen is visible. On many vehicles the front
door hinge
pillar is also an integral part of the cowl.
3.3.4. Front side member assembly
This is an integral part of the front-end assembly it connects the front wing valences to
the
cowl or dash assembly it is designed to strengthen the front end it is the part of the
crumble zone.
giving lateral strength on impact and absorbing energy by deformation during a collision.
It is also
helps to support the engine and suspension units.
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3.3.7. Boot Floor Assembly
This is a section of the floor between the seat panel and the extreme back of the boots
strengthened by the use of cross members to carry rear seat passengers. This area forms
the rear
bulk heat between the tow rear wheel arches, forming the rear seat panel heelboard and in
saloon
body shell can incorporate back seat supports and parcel shelf. The boot floor is also
strengthened
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

to become the luggage compartment carrying the spare wheel and petrol tank.
Its shown in fig (3.2)
3.3.8. Underbody Assembly
This is commonly called the floor pan assembly and is usually composed of several
smaller
panels welded together to form a single floor unit. Allfloor panels are reinforced on the
under side
by stiffening members or cross members. Most floor plans are irregular in shape for
several rea-
sons. They are formed with indentations or heavily swaged areas to strengthen the floor
sections
between cross members, and foot room for the passengers is often provided by these
recessed
areas in the floor.
3.3.9. Body side Frame Assembly
On a four door-saloon this incorporates the A-Post, The B-C Posl, the D post and the rear
quarter section. The side frames reinforce the floor pan along the sill sections. The hinge
pillar or
A - post extends forward to meet the dash panel and front bulk head to provide strength at
this
point. The center pillars or B-C - Post connect the body sills to the roof cantrails. This is
usually
assembled as box sections using a top - hat section and flat plat. Those are the flanges
which
form the attachments for the door weather seals and provide the four door openings. The
D-Past
and rear quarter section is integral with the rear wheal arch and can include a rear
queater window.
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

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3.3.10.Roof and back window aperture panels
The roof panel is one of the largest of all major body panels, and it is also one of the
simplest in construction. Usually the roof is of all -steel, one - plece construction. The
area the
roof covers, however, varies between different makes and models of cars. On some cars,
the roof
panel ends at the front at the windscreen. Whilst on others it extends downwards around
the
windscreen so that the windscreen opening is actually in the roof. On some cars the roof
ends
above that rear window at the rear, while on others it extends down wards at the rear so
that the
rear window opening is in the lower rear roof.
When this is the case the roof panel forms the top panel around the rear boot opening.
Some special body designs incorporate different methods of rear window construction
which
affect the roof panel, this is particularly true for methods of rear window construction
which affect
the roof panel. This is particularly true for esstate car, hatch backs and hard top
convertibles.
Alternatively the top is joined to the rear quarter panel by another smaller panel which is
part of the
roof assembly. In other special designs the roof panel is completely covered with a
waterproof
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

vinyl plastic
The stiffness of the roof is built in by the curvature given to it by the forming presses
while
the reinforce ments. Consisting of small metal strips placed cross wise to the roof at
intervats
along the inside surface. Serve to stiffen the front and rear edges of the windscreen and
rear
window frames. In some designs the roof panel may have a sliding roof built in or a filp -
up
detachable sunroof incorporated. It's shown in fig (3.4).
64
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Fig (3.4) Roor
3.3.11. Rear quarter panel
This is often integral with the rear wings, and has both inner and outer construction. The
outer construction or outer panel is turned over the inner construction at the edges, which
are
exposed at wing or door openings. Both welding and bolts are used to scure the outer
panel to the
inner construction. The inner construction of a quarter panel is made up of may strong
reinforce-
ment brackets welded or bolted together to form a single unit which extends across the
vehicle al
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the rear of the passenger compartment. This provides a support for the rear seat back, if
the car
is so equipped, or it provides a partition between the luggage compartment and the
passenger
compartment. The most important function of these reinforcement is to provide additional
strength
across the rear quarter panel area of the car. Sometimes the rear wheel arch is constructed
as an
integral part of the inner construction of the rear quarter panel. It's shown in fig (3.2).
3.3.12. Rear Wheel Arch Assembly
This assembly is sometimes constructed as an integral part of the inner construction of
the
rear quarter panel. It is usually a two piece construction comprising the wheel arch and
quarter
panel, which are either welded or bolted together. It is shown in fia (3.5).
3.3.13. Wings
A wings is part of a body which covers a wheel. Each car is made with four wings one for
each
wheel. Apart from covering the suspension construction the wing prevents water and mud
from
being thrown up onto the body by the wheels.
oor
Centre pillar
Re
Rear door
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

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a) Front wing
The front wings is usually attached to the inner construction of the main part of the body
by
means of the flange. The length of the wing which is turned inwards form the outside
surface and
through which securied by either welding or bolts. To add greater strength and to prevent
vibra-
tion of unsupported edges, wing brackets are sometimes fitted Adjustment for the front
wing is
usually provided for by slotting the bolt holes so that the wing can be moved either
forward or
backward by loosening the attaching bolts. This adjustment cannot be made if the wing is
welded
to the main body structure. In some models the headlights and side lights are recessed
into the
front wings and fastened in place by flanges and reinforcement rims on the wing. Any
trim or
chrome which appears on the side of the wing is usually held in place by special clips or
fasteners
which allow easy removal of the trim. The unsupported edges of the wing are swaged
edges
known as a beads. This is merely a flange which is turned inwards on some cars and then
upto
form a U-section with a rounded bottom. It not only gives strength but prevents cracks!
developing in the edges of the wing due to vibration and it provides a smooth finished
appearance
to the edges of the wings. It's shown in fig (3.6)
b. Rear Wing
They rear wing is an intergral part of the body side frame assembly and rear quarter
panel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

When the wing forms an integral part of the qarter panel, the inner construction. When
the wing
forms an integral part of the quarter panel, the inner construction is used to form part of
housing
around the wheel arch. The wheel arch is welded to the rear floor section, and is totally
concealed
by the rear quarter panel, while the outer side of the wheel arch is usually attached to the
quarter
panel around the wheel opening. This assembly prevents road dirt being thrown upwards
between
the outer panel and inner panel construction. It's shown in fig (3.5)
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3.3.14.Doors (Front and rear Doors)
Several types of doors are used on each type of vehicle built, although the construction of
the various doors is similar. regardless of the location of the door on the vehicle.
The door is composed of two main panels, an outer and an inner panel, both being of all
steel construction. The door derives most of its strength from the inner panel, since this is
constructed mainly to act as a frame for the door. The outer panel flanges over the inner
panel
around all edges to form a single unit. The inner panel has holes or apertures, for the
attachment
of the door trim. This trim consists of the window regulator assembly and the door
locking mecha-
nism: These assemblies are installed through the large apertures usually in the middle of
the
inner panels
Most of the thickness of the door is due to the depth of the inner panel which is necessary
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

to accommodate the door catch and window mechanism. The inner panel forms the lock
pillar and
also the hinge pillar sections of the door. Sinai reinforcement angles are usually used
between
the outer and inner panel both where the lack is inserted through the door and where the
hinges
Dreached to the door. The outer panel is provided with and opening though which the
outside
Door handle protrudes. The unger portion ol the door has a large opening which can be
closed by
glas. The glass is held rigidly bro widoviteclalor assembly, and when raised it slides in a
channel in the opening between the Dutbrandinner panels in the upper portion of the
door. When
Tully closed the window seats tightly in this channel, effectively sealing out the weather.
Its shown
in fig (3.7 a,b).
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3.3.15. Boot Lid
This is really another door which allows access to the luggage compartment in the rear of
the car. A boot lid is composed of an outer and an inner panel. These panels are spot
welded
together along their flanged edges to form a single unit in the same manner as a regular
door.
Some manufactures use external hinges, while others use concealed hinges attached to
the inner
panel only. A catch is provided at the bottom rear of the boot lid and is usually controlled
by an
external handle or locking mechanlsm. The handle may be concealed from the eye under
a moul-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ding or some other type of trim. In some models there is no handteor exlernal locking
mechanism
on the rear boot lid, instead, the hinges are spring loaded so that the lid tises
automaticaily and is
held in place by the hinge mechanism. It's shown in fig (3.2)
3.3.16. Bonnet
The bonnet is the panel which covers the engine compartment where this is situated at the
front of the vehicle, or the boot compartment of a rear - engined vehicle. Several kinds of
bonnets
are in use on different makes of cars. The bonnel consists of an outer panel and an inner
rein.
to cement constructed in the 'H' or cruciform pattern which is spot welded to the outer
skin panel at
the danged edges of the panels. The reinforcement is basically a lop-hat section, to give
rigidity to
the bonnet Early models used a jointed type of bonnet which was held in place by bolts
through
the centre section of the top of the bonnet into the body of the cowl and into the radiator
pannel. A
plano - hinge was used both where the bonnet hinged at the centre and at the side.
The most commonly used bonnet on later constructions is known as the mono or one
piece
type and can be opened by a variety of different methods. One some types it is hinged at
the front
so that the rear end swings up when the bonnet is open. Others are designed to be opened
from
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

either side, or unlatched at both sides and removed altogether. Most one piece type
bonnets, are
of the alligator pattern which is hinged at the rear so that the front end swings up when
opened.
The type of bonnet catches mechanism depends on the type of bonnet used. When a
bonnet
opens from the either side the combination hinge and catch are provided at each side. The
alligator bonnets have their catches at the front and in most cases are controlled from
inside the
car. It's shown in fig (3.8)
Fig (3.8) Bonnet
Bonnets are quite large, and to make opening easier the
hinges are usually counter balanced by means of tension or
torsion springs were smaller bonnet are used the hinges are not
counter balanced, and the bonnel is held in place by a bonnet
stay from the side of the wing to the bonnet. Adjustment of the
bonnet position is sometimes possible by moving the hinges. This
Rear door
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bonnet position is sometimes possible by moving the hinges. This
main strength of the bonnet lies in the fact that the inner con-
struction acts like a frame and the outer panel is formed around
its edges, acting a flanges.
3.3.17. The Centre Pillar
The centre pillar (B-C post) acts as the central roof and
side support between the rear and front of the car body side struc-
ture. For this reason. Ils construction must be strong. The cen-
tre plllar also acts as the hinge plllar for the rear doors and as a
Toek pilar for the front doors In some carmodels the pillar is a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

wide fabrication with an outer panel surface which is visible from

the outside when the door is closed. The most common ar-
rangement with two door cars is for the centre pillar to act as the
lock pillar for the doors. The centre pilar is usually irregular in
shape since it must conform to the outside contours of the door
openings. Depressions are formed into the pillar to accommo-
date the deer lock, stiker plates and hinges, depending upon
the body styles to show tri llg (3.9
Fig 43:99 Centre Plllar (B-C Past)
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3.3.18. Rear bulk head and parcel shelf
The rear bulkhead and the rear parcel shelf provide transverse stiffness. Being welded
between the body side frames and rear seat frame. In construction they are often pierced
and
Hanged to increase rigidity.
The rear panel is curved to form part of the external shape of the body with its upper edge
providing a support for the boot lid seal.
3.4. Sealing of body panels
The techniques of unitary body construction result in the unsealed body being vulnerable
to
corrosion and the entry of water, fumes and dust. The various locations on the vehicle
body that
require some from of seat against water and dirt Sealing required for the following areas
of the
Areas where a permanently Dexible seal is required e g. windscreen, rear screen.
Elemal panel seams
here a seal is required to with stand stone pecking, e.g. wheel - arches-floor pan.
ed areas where a bulk sealer is required
a rs today are sprayed with bitliminized paint on the underbody, which acts as an
is under seal and prevents corrosion. Other cars can be similarly protected by spraying
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

B ushing on a thick layer of rubberized palal, which also provides useful sound
insulation.
is essential for the various sealing materials such as caulking compound, multi purpose
resive mejoint sealer, windshield Sandbucla sided adhesive tape. PVC door foil etc. to be
applied to clean dry surfaces if they are to adhere and form an effective seal. This
condition can
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4.4. BODY MATERIALS
4.4.1. Timber
Before the introduction of plastics, timber was used in vehicle body construction, because
it
Is readily available, easily worked and economically competitive, so far as the smaller
manufac-
turer is concerned. Mostly timber is used by the majority of small, independent body
builders. It
has a number of disadvantages compared with other materials. Such as
1: high cost
2. higher proportion of manual labour involved
3. Short life
4. highly inflammable
timber shrinks and swells according to atmospheric conditions, lacks strength compared
with
steel or aluminium alloys and inhibits the use of mass production techniques.
76
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

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Table (4.1) lists the woods used by body builders and give some of their main
characteristic
and the most suitable applications.
TABLE (4.1)
Name or timber
Characteristicsı -
Applications
ABURA
Light frame work, flooring
AGEA
Flooring, shelving
SH
Frame work
RCH
Easily worked, paints well
High strength - weight ratio, durable,
dimensionally stable and
Touch and resilient, can be formed
by bending
Easily worked, paints well, bends
well, liable to chip.
Can be formed by bending
( suitable alternative to ash)
Easily worked, resilient resist
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

shearing loads
Flooring, step boards
Frame work
KERUING
Floor bearers, under structures
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Floor bearers, under structures
OAK
OPEPE
Tough, durable
Easily worked, tough, very durable,
requires care in screwing
Easily worked, durable
Easily worked. very durable,
difficult to paint
Suitable alternative to oak
Frame work and flooring
PITCH PINE
TEAK
Frame work
Soft woods such as pine, spruce etc. were used for floor boards and the load containing
body work of lorries. Semi hard woods such as ash and beech were used for body frame
work, and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the yard woods oak, chestnut etc ) for structural elemetns having a complicated shape.
Special
of timber such as walnut, acania, mahogany etc., are still used today for dashboard
in luxur vehicles.
ods fibre boards ( specific gravity 0.9), plywood and various resin laminated papers
ang the place of timber, even for uses such as the floor boards of commercial vehicles.
Applications
may be defined as a number of thin layers of wood, each beings of a definite
ed together with the grain of the adjacent layers at right angles to each other. The
main sources of the base timber are Baltic states Canada and Africa. All exterior
plywoods are
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bonded with phenolic resin adhesive.
Plywoods combine light weight with well defined two way strength properties and
because
of these properties Plywood panels are well known among vehicle builders for use as
lorry and
trailer floors, as well as for sides, linings and doors in all type of vehicles. Panels are also
used in
box van for strengthening timber frame works.
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vantage of plywoods : Compare with solid timber :
Plywoods have extremely high static and impact strength and are highly resistance to
abon
by are also very stable and will not shrink.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Plywood panels are simply fixed, there fore it is easy to assemble and repair
44.3. Glass - Reinforced Plastics
Depuis a combination of two basic materials. One is glass fibre and other is thermoplastic
or
osciarch
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therosetting resin. The resin materials are relatively low strenght, brittle but when
combined with
glass fibre it becomes the familiar through strong and fiexible material.
The glass fibre reinforced plastic has the characteristics of high strength, low weight,
resistabce to corrosion, good electrical properties and design flexibility togehter wih its
suitability
for a wider range of moulding methods. A big advantage was the low tooling cost needed
for lim-
ited production
Resin
Catalyst
Glass fibres
>Resin mix-
tay-up-
Resin cure —
Moulded G.R.P.
4.5 Flow chart showing the principles of glass reinforced and composite materials
in the last few years the automobile industry are rapidly accepted, GRP as a body
building
Shot on OnePlus or steer panels. Because there are some advantage both for the
manufacturere
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

By YHTECThe user.
4-pa
d
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Foots
and the user
From manufacturer's view point, glass fibre production means low tooling costs,
compara-
tively small initial investment, flexibility of design and strength with lightness. The user
benefits
are complete resistance to corrosion, their sturdiness in a collision and ease of repair.
Advantage
1. It must have a higher strength, compared with other metals
It must be capable of good corrosion resistance
Tha unskilled labour can also be employed to produce, a strong and light weight
structures.
The design of GRP panel is less complicated and less expensive, compared with steel
panel
The lacturing of complex shapes of GRP panel is easier and cheaper
tools are used to produce the GRP panel are also low
a ve an ability to incorporate self colours.
NESRP are low weight, no rust poblems and ease of repair and good electrical properties.
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Dis advantage
The main problem occurs with this materials during manufacturing stages, there is a great
deal of waiting time necessary for drying and hardening. Also a lot of labour is necessary.
Large amount of hard works is involved.
GRP has a high strength to weight ratio but does not have the same strength as metal in
situations where the material is required to flex and retain its strength.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

4.4.4. Thermal Insulating Materials

Thermal insulation of the vehicle interior is a major consideration. A low coefficient if
thermol coductivity and a high coefficient of vibration damping material are used as a
insulating
materials. These coefficients are difficult to obtain simultaneously in any one materials.
Good thermal insulation properties can be obtained in materials which have included air
but these make the materials non elastic and elasticity is a necessary condition for vibra-
O p intothis situation there are two possibilities first he use of two materials, one of
propriate damping qualities and the second of which gives thermal insulation or
material with compromise properties.
1001 side panels and the root all constitute potential, routes for major heat losses
bi se losses can be minimized by careful choice at flooring materials and incorporat-
By Male Star gaps and foam materials into the side and roof structures.
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The oldest material used for heat insulation is sheets of expanded cork, with a specific
gravity of 0.15. This has been displaced by plastics, which are lighter, cheaper and have
better
insulating properties, and example being expanded polystyrene, with a specific gravity of
0.04.
In recent years, as a result of research conducted by a number of chemical industries,
several materials have been produced which are light, durable and have the right thermal
and
acoustic properties and which is of vital importance, also protect against corrosion. Some
of these
plastics are:
Urea formaldehyde, with specific gravity of 0.03 to 0.04 : polyurethane, with specific
gravity
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of 0.05 to 0.05 neoprene, with specific gravity of 0.05 to 0.07

NGAH
Hindi
Tandle body building industry uses many differential type of steel. Low carbon steel is
de construction members. High tensile steels are used for bolts and nuts which will
neay load. The sheet steel thickness are varies from 0.8 mm to 1.5 mm. This type
Els mostly used in vehicle body construction..
Zine coated steel sheets are used for body and chassis parts, us improved corrosion pro-
duction. The steel is normally used a low carbon steel with an average carbon content of
0.8 per-
nt, and it has a good welding material. In recent years copper or nickel and chrome are
often
OnShot on OnePlus the anti-corrosive properties of the sheet metal. The high volume
production is
BY JAG GIGI
WE
115 EM
Urea formaldehyde, with specific gravity of 0.03 to 0.04: polyurethane, with specue
gravy
of 0.05 to 0.06 ; neoprene, with specific gravity of 0.05 to 0.07
4.4.5. Sheet Steel
The vehicle body building industry uses many differential type of steel. Low carbon steel
is
used for general construction members. High tensile steels are used for bolts and nuts
which will
be subjected to heavy load. The sheel steel thickness are varies from 0.8 mm to 1.5 mm.
This type
of sheet metal is mostly used in vehicle body construction.
Zinc coated steel sheets are used for body and chassis parts, us improved corrosion pro-
duction. The steel is normally used a low carbon steel with an average carbon content of
0.8 per-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cent, and it has a good welding materal. In rezant years tappar or nickel and chrome are
often
added to improve EcoTTosive properties of the sheer metal The high volume production
is
anyolved in vehicle manufacturer sheet steel is 1800 more than any other material,
because of
the economical advanlager passenger car structures are made from the sheet steel, pressed
to
the required shape and resistance welded to form integral mit Siallarly commercial
vehicle cabs
are also reduced in this manner
rah steel has certain disadvantages compared wiki aluminium alloys - particularly its
ist and corrosions
HamScanner tram intsig.com
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Mild steel has been used almost exclusively for the bodies and other structural
components
of mass produced vehicles. It is a cheap materia for which the manufacturing processes
have
become highly developed. Mud steel can be welded quite easily and it is also suitable for
pressing
panels with deep lawn shapes,
However, the draw backs with mild steel are its comparately high ratio of weight to
strength,
and its tendency to rust. The corrosion of mild steel can be minimised by many processes
for
exampt, zinc coatings, cathodic electrocoats and wax coatings
4.4.6 Aluminium Alloy
Aluminium alloys are now being accepled by the automobile manufacturers as a standard
material
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

for exterior and interior trim, and are used for ati normal bright trim applications such as
radiator
wim, instrument panois, body mouldings and window and wind
screen surroundings. Alloys used for trimming can be divided into two groups. High
purtly alloys
bright finished on one side only in which the majority of the components are made and
super
purity alleys for use when maximum specutar reflectity is an advantage, such as would be
rs-
quired by light uit.
Aluminium has a lower elastic modules heild soul, and consequently permits a greater
Heritelty to the body structure allowing the body to follow more easily the twisting
movements of
the chassis without introducing higheoints of stress and similarly has a greater capacity
for ab-
sorbing impact energy caused by sidert dage and cough go when loading freight
30.1. Rubber
The chicle body building and
we diligentlygestubbors, they are, synthetic
malaraders
Synthetic rubber has the rease the fuel site sus can be used to the near
petrol tank and in the engine compartenants
Various type of foam rubber atau sein body and resided into two type they are
a closed el type 50 en el per
The cloved Call
t o notebb water. The cure it is used for outside sealing
1) door stats and este for den glash
2) door and boot
Open all rubbor
S
t ashlan
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

attushings inside the body

There are seven categories Breatable. They are
moulded latex foam
Low gade Fabricated polyether
Tobcated patyother
moulded peather
fabricated polyester
polyvinyl chloride foam
tercontituted polysther
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55%
44.8. Posto
The use of plasties for Interior trim a well establied, and now applestions and being fun
for componente sociated with the running gear: examples include reservoirs, le dos
housings. belt covers many components that were previously die ewolf , Impullers,
tightly loaded
mounting and and tanks for radiaton. Plastics are ho finding widers in exterios
applications:
the most common examples are bumpers, trimiteme, gris and to a feaser oxinnt body
panela.
A single coloured bumber for the whole model colour range, matching all coloured
materials and materials that will coept a point finish. in selecting suitable matosis, and to
als that will accept a paint finish. In nofcung suitable materials, not ju the mechani
properties of resistance to impact or deformation and energy absorption that need to 66
considered. Dus account needs to be taken of the manufacturing PROCESSES available
the
required eyele time, and whether or not the material hat to withstand temperaturns of upto
180°
in the paint baking ovens
Applleations of plasties
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1. Plastic products can be decorated by vaccum retaining and electroplating

They have replaced metals in a lot of automative applications, such as mitos
howingo, Cantor knobs and winder handles as well as decorative metallici
Thin parts must be lough and resistant to the occasional impact
They must be imperious to track t eatrite
temes of thera
and and all the othechazards that reducere a
duty to pita
5. They do not neg nigh tendilesha
They myst ba cheap
They can be mest sanne
tact
moulded into antenere
Tactiles
Until recently code
OF ME R E MISERE
of vehicle. The
H
eps
humanos
delete-
Modern
the dark
YOY
Powing app
Seco
mga besed in vehicle
e
e n breakage. This
nab iniegrales into small pieces
Du beartage does not apply to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CATEGOTwal transparent foil

La construction. One of its more
has a bod mechanicat properties, namely
Transparent plastics have excellent
DUTO
schwgh
the
engnt bonding sa
parancy and can be dys
TOA Shot on OnePlus
By SHIGGEST
More and more glass is being used on modern cars. Pillars ate becoming shimmer and
glass areas are increasing as manufacturers approach the ideal of almost complete all-
round
vision and the virtuat elimination of blind spots wind screens have become deaper and
wider.
wind screens shall in addition, be sufficiently transparent and not cause any confusion
between
the signaling colours normally used
Types of wind screens
1. heat treated glass
2. laminated glass
Most wind screends and some rear window fitted in motor vehicles are of ordinary
laminated glass. The heat treater or toughened glass is confined to door glass, quarter
lights and
rear windwos where the use of more expensive laminated products has yet to be justified.
The
laminated glass is beeing increasingly used on locations Other than wind screens for
reasons of
vehicle security and also far passenger safety, especially in ostates with seating in the
rear.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Ordinary laminated safety glass in the older of the tow types. Plastic coated laminated
safety
glass is an ordinary laminated glass which has solt elastic polyurethane films to the inner
surface
to provide improved passenger protection if fragmentation occurs. uniformly the heat
treated glass
(or) toughenediglace is produced by completely different process, involving heating of
the glass
followed by and cooling Madem beat treated to toughened glass is produced by heating
the
glass in a furnace to just teow its softening point
4.5. USE OF METAL SECTION
Many h as a melo ons used in modern body building Industrias. Such sections
being used in sports commercial and covan Body work
In sports body whese guess must be coupled with rigidity square steel tubes may be
used in the main tamo, sleelatutes wary night and thickness, foraming being made up of
tubes
from thick
Commercial Body structura en Celal sections, shall carry its share of the stress. These
stressess must be considered when thic ad shifts and stresses at one point or another.
The frame cross members can be made of tensile steel. pressed or die framed and
lightening hole scientifically pressed out of section. The section has been of ehannel type
but the
edges may be turned down c ollabout 4 inch Use the metal section in the floor will
considerably strengthen the
W W E The section may be of tube or that section. One of
the advantages of this type of
ability to withstand latest Twice as much weight as an
ordinary timber floor of sire
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ale
Et
D
Ve Window
a l 1178 + 100% BDO
14.6. INTERIOR AND EXTERIOR PANELLING TECHNIQUES
Bus panelling is usually fastened by some form of riveting often through an edge sealer
strip new techniques of weld bonding / rivet bonding offer advantages of higher joint
strengths
and fatique life as well as better sealing against weatherings.
Adhesives have become available which can attain high shear strength with a minimal
amount of panel degreasing and preparation. A 10mm wide strip of adhesive witha cured
shear
strength of 10 N/ma applied all round a panel creates a high strength joint. In practice,
rivets or
welds would also be used although in far fewer numbers than atpresent.
Loss of bond strength under conditions of high humidlly or in corrosive envioronments is
a
potential problem, necessitating extensive development work on surface treatments and
adhesive
modifications.
The potential advantages of bonding include
1. Pannel sealing accomplished
Telting and fatique reduced
3. High strength attained
Reduced riveting
There are some disadvantages in that:
Application techniques may be difficult to control
The long term effects of moisture on bond interface can detrimental and must be
subject to futher research
Pannel removal difficulties must be resolved consideration has also to be given to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the type of adhesives to be used. The designer will need to choose between high
strength adhesives with little easticity and lower strength ones wiht better eleaticity.
The exterior panelling is not considered et part of the structure, but merely serves to
cover
Shot on OnePlusnd protect the frameworke and to present a satisfactory exterior which,
in the event of damage.
By HKT
can readily be replaced.
Chapter 3
VEHICLE BODY MATERIALS
For body construction the designer uses a large
number of materials. This diversity is necessary in
view of the different character of the design groups
such as the body, finish and trim or equipment. The
range of materials discussed is related to the present
market requirements and the possibilities of obtain-
ing the correct material commercially.
31 SHEET STEEL
Sheet steel, ranging in thickness from 0-8 mm to
1.5 mm, is the material most frequently used in
vehicle body construction. Obtainable in sheets or
rolls, this material has a specific gravity of 78. The
steel normally used is a low carbon steel with an
average carbon content of 0-8 per cent and it is,
therefore, a good welding material. The permitted
phosphorus and sulphur contaminations are, res-
pectively, 004 per cent and 0-045 per cent. In recent
recent years, copper or nickel and chrome are often
added to improve the anti-corrosive properties of the
sheet metal. All steel sheets after hot rolling go
through a pickling process which removes the iron
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

oxides or scale from the surface since this scale is a

poor electric conductor which would prevent spot
welding. After pickling, the sheets are cold rolled.
The number of passes determines an important
quality of the shiects--the smoothness of the surface.
Apart from purely metallurgical considerations, for
instance, the sheets used for deep pressings are made
from certain parts of the ingots. The formability of a
sheet depends upon its surface, and even small scams
or surface irregularities cause cracking of the drawn
material. Therefore, the sheets used for deep pressings
are kept for as long as possible in packing paper and
later transferred to the press very carefully. The basic
divisions or grades of sheet steel are shown in
Table 3.1 (where R, is tensile strength, Q. is shear
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BY THÌG GIGI
strength and Ajo is elongation) and their formability
measured according to Erichsen in Table 3.2, A
cominon workshop trial for the formability of sheet
metal is the bend test. After bending around 180 a
sample of the sheet should not show any cracks, tears
of sepaistion
Table 3.1 Thin steel sheets
Description
A,
{kg/mm)
xamm) 1%)
Very depressing 20-40
Deep pressing
28-42
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Pressing
Shallow pressing
19
20
20
not given
28-29
27-28
25-26
Table 32 Sheet steel durability according to Erichsen
0 800 90
100
1.25
150
1889)
NG (67)
MT (85)
III P (83)
10 0 10 3 10.5
9-5 99 10-
1
93 96 9.9
78 82 86
11.1
10-7
10.5
90
11.5
11-2
13.0
9:2
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1
32 LIGHT ALLOYS
Aluminium alloys find wide application in the
construction of vehicle bodies, both as castings and
for sheet metal application. The additions to alu-
minium in the alloy are copper, magnesium, nickel
and silicon. The mechanical properties of aluminium
alloys depend on heat treatment and ageing. The
specific gravity of aluminium alloy is 2.7. Those used
for castings and sheet metal working can be welded
using a special flux. Welding, however, lowers the
strength of the material and this type of joint is
therefore confined to lightly loaded parts while
rivets are used for joining panels which are heavily.
loaded
33 PLASTICS
Generally speaking, plastics can be divided into
those obtained from large organic molecules and
those from condensation and addition polymerisa
tion processes.
The large organic molecules are used for obtaining,
amongst others, cellulose nitrate Icommonly known
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By SHIGGIT
as 'celluloid") which is used for decorative linings,
anti-glare glazing, various knobs and above all,
steering wheel facings. Celluloid with the addition of
pigmentations has a very attractive finish. It also
possesses good mechanical properties, such as high
tensile and impact strength. Its main disadvantage
is its high inflammability. Other materials based on
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cellulose are cellulose acetate and cellulose butyrate.

These are more expensive than cellulose nitrate but
are non-inflammable; they are used for the same
applications as celluloid
The most important group of plastics obtained
from condensation polymerisation is the pheno-
plasts, often known as Bakelite'. Depending on the
polymerisation process, a material suitable for
casting or moulding can be obtained. Cast phenolic
resins have the advantage of being insensitive to
temperature and humidity changes, with good
dimensional stability and surface linish. For these
reasons the materials are often used in the manu-
facture of control standard pieces for checking the
dimensions and shape of body drawpieces. Cast
resins are often used as the outer surface for dics and
moulds. The core is then filled with plastic foams,
concrete or even wood. This system saves a large
amount of time and expense when compared with
metal dics, which require culling and finishing
Phenolic resins can also be compounded with a
variety of fillers and then used as a moulding material
suitable for application in such body element draw-
pieces as dashboards, window frames etc. The
addition of wood flour or colon inters as Ders
improves the quality of the material, which can then
be used for body panels. Laminates using phenolic
resins can be used for roof linings. The technological
disadvantages of these materials are that they
require hot compression mouiding and can only be
obtained in dark colours
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Amino resins are obtained from the condensation

polymerisation of urea or melamine together with
formaldehyde, and arc used in vehicle bodies as
moulded knobs, grips, plates etc. Laminates using
these resins with paper can be used as floor and wall
linings, particularly in food vans, where they can be
easily washed down with water. These materials are
available in very light pastel colours and even wbite.
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Epoxy resins and phenoplasts have become widely
used in recent years as materials for dies, moulds and
many types of body templates. An additional advant-
age of using epoxy resins is the possibility of modi-
lying their properties by the addition of fillers such
as clay or silica flour. Putties based on epoxy and
aluminium powder are successfully used for the
repair of damaged metal vehicles. This is very useful
to designers testing prototypes, in the event of body
damage.
Plastics obtained by addition polymerisation have
wide application in the construction of vehicle bodies
Polythene and polystyrene are used in many types
of films and battery cases, and for many other
components where metal would be an unsuitable
material. These types of plastics are very economical
because of their weight to volume ratio, many having
densities around 1.00 g/cm'. Expanded polystyrene
can be used as thermo or acoustic insulating boards
with densities as low as 0-05 g/cm'. Another popular
product of addition polymerisation is polyvinyl-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

chloride (PVC). Rigid PVC is used in vehicle bodies

as coatings for such parts as door handles, whilst
flexible PVC finds wide use as films. upholstery
covering and the rooling in convertibles. It can also
be obtained as a foam with certain properties
superior to those found with rubber foams. The
specific gravity of PVC is 1-20-160
The youngest but already widey used group of
plastics used in the manufacture of car bodies is the
polyester resins, which have a specific gravity of
15-1-8. Very good mechanical properties are ob-
Lained by reinforcing these resins with glass fibres
The fibres are about 0-025 mm in diameter and have
a tensile strength of 230 kg.com and a bonding
strength of 4,000 kg,com. The mechanical strength
of these composite materials depends on the direction
of the fibres and it is important tha: the libres are
randomly oriented to ensure uniform strength
properties.
Polyester resins are simple to rould since they
hardco at room temperature under normal pressure.
This has made for the easy production of whole
vchicle bodies. All that is required is a wooden,
plaster or plastic model of the body. The surface of
this model or mould is treated with a suitable release
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By HHTGET*
agent and then the resin and glass fibres are applied
to the mould either by hand (using brushes and
rollers) or by means of spraying. Sufficient layers are
built up to give the desired thickness and then
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

allowed to harden, after which an exact replica is

removed from the model.
Female moulds are usually employed and the lay-
up technique will depend on the ournber of com-
ponents to be produced. With very small numbers
(up to 100) the most economical method is by hand
lay-up. When the total production run is between
100 and 1,000 an air bag technique is used to hold
the fibreglass and resin against the mould during
curing. For production runs above 1,000 matched
metal moulds are used.
The only disadvantages of polyester resin are the
high cost of the material and the large amount of
manual labour required for manufacture. For this
reason production runs of more than 10.000 units
I use sheet steel with epoxy resin press tools. Sheet
steel bodies made from metal dies are cconomical
for production in series of more than 20,000 units. It
is to be expected that the great advantages of fibre-
glass polyester resin materials, which can be used to
obtain the most complicated shapes and which are
i light and resistant to corrosion, will cause many
organizations to carry out extensive research into
them in order to cheapen production, and they are
I likely to find far greater application in the future.
3.4 TFXTILES
Until recently, cotton-based fabrics have been the
traditional material used for the internal trim of a
vehicle. The life of this material is quite short and it
also absorbs dust and other impurities. It has now
been almost wholly replaced by plastics, of which
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the most popular are imitation leathers. These

consist of soft polyvinylchloride attached to a cotton
fabric base. Modern imitation leathers have a
quality and appearance as good as leather and are
more durable. By different calendering of the outside
surface, pleasant ellects can be obtained. Even better
than imitation leather PVC are fabrics made from
woven polyester fibres, which may be woven in
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BY WHIC GIGI
vanons ways to produce fabrics which are hard
wearing and cheap, and which are available in a wide
choice of colours
36 GLASS
The glass used for windows in velucle bodies has a
specific gravity of 3.5 Safety glass must be used in
vehicle body structures so that injury will not be
caused te passengers in the event of breakage. This
characteristie can be obtained by toughening the
glass so that it disintegrates into small pieces with
blunt edges. Toughened glass cannot be worked
after toughening, that is, it cannot be cut or drilled
This disadvantage does not apply to laminated glass
where layers of ordinary glass are glued together with
a transparent foil which prevents splintering when
breakage occurs.
Transparent plastics made from polymethylmeth-
acrylate are being increasingly used in body con-
Struction. One of its more important advantages is
light weight, having a specific gravity only half that
of silicic glass. It has good mechanical properties,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

namely tensile strength of 700 kg/cm². bending

strength of 1,400 kg/cm2 and compressive strength
of 1.150 kg/cm? These figures allow transparent
plastics to be used as stress-carrying nenbers in the
bodywork. This is made more possible by the lact
that they can be riveted to the rest of the siructure
Transparent plastics have excellent iransparency and
can be dyed to many shades. By adding the appro-
priate constituents it is possible to make this type of
glass resistant to infra-red rays in order to maintain a
low temperature within the vehicle. A small but
important advantage in the use of these transparent
plastics in touring coaches is in the fact that they let
through ultra-violet rays, enabling the passengers to
acquire a sun-tan while travelling. A minor dis-
advantage is the ease with which the surface can be
scratched, but this is compensated by the fact that it
is easily polished. The temperature at which the
Transparent plastic softens is about 100°C. This
figure is low for use in vehicles in very hot climates
but it makes the moulding of the plastic very
OA Shot on OnePlus
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VEHICLE
36 RUBBERS
Synthetic rubber rather than natural rubber is used
in vehicle body structures. Synthetic rubber has the
advantage of being resistant to fuel oil and can,
therciore, be used near petrol tanks and in the
engine compartment Foam rubbers are also used in
bodywork and are divided into the closed and open
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cell types. The closed-cell type does not absorb

water and is, therefore, used for outside sealing
Open-cell rubber is used for seat cushions and other
soll furnishings inside the body.
The hardness of rubber is measured in inter-
national rubber hardness degrees: for instance, 30
degrees IRHD indicates a very soft rubber and 100
degrees IRHD is the hardest rubber in use. For glass
sealing etc., very soft rubbers are used and these
closed-cell materials have a hardness of well below
30 degrees IRHD. The specific gravity of cellular
rubber is a function of the size of the air ceils con-
tained within it, and is usually within the limit of
0-9 to 19.
3.7 WOOD
Even though wood is now virtually obsolete in
vehicle body construction, it is mentioned in this
context to emphasize its ncgative characteristics;
namely high cost, higlivi proportion of manual
labour involved and short life. Before the intro
duction of plastics, wood was used in various ways
in early manufacture. Soft woods such as pine, spruce
etc. were used for floor boards and the load-
containing bodywork of lorries. Semi-hard woods
such as ash and beech were used for body franework,
and the hard woods (oak, chestnut etc.) for structural
clemcnts having a complicated shape. Special species
of timber, such as walnut, acacia, mahogany etc. are
still used today for dashboard finishes in luxury
vehicles. Soft wood fibreboards (specilic gravity 0-9),
plywood and various resin laminated papers are now
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

taking the place of timber, even for uses such as the

floorboards of commercial vehicles.
38 INSULATING MATERIALS
A low coefficient of thermo-conductivity and a high
I coefficient of vibration damping are required for
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insulating materials. These coefficients are difficult
to obtain simultaneously in any one material Good
thermal insulation properties can be obtained in
materials which have included air bubbles but these
make the materials non-clastic and elasticity is a
necessary condition for vibration damping. In this
situation there are two possibilities: first, the use of
Iwo materials, one of which has the appropriate
damping qualities and the second of which gives
thermal insulation (and is placed on top of the lirst),
or secondly, the use of material with compromise
properties
The oldest material used for heat insulation is
sheets of expanded cork, with a specific gravily on
015 This has been displaced by plastics, which are
lighter, cheaper and have better insulating properties
an example being expanded polystyrene, with a
specific gravity of 004.
Felt is used extensively as an acoustic insulator,
but the most popular of such materials are spraying
compounds having an asphalt base with asbestos
fibres added (MA-2, with specific gravity 12 to 13,
or Russian mastic and others). It is necessary to use
these compounds in all vehicle bodies, at least near
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sources of noise such as floor panels and other large

surfaces.
In recent years, as a result of research conducted
by a number of chemical industries, several materials
have been produced which are light durable and
have the right thermal and acoustic properties and
which is of vital importance, also protect against
corrosion. Some of these plastics are:
urea formaldehyde, with specific gravity 003 to
polyurelianc, with specific gravity of Oosto cas.
Deoprene, with specific gravity of 0.05 to 0:07
All these materials foam and harden more quickly!
after spraying if they are beated to about 50'C. Their
thermo-acoustic effectiveness depends on the thick-
ness of the layer. Ky increasing the foaming process,
better thermal insulation can be created since larger
bubbles are included. Conversely, better sound
damping properties can be obtained by reducing the
degree of foaming
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39 PAINTS
Primers, putties and also lacquer and enamels are all
used for painting vehicle bodies. Tin and other fillers
are used for levelling surface irregularities.
The durability of a larquered surface depends to a
large extent on the care with which the surface in
question has been prepared. This preparation con-
sists of derusting, degreasing (chemically or electro-
litically), washing and drying. Priniers contain
anti-corrosive pigments such as minium, chalk etc.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and also plasticizers (giving elasticity), volatile

solvents and thinners. Putties are applied either
manually or by spraying, depending upon the
thickness required. They contain thick mineral fillers,
anti-corrosive pigments and binders such as oil
varnish with synthetic resin.
Putties show adequate adherence and flexibility iſ
the layer applied does not exceed 70 g/m' or a thick-
ness of 0-5 min whcre the surface happens to be un-
keven. Alter drying, it is necessary to make the surface
Vismooth. This is usually the final priming operation
and involves rubbing the wetted surface with
abrasive paper. For surface dressing operations,
lacquers and enamels are used. Nitrocellulose lacquer
is made up of constituents such as nitrocellulose.
solvent (acetonc), thinner (benzene), softener fdi-
butylphthalate) and natural resins (shellac) or syn-
thctic ones, which give the final coating gloss. Nitro
cellulosc lacquers are sprayed on in four or five coats
to a maximum thickness wher dry of 60 to 80 microns.
The temperature of drying is about 80°C, correct
gloss is not obtained at lower temperatures.
The main components of synthetic resin enamels!
are alkyds. Two coats of enamel are sufficient to
obtain a satisfactory surface finish, and baking is
done at about 130°C. Unlike the cellulose enamels.
these do not require polishing and are, on average,
about one and a half times harder, three times more
flexible and four times more resistant to impact. The
weight of alkyd ei.amel coating is almost half that of
nitrocellulose lacquers.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

310 ADHESIVES
Adhesives made from dissolved natural rubber are
used, with sulphur as a vulcanizing additive. Mag-
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accelerators, and benzol or petrol as solvents. Cold
joining of rubber with metal is possible by means of
self-vulcanizing adhesive with the following com-
position (by weight): natural rubber 20%, zinc
resin 13%, magnesium oxide 1,6, alumina 3%, lime
oxide, 1-2% and solvent 61.8%
For the glueing of Bakelites and urea resins,
crystal cement is most frequently used. Glass plates
can be glued by means of butyl polymetacrylene or
polyacetol/Butvar. Phenol (AG or KBS) or urea
adhesives are used for wood.
Araldite 101 or 102 is used for cold glueing a
leather, cloth etc. Hardening takes 24 hours at room
temperature, but by baking at 100°C it can 15
speeded up to 30 minutes. Steel, light metal alloy
glass, porcelain and some plastics are glued wit
Araldite 1. This adhesive hardens in 10 hours at 2
temperature of 130°C and in 30 minutes at 200°C.
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giving lateral strength on impact and absorbing energy by deformation during a CONTO
helps to support the engine and suspension units.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3.3.5. A - Post Accombly

This is an integral part of the body side frame. It is connected to the front end assembly
and
forms the front door pillar or hinge post. It is designed to carry the weight of the front
door and
helps to strengthen the front bulkhead assembly.
3.3.6. Main Floor Assembly
This is the passenger - carrying section of the
main floor. It runs backwards from the toe panel
to heel board or the back seat assembly. It is
strengthened to carry the to two front seats and
in some cases may have a transmission tunnel
running through its centre. Strength is built into
the floor by the transmission tunnel acting like
an inverted channel section. The body sitt
panels provide extra reinforcement in the form
of lateral strength. Transverse strength 15
provided by box sections at right angles to the
transmission tunnel, generally in the areas of the
front seat and it front of the rear seat The
remaining areas of the flat floor are ribbed
below the seats. It's shown in fig (3.3)
Fig (3.3) Main floor Assembly
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Sign
cowl or dash assembly TTS testy
giving lateral strength on impact and absorbing energy by deformation during a CONTO
helps to support the engine and suspension units.
3.3.5. A - Post Accombly
This is an integral part of the body side frame. It is connected to the front end assembly
and
forms the front door pillar or hinge post. It is designed to carry the weight of the front
door and
helps to strengthen the front bulkhead assembly.
3.3.6. Main Floor Assembly
This is the passenger - carrying section of the
main floor. It runs backwards from the toe panel
to heel board or the back seat assembly. It is
strengthened to carry the to two front seats and
in some cases may have a transmission tunnel
running through its centre. Strength is built into
the floor by the transmission tunnel acting like
an inverted channel section. The body sitt
panels provide extra reinforcement in the form
of lateral strength. Transverse strength 15
provided by box sections at right angles to the
transmission tunnel, generally in the areas of the
front seat and it front of the rear seat The
remaining areas of the flat floor are ribbed
below the seats. It's shown in fig (3.3)
Fig (3.3) Main floor Assembly
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 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

713
3.1. SHEET METAL
3.1.1. General Characteristics of Sheet Metal. We know that sheet metal is deformed by
the damage done in a collision, and that by contracting and expanding the deformed sheet
metal, we can
restore it to its original shape. However, why sheet metal deforms, and returns to its
ongmal Shape is
difficult to explain. Therefore, to be able to carry out through, well done repair of a
colusion cannaged
vehicle, it is extremely important that we understand the characteristics of sheet metal.
1. Elasticity and Plasticity. Consider the bending of a piece of sheet metal. If the fingers
are released from a piece of sheet metal which has been bent a small amount, the steel
returns to its
original shape and no deformation remains. (See Fig. 3.1). This type of deformation is
called elastic
deformation and the characteristic of returning to its original shape is called elasticity. If
sheet metal is
bent severely as in Fig. 3.2, it will not return completely to its original shape and retains a
permanent
deformation. The characteristic where the sheet metal will not return to its original shape,
but retains its
deformation, is called plasticity,
Fig. 3.1. Elastic Deformation,
Fig. 3.2. Plastic Deformation
The figure on the right shows the relationship between the size of the load and the
elongation
of a sheet metal when a tensile load is applied to the sheet metal.
If the load is increased a little at a time, or if it load is increased while it is small, the
Celongation increases proportionally. However, if the load exceeds a certain limit,
internal slipping of the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

materianoccors, and even if the load is kept as it is, elongation will suddenly increase. If
even more load
Fig. 3.3. Load and Amount of Detormation.
is applied, elongation will suddenly increase and the maximum load will be reached.
After that, partai
wongation will occur in one portion of the material and it will break.
Point A in the figure is called the "Elastic Limit”. If the load is lower than point A,
Reformation of the sheet metal will disappear when the load is removed and it will return
to its origual
chape. This is called elastic stress. If the load exceeds point A, even if the load is
removed, me
deformation will remain and the panel will not return to its original shape. This is called
permanent
stress.
For example, if the load is removed at point P, the elongation of the panel will return to
point
E but permanent stress OE will remain. When a car is damaged in a collision, the stress
sustained from
the impact will remain unless it is taken out. This is a condition where there is an area
with permanent
stress surrounded by a neighbouring area where there is elastic stress which cannot be
removed. When
repairing body panels with this type of damage, first
remove the permanent stress that is restricting the elastic
stress. When that is done, the elastic stress will disappear
PORTION A!
naturally and the body panel will return to its original
PORTION A
shape by itself.
If the permanent stress in portion A of the panel
on the right is properly removed, the sheet metal will
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

return to its original shape by its own elasticity. Even

severely crushed panels retain some elasticity. When
repairing panels, it is important to use this elasticity
wisely. On the other hand, plasticity is the most important
characteristic of sheet metal, and if there were no
plasticity, sheet metal could not be bent. The deformation
that occurs to body panels that are damaged in a collision
or even the ability to repair the deformation, is all because
Fig. 3.4. Body Parel Damage.
of this plasticity.canner
Process Hardening and Annealing. As shown in the figure on the right, by repeatedly
nending a piece of wire, it will gradually harden Metal processed in this manner will also
harden. This
phenomenon is called process hardening. lp plastic deformation, this phenomenon occurs
as well.
Fig 35. Process Hardening.
Fig. 3.6. Process Hardened Damaged Panel
Therefore, when vehicle body panels are press formed, press hardening occurs alongwith
it.
when panels are deformed by collision damage, or when that damage is repaired, process
wardening
accurs.
Soft sheet metal (0.7-0.9 mm or 0.028-0.035 in.) is used for outer by panels. If these flat
sheets were used as is, they would not have enough strength to be used as body panels. In
the
production plant, sheet metal panels are plastic deformed with stamping machines which
assures the
strength necessary for a vehicle body.
ELONGATION
MECHANICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

HARDNESS
TENSILE
STRENGTH
HEATING TEMPERATURE -
Fig. 3.7. Relationship between Annealing Temperature and Mechanical Properties
When this type of process hardened metal is heated above a certain temperature, the
hardness
added during working is reduced and the elasticity which was reduced by working is
restored to its
original condition. This is called annealing. Process hardening occurs when a hammer is
used to remove
dents from an auto body, making repairs difficult. It is common to see body panel
annealing done with
an oxy-acetylene torch.
However, if annealing is done to repair collision damaged vehicles, the composition of
the
metal will be damaged and the metal will lose its strength. Therefore, strong materials
such as floor
members which require high strength, should never be annealed.
BODY MATERIALS
3. Metal Destruction. As explained in the previous section, if plastic defomation is
lowed continue beyond certain limit the metal will eventually be destroyed. The damage
to body
els occurs because the panels could not absorb the impact by only plastic deformation
Fig. 3.8. Destruction Panel
3.1.2. Types of Sheet Metal. There are two types of sheet metal, hot rolled and cold
rolled,
Hot rolled sheet metal is made by rolling at temperatures exceeding 800'C (1,472° F), has
a standard
manufacturing thickness range of 1.6-6.0 mm (0.063-0.236 in.) and is used for
comparatively thick
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Components of auto bodies such as frames and members. On the other hand, cold rolled
sheet metal is
acid rinsed hot rolled sheet metal which is cold rolled thin, then it is an caled. Since this
sheet metal is
worked by coid rolling, it has unmatched thickness accuracy, surface quality and good
press
workability. Most unibodies are made from cold rolled steel. In places around the
suspension in which
Corrosion resistance is particularly required, cold rolled sheet metal subjected to surface
treatment is
used to make anti-rust sheet metals. Below is a comparison of hot rolled sheet metal and
cold rolled
sbeet metal
Comparison of Hot Rolled Sheet Metal and Cold Rolled Sheet Metal
Sheet Metal Hot Rolled Sheet Metal Cold Rolled Sheet Metal
Category
Appearance (Sheet metal surface Since it is rolled at high After the bot rolling process,
the
appearance)
temperatures, the surface steel is passes through an acid
develops a black oxidized filmſrinse, cold rolled and finally
(black material).
annealed. The surface now has a
clean, gray colour and is called
polished sheet metal.
Workability (Comparison of the workability of bot rolled The workability of cold rolled
Elongation during Tensile sheet metal, which takes time to sheet metal which takes time
to
testing)
work, is poorer.
work, is better.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Strength (Comparison of Tensile

Even
Even
strengo).anned with
CamScanner
OUVIRILIILIVYUCS
As seen above, there is a significant difference in appearance and workability between
hot
rolled and cold rolled steel but the tensile strength remain
led steel but the tensile strength remains virtually the same for both materiale
however, the tensile strength decreases as the class and the workability of the material
increases.
3.1.3. Effects of Heat on Metal Changes in the structural configuration of metal takes
place when it is heated. Generally, if the metal is heated high enough, the tensile strength
decreases.
elongation occurs (stretching) and the metal becomes soft and eventually melts.
In order to give the metal certain desired characteristics, it is beat-treated by raising the
temperature of the metal to the desired degree and cooling it rapidly (quenching) or
cooling it slowly
(annealing).
700
(1292)
800
(1562)
600
TEMP. (1112)
COLOUR DARK
RED
C
900
(1652)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1000
(1832)
1300
(2282)
COLOUR DARK
RED
1200
(2192)
WHITE
1100
(2012)
LEMON
YELLOW
RED
ROSE
RED
YELLOW
YELLOWISH
RED
BRILLIANT
WHITE
Fig. 3.9.
Heating or welding operations usually increase the workability of metal, such as steel, but
if
the metal is heated above a certain fixed temperature, the quality of the metal will change
resulting in
decreased strength, brittleness or cracking. Ordinarily, the temperature range for bot
working of steel is
700-900°C (1,292-1,652°F), but at around 250-400°C (482–752°F), hardness and tensile
strength
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

increases and elongation decreases. This is called the "blue flame brittleness” of steel. If
the steel is
heated more, the crystals become rough and large and quality deteriorates. In this way,
we beating
temperature has a remarkable influence on the strength of a material, but since it is
extremely dificult
to control the temperature at the correct level in actual repair operations, the relationship
between the
colour of the flame (the colour of the metal which has been beated) and the heating
temperature is
shown below:
3.1.4. Rust Resistant Sheet Metal. In order to improve the corrosion resistance of sheet
metal, the surface is plated with zinc tin, aluminum, etc. Galvanized sheet metal (plated
with zinc) is
used in large volume because it is economical and gives high corrosion resistance. It is
necessary to
distinguish corrosion resistance sheet metal from ordinary sheet metal because zinc plate
sheet metal
gives off a minute amount of fumes during the welding process. Be sure to observe
welding restrictions
in accordance with the procedure, established by law in your country.
Iro St. Gaivanized Sheet Metal Anti-corrosion Principles. As shown in the figure at the
right,
it steel and zinc are placed in salt water, red rust will form on the steel and white rust will
form on the
53
BODY MATERIALS
zinc. If the two pieces of metal are first connected with an electrically conductive wire,
then the salt
water added, the steel will not rust. Only the zinc shows signs of rust. The zinc dissolve
in the salt
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

solution and changes into zinc ions, with the remaining electrons flowing to the steel
which prevents the
steel from rusting. This phenomenon is called the flow anti-corrosion effect. This same
principle works
to prevent corrosion on galvanized sheet metal.
2. Alloyed Galvanized Sheet Metal. Generally, there are two types of alloyed galvanized
sheet metal, electro-galvanized sheet metal, in which highly purified ziuc is deposited on
the surface of
sheet metal using the principle of electro galvanization and molten zinc galvanized sheet
metal,
produced by immersing sheet metal in a molten bath of zinc. However, compared to
ordinary sheet
metal without either surface treatment, corrosion resistance is superior, but the
weldability and
paintability of galvanized sheet metal are inferior. In order to improve this weak point,
alloyed
galvanized sheet metal, which is a sheet metal galvanized with a layer of Iron (Fe) - Zinc
(Zn) alloy
was developed. Both alloyed electro-galvanized sheet metal and alloyed molten zinc
galvanized sheet
metal are produced through differences in the manufacturing process and are used for
reinforcements,
brackets and other anti-rust sheet panels such as rocker panels. Also, there is a new
material called
Excelite which is surface treated sheet metal with two galvanizing layers of an iron-zinc
alloy.
Compared to current surface treated sheet metal, Excelite has improved anti-rust and
paint adhesion
characteristics. It is used for some members and brackets.
ZINC (Zn)
ZINC (Zn) + IRON (Fe)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 3.11. Ordinary Galvanized Sheet Metal.

Fig. 3.12. Alloyed Galvanized Sheet Metal.
Snolog
Engg.M
MAIOR
titute
Fig. 3.13.
Reference. Excelite body panel.
14535
Material. Two-layered zinc iron alloy electroplated sheet metal.
Features. New steel companies have developed a remarkable new anti-corrosion sheet
metal.
composed of two galvanized layers. The inner layer, with a high zinc content, improves
I
ca
anti-corrosion properties, while the outer layer, with its higher iron content, helps
improve coating
properties. The new double layer system requires only about half the amount of
galvanization of current
techniques EXCELITE saves both energy and raw materials.
EXCELITE is a new concept in automotive sheet metal. Its two-layered Zinc-iron
electro-plating technology results in excellent stamping and coating characteristics. After
it is painted,
EXCELITE shows superior resistance to corrosion as well.
This new slieet metal out-performs conventional galvanized sheet metal in its resistance
to
rust. Paint adheres to EXCELITE better, making this material especially valuable for use
in outer
panels. Introduced to passengers cars and small trucks, EXCELITE in now widely used.
It is one of the
leading new materials in anti-corrosion technology.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

HIGHER IRON CONTENT LAYER

HIGHER ZINC CONTENT LAYER
HIGHER IRON CONTENT LAYER
HIGHER ZINC CONTENT LAYER
SHEET METAL
sau ternetu
SHEET METAL
HIGHER ZINC CONTENT LAYER
HIGHER IRON CONTENT LAYER
Fig. 3. 14. Plated on one sido
Fig 3 15 Plated on Two Sidos
3.1.5. High Strength Sheet Metal. High strength street metal (high tension steel) is sheet
metal which has a higher tensile strength than the mild steel ordinarily used in auto
bodies and has the
following characteristics :
1. It has high tensile strength.
2. It has high yield point.
3. It has high yield ratio (yield point/tensile strength).
IC high strength steel is used. The panel can be thinner, the same degree of strength can
be
obtained and body weight can be reduced.
X HIGH STRENGTH
SHEET METAL
STRESS
X ORDINARY SHEET
METAL
STRAIN
Fig 3 16 High Strength Sheet Metal Characteristics
Among other problems, a high yield point and high yield ratio means that press work
ability is
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

poor and weld strength is inferior. Because of these traits this steel was not used very
much in
auto nobile bodies in the past. Recently, high strength thin sheet metal, which has better
formability and
weldability, las been developed for automotive use.
High strength sheet metal is divided into the following four types according to its
strengthening process:
1. Rephosphorized Steel is produced by adding phosphorus to mild steel to upgrade its
strength
level. It has working characteristics which are similar to those of mild steel, and was
developed in recent years to provide better tensile strength to the exterior panels of auto
bodies.
2 Si-Mn Solid Solution Hardened Steel contains increased amounts of silicon, manganese
and
carbon to give it a higher tensile strength. It has been used in the part for suspension-
related
components, frames, etc.
3. Precipitation Hardened Steel is strengthened by the formation of colombium (niobium)
carbonitride precipitation. It was developed in the early 1970's as a high tensile strength
steel
with excellent welding and stamping characteristics. It is used mainly for door side
guards,
bumper reinforcements, etc.
4. Dual Phase Steel is made by quenching the steel on a continuous annealing line or in a
hot
strip mill. This steel has a two phase micro-structure (quenched martensitic structure and
ferritic structure). Dual phase steel bas good fomnability for HSS with more than 55
kgf/mm
(78,000 psi f/mm) of tensile strength and is often used for door side guards and bumper
reinforcements.
Example of parts where high strength sheet metal is used
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig 3.17
The above sketch shows some of the areas that use high strength steel. Generally, solid
solution hardened steel is used for door and hood outer panels, rocker inner panels and
front apron
upper members. Bumper reinforcements and door impact beams are made of precipitation
hardened
steel or dual phase steel. It is not necessary to distinguish solid solution hardened steel
from ordinary
steels for repair purposes.
However, if an oxy-acetylene torch is used for repair purposes to beat precipitation
hardened
or dual phase steel, there will be a deterioration of the quality and the strength as well as
increase in the
Duiveness of the material. Therefore, it is recommended not to use heat during the repair
of these types
of urs.CamScanner
3.2. GLASS
Automotive window glass serves several purposes; protection from the elements;
provides a
clear unobstricted view in all directions and affords the occupants some measure of
protection during a
collision. There are two basic types of glass being used in today's automobiles -
Laminated Safety
Plate and Heat Tempered. The type of glass that is used is dependent upon the laws of a
particular
country.
Note. Whenever major body damage is being repaired, be sure to remove all glass in the
ares
of major damage to prevent glass breakage.
3.2.1. Types of Glass
1. Tempered Glass. Plate glass is heated to approximately 600°C (1,112°F). the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

temperature at which glass softens, then is cooled rapidly by blowing air on both flat
surfaces. This
process adds compressive stress to the surface of the glass, which strengthens the glass.
This type of
glass is used for side and rear window glass.
Zone Tempered Glass. Uniformly tempered glass will usually develop thin fractures or
cracks when it breaks, making it difficult to see through the glass. Therefore, zone
tempered windshield
glass which has a lesser degree of tempering in the area directly infront of the driver,
prevents these
small cracks from developing in the prescribed area in the event of glass breakage.
2. Laminated Glass. This type of glass has a sheet of clear plastic (middle film)
sandwiched between two panels of glass. When this glass is broken by an external force,
the middle
layer acts to prevent most of the glass from scattering. This type of glass is used for
windshields. In
India under the provisions of Motor Vehicle Act the laminated windshield use is made
mandatory from
1995.
3. Other Glass :
(a) De-Frost Glass. Before beat treatment, metal powder which conducts electricity is
printed on
the glass surface in the form of heating wires. The metal powder is balked on the surface
a
during the tempering process. This glass is used in the rear window only.
(b) Tinted Glass (Heat Ray Absorbing). Minute quantities of cobalt (blue), iron (reddish
brown) or other metals are added to the normal ingredients of glass to give it the desired
colour. This glass is used in all windows.
(c) Top Band Shaded Windshield. The upper portion of glass is shaded to reduce the
visible
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

light seen through the glass. The top of the glass is very dark changing abruptly to the
normal
tint at a point just above the driver's normal field of vision. This glass is used in the wind
shield only.
Glass with Antenna. An antenna wire for radio reception is either placed between the
layers
of laminated glass (wind shield) or printed on the surface of the glass (rear window).
Some
windows have antenna wires and heating wires side-by-side. This glass is used in the rear
window and front wind shield.
5. Anti-lacerative Windshield. This glass is similar to conventional multilayered glass,
but it
has one or more additional layers of plastic affixed to the passenger compartment side of
the
glass. This glass is used in the front wind shield only.
3.2.2. Windshield Glass Markings. The symbol, the name of the glass manufacturer, the
type of glass. the glass thickness, the product name, JIS mark, ECE mark and D.O.T.
mark are in the
lower left corner of the windshield glass.
amScanner
Fig. 3.18. Glass Identification Markings.
LP: Laminated glass
Z: Zone tempered glass
TP: Tempered glass.
3.2.3. Glass Installation Method. The windshield and rear window glass installation areas
are sealed to keep out wind, rain, dust, noise, outside air, etc. It must also provide for the
additional
body rigidity and must remain in place during a collision. Installation of the glass is by
adhesives or
weather strips holding the windshield and rear window in place.
1. Adhesive method. The glass is installed directly into the pinch weld area on the body
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

with adhesives. A urethane or thiokol sealer are used as adhesive. As previously

mentioned, the glass
serves an important function as a reinforcement structure. The superior bonding
characteristics of this
method minimizes body twist and helps keep the glass in place during a collision.
CLIP
PROTECTOR
ROOF PANEL
MOULDING
VI
PRIMER
-WIND SHIELD
HEAD PANEL
PINCH
WELD AREA
ADHESIVE
PRIMER
DAM
WIND SHIELD GLASS
Fig. 3.19. Adhesive Method (Windshield Glass).
2. Weatherstrip method. A weather strip provides excellent weather resistance,
formability, and is resistant to staining from paint, etc. The surface of the rubber is
weatherized during
the manufacturing process. The gaps between the weather strip and the body are filled
with adhesive to
in love water and dust resistance.
CamScanner
a
Fig. 3.20. Weatherstrip Method (Back Window Glass).
3.3. RESINS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Resins consist mainly of natural substances, precipitated or secreted by plants, and

synthetic
resins are obtained through chemical reactions of various chemical raw materials.
Synthetic regions are
either thermoplastic (molded using the flow of the resins when their temperature is raised
to the
softening point) or thermosetting resins (molded using thermal polymerization). Synthetic
resins are the
cost commonly used resins in the automotive industry.
Characteristics of Synthetic Resins:
• Most are light weight with a specific gravity between 1.1 and 1.3.
• They have good electrical insulation characteristics.
• They do not readily conduct heat.
• They are pliable and are easily processed.
• They have unequalled moisture and corrosion resistance.
• They have good anti-vibration and noise dampening properties.
• Many resins are transparent and can be coloured by simply adding the desired
pigmentor or
painting the surface.
• Generally, resins will not be affected by temperatures that are between 50–70° C (122–
158°F).
If the temperature exceeds the 70–110° C (158–230°F) range, many resins will
experience heat
deformation.
• Resins have low load and fatigue resistance.
• Resins resist weak acid, weak alkaline and salts but are easily dissolved and swelled by
organic solvents.
3.3.1. Thermoplastic Resin. ABS, Polypropylene and Polyethylene are examples of
thermoplastic resins. When these resins are used in automotive products, they are usually
modified by
beat or chemical additives.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1. ABS Resin (ABS). Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene is a copolymer which is quite

strong
and can be formed into many shapes. A.B.S. has characteristics which make its second
stage
processability extremely good. It is used to make radiator grilles, instrument panels,
garnishes moldinme
etc.
2 Polypropylene (PP). This resin has the lowest specific gravity (lightest weight) of all
the
plastics, and has superior heat resistance when compared to polyethylene (PE). The
propylene ethulen
copolynner is inodified by adding synthetic rubber and molded into polypropylene and is
used for
bampersa mScanner
3. Polyethylene (PE). Due to the relationship between density and molecular wel
increasing the density of polyethylene, it becomes more rigid and has improved thermal
resistance.
Conversely, soft ployethylene, with superior pliability, can be obtained by decreasing the
density of the material. Polyethylene is used for fender liners and the luggage
compartment covers.
3.3.2. Thermosetting Resin. Urethane and unsaturated polyester are thermosetting resins.
Only a few of these resins are used for automotive parts when compared to thermoplastic
resins.
However, by changing the chemical composition or altering molding methods, these
resins perform the
same function as thermoplastic resins.
1. Urethane. Created from the reaction between polyether, polyester and isocyanate
produces themosetting urethane and thermoplastic urethane. Urethane has mechanical
characteristics
which place it midway between hard plastic and rubber. It is used for automotive parts
such as bumpers
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and spoilers.
2. Unsaturated polyester. Various items, such as mud guards and spoilers, can be formed
by the copolymerization of polyester and a vinyl polymer. Certain compounds of
ingredients and fillers
added together, produce a material with a soft centre covered by a smooth high glass
outer surface
Another form of unsaturated polyester is FRP which is plastic that is reinforced with
organic or glass
fibres.
Reference. Methods of Distinguishing Synthetic Resins Burn a small sample of the
material
with the flame from a wooden match.
Resin
Colour of Flame and Odour during Burning
ABS
A lot of soot. Flame is yellowish orange. Smells of burning rubber. (It will not
extinguish itself.)
Smoke is transparent with no soot. Bottom of flame is blue and top is yellow. It
drips and emits an odour like oil or wax. (It will not extinguish itself.)
Polypropylene
(PP)
Polyethylene
(PE)
Smoke is transparent with no soot. Bottom of flame is blue and top is yellow. It
melts and drips, and emits an odour like that of a candle. (It will not extinguish
itself.)
Polyvinyl
(PVC)
A lot of soot. End of flame is yellowish green. Smoke is white and it emits an
odour like hydrochloric acid. (It will extinguish itself.)
A lot of soot. Flame is yellowish orange. Emits a sweet odour. (It will not
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

extinguish itself.)
Polystyrene
(PS)
Polycarbonate
(PC)
Some indistinct soot. Flame is yellow and ash is emitted. Emits a sweet odour. (It
will extinguish itself.)
Urethane
(US)
Some indistinct soot. Flame is yellowish orange. It makes a cracking sound, melts
and drips down when it burns. (It will not extinguish itself.)
Unsaturated
Polyester
The flame is yellowish orange with some indistinct soot. Its residue looks likel
charcoal. (It will not extinguish itself.)
3.4. SEALER
ca Adhesives can be classified by their ingredients, application, hardening method,
performance,
eic but adhesives for automotive use are classified by their function. Adhesives used for
structural
parts which are subjected to severe stress, such as brake linings, are called structural
adhesives.
Adhesives used for interior trim materials are non-structural adhesives. Adhesives used
for filling or
bonding between outer and inner reinforcing panels, as well as those used for bonding
nemmed flanges
are classified as semi-structural adhesives. The following section describes semi-
structural adhesives
(adhesives used for structural parts which do not come under severe stress).
3.4.1. Mastic Adhesive Sealer. The main ingredients of this adhesive are synthetic rubber
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

carbon and it is foamed at high temperatures up to 180°C (356°F) for 20-30 min. It is
used as a fillar
and a bonding agent between parts such as outer hood panels, inner reinforcement
structures. Mastic
increases the rigidity of the panels and helps prevent vibration and noise.
Fig. 3.21. Filling with Sealer.
3.4.2. Hemming Adhesive Sealer. High viscosity one-part epoxy is used to bond
bemming
seams. It hardens and forms a bond between the door outer and inner panels in 20–30
min. The lower
portion of doors (between door inner and outer panels) is filled to prevent corrosion of
the panels.
3.4.3. Body Sealer and Drip Rail Sealer. Another type of adhesive, used as a sealer, is
vinyl plastizol based high-temperature thermosetting body sealer and drip rail sealer.
zasy
І ТАРЕ
Fig. 3.22. Applying Sealer.
SC3A4.d Urethane Based Sealer. Windshield glass and side protector mouldings are
bonded
in nlace by urethane type sealers which harden at room temperature.
1.1. DEFINITION AND OBJECTIVES OF PAINTING
1.1.1. Definition. Paint is normally defined as a liquid which, when applied to a surface
of
an object, forms a thin layer and hardens with time to create a film on that surface!
Painting is the
application of paint on the surface of an object for the purpose of protecting it from the
elements,
beautifying its appearance or for marking it with certain designations
1.1.2. Objective :
SOUND PROOFING
• DIMENSIONAL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

EFFECT
APPEARANCE • SMOOTHNESS | SUN SHIELD
• LUSTER
• COLOR
ELECTRICAL
COLOUR DESIGNATION INSULATION
PROTECTION
SUN'S RAYS
• MOISTURE, OXYGEN
• SAND, DIRT, DUST
• FALLING PARTICLES
• SALTY (SEA) AIR
• EXHAUST GAS
• ETC.
QUALITY UPGRADING
Scanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 1.1.
QUES
If this steel was
ast. Painting serves to
1. Protection. The automobile is constructed primarily of steel sheet metal. If this
left uncovered, the reaction of oxygen and moisture in the air would cause it to rust.
Paintin
prevent the occurrence of rust, therefore protecting the body.
2. Appearance Improvement. The shape of the body is made up of several tune
surfaces and lines, such as elevated surfaces, flat planes, curved surfaces, straight and
curved lines
Therefore, another objective of painting is to improve the body appearance by giving it a
2
dimensional colour effect.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3. Quality Upgrading. When comparing two vehicles of identical shape and performance
capabilities, the one with the most beautiful paint finish will have a bigher market value.
Hence, another
objective of paining is to upgrade the value of the product.
4. Colour Designation. Still another objective of painting the automobile is to make them
easily distinguishable by application of certain colours or markings. Examples are police
and fire
department vehicles.
1.2. ELEMENTS OF PAINT
Paint is a sticky substance with a uniform mixture of the following listed elements.
Normally,
thinner is added to paint to give it a viscosity that is easier to apply.
PIGMENT
Pigment. A power which gives colour and filler to
the paint finish. It will not disolve in water or
solvent.
PAINT
RESIN
Resin. A clear liquid which binds the pigment and
adds luster, hardness and adbesion to the paint.
Solvent. A liquid which dissolves the resin and
SOLVENT
allows for easy blending of the pigment and resin.
Thinner, A diluent containing a blend of various
solvents which gives the paint a viscosity that is
easier to apply.
Fig. 1.2
THINNER
DILUTED PAINT
PAINT
DILUENT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(THINNER)
RESINA
RESINA
+
PIGMENT
SOLVE
PIGMENT
Fi.SOLVENT
L THINNER
Fig. 1.3.
In addition to the elements described above (pigment, resin and solvent), an actual can of
paint
also contains other components which have been added to provide safety during storage
and a finish for
which the paint was intended. Such additives include softening agents (plasticizer),
drying agents,
dispersion agents, mold inhibitors, ultra-violct ray absorbing agents, anti-stretch agents
etc. which are
added as necessary.
For metallic painting, a clear coat is applied on top to give the finish a better luster. This
clear
paint contains only the resin and solvent, with the pigment removed.
1.2.1. Pigments. Pigments are the major ingredients of paint. They provide colours
opacity.
strength of the film, protection to film by reflecting UV radiation, increase weather
resistance,
sistance to film agianst abrasion and overall stands as corrosion in case of primer.
Characteristic of Pigment :
(a) Colour. The colours of the pigment may be major classificd as natural or synthetic
with
further division of organic and inorganic compounds.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(b) Viscosity. It has proportion with the amount of solvent mixture to be added in the
paint.
(c) Hiding power. The purpose of all pigment paint is to cover the surface over which
these
are applied. The substanital hiding power of paint characteristic will reduce the thickness
of paint film
thereby the cost, finish and manhours.
(d) Particle size and shape. It directly relates with the fineness of pigment by microns or
percent of pigment retained on 325 mesh shieve.
(e) Oil absorption. The higher oil absorption properties of pigment have will greater the
viscosity thereby control the consistancy of the pain film.
(g) Corrosion inhibition
(h) Resistance to light, heat, water and chemicals.
1.2.2. Resin. Like pigment, resin is a primary ingredient in the formation of paint coating.
The property of the resin determines the quality of the paint finish and perfomance of the
paint film.
Normally, the resin used in paint is roughly classified as follows:
NATURAL RESIN
RESIN
THERMOPLASTIC RESIN
SYNTHETIC RESIN
THERMOSETTING RESIN
Fig. 1.4.
1. Natural Resin. Natural resin is mainly extracted from or a secretion of vegetation. It is
used in oil varnish, varnish, lacquer, etc.
2. Synthetic Resin. This is a general term given to that resin which is synthesized from
various chemical materials as a result of a chemical reaction. Compared to natural resin,
it is an organic
chemical compound with a much heavier molecular weight. Synthetic resin is further
classified into
thermoplastic and thermosetting types.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1. Thermosplastic Resin. Because thermoplastic resin becomes soft when heated, its
shape can
be changed freely. In general, it is very pliable and dissolves easily in solvent.
2. Thermosetting Resin. By means of chemical reaction, thermosetting resin hardens
when
heated and, after once cooled, it will not soften even if re-beated. Generally, it has a high
level
of hardness, but is rather brittle and does not dissolve easily in solvent.
The types of resins used in paint are as follows:
Type
Nomenclature
Natural Resin
Rosin, shellac, copal, danmar gum.
Synthetic Resin Thermoplastic Resin Polyvinyl chloride resin, acrylic resin, styrene
plastic, vinyl acetate resin, fluorine
plastic, polyethylene, polypropylene, nylone
Thermosetting Resin Amino resin (melamine, urea), phenolic resin urea (formaldehyde)
resin, epoxy
Scanned with
resin, silicon resin, unsaturated polyester resin, xylene resin, polyurethane resin
-Cerresbar
1.2.3. Solvent. Solvent is mixed with
ent. Solvent is mixed with paint to dissolve the resin. The types of solvent
discussed in this chapter are the thinners which are used to adjust la
e as the paint dries and do not remain as part of the paint film. Solvent is classified as
follows:
Genuine Solvent. Can indendently dissolve
GENUINE SOLVENT
SOLVENT
a solute.
Latent Solvent. Can disolve a solute only
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

LATENT SOLVENT
when used in combination with another
solvent - not independently.
Diluent. Up to a certain amount will not
DILUENT
cause separation or sedimentation of a solute.
Fig. 1.5.
Solvents are further classified according to their volatility (rate of evaporation) as
follows:
LOW BOILING
Low Boiling Point Solvent. Boiling point
POINT SOLVENT under 100°C (212°F) (acetone, methyl ethyl
ketone [MEK), methyl alcohol)
SOLVENT
MD BOILING
Mid Boiling Point Solvent. Boiling point
POINT SOLVENT
100-150°C (212–302°F) (toluene, xylene,
butyl alcohol, acetibutyl)
HIGH BOILING
POINT SOLVENT High Boiling Point Solvent. Boiling point
Fig. 1.6.
above 150°C (302°F) (butylcellosolve,
diacetone alcohol).
Performance curves for the evaporation rates of the main solvents are shown below.
SOLVENT
100
ACETONE
ACETIC BUTYL
METYL ETYL KETONE
EVAPORATION
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

RATE (%) ->

EVAPORATION
RATE (%)->
TOLUENE
BUTYL ALCOHOL
BUTYL CELLOSOLVE
800
1000
calen 200 VT 400 600
CamScanner SECONDS
2000
10000
4000 6000 6000
SECONDS -
(normally called meshwork) which has much influence on the performance of the paint
finish.
Generally, the larger the size and the more dense the meshwork is, the better light,
solvent, etc.
resistance the paint film will have. With time, the luster of the paint finish will diminish,
and
"frosting" and "chalking" will occur.
The primary reason for this is that the ultra-violet rays in sunlight separate the molecules.
Conscquently, if littlc (or coarse) meshing has taken place within the paint film, the
meshwork can
become easily scattered if several places are severed by the ultra-violet rays, resulting in
early
deterioration of the resin layer. (See A).
ULTRA-VIOLET RAY
ULTRA-VIOLET RAY
PAINT FILMA
PAINT FILMB
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 1.10. Light Resistance in Relation to Meshwork Density

In comparison, if the mesbwork is dense (see B), the entire network will stay little even if
several places are severed, so that deterioration and frosting will occur less easily. This is
also true in
respect to density; the coarser the meshwork, the more likely it will be scattered by ultra-
violet rays,
and the more dense, the more durable and longer lasting it will be.
1.3.2. Drying Forms and Film Meshwork. Classification of paint drying forms is as
shown below:
SOLVENT EVAPORATION
DRYING
A
OXIDATIVE POLYMERIZATION (AIR DRYING)
REACTION
HEAT POLYMERIZATION (BAKING)
2-COMPONENT POLYMERIZATION (SELF-REACTIVE)
Fig. 1.11.
1. Solvent Evaporation Drying. With this form, drying occurs simply by the evaporation
of the solvent, so there is no change in the resin. Because there is no binding of the resin
molecules and
no formation of a meshwork, the finished paint film can be removed with thinner.
Reference. With the solvent evaporation method, a paint film is formed only by the
evaporation of the solvent, and there is no polymerization (The uniting of 2 or more
monomers of the
samne compound, resulting in a large molecular weight by reaction.) after evaporation.
Consequently,
solvent evaporation type paint has a rather high resin molecular weigbt from the
beginning. However, if
the molecular weight is too high, the solvent will not dissolve sufficiently, "cobwebbing"
will fom
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

when spraying, making the paint difficult to apply. Conversely, if the resin molecular
weight is too
light, the paint film will be too soft and serve no useful purpose. Consequently, the extent
of
polymerization is determined as a matter of course, with a molecular weight of 15,000-
20,000 being
bomally used for pitrocellulose type paints.
PAINT TECHNIQUES
EVAPORATION OF SOLVENT OR THINNER
RESIN MOLECULE
SOLVENT OR THINNER
PIGMENT
olol lolo
DRYING
IMMEDIATELY AFTER APPLICATION
AFTER DRYING
Fig. 1.12.
Resins belonging to this group including chloride, polyvinylidence chloride (saran), vinyl
acetate, polyvinyl alcobol, vinyl acetal (vinyl formal, vinyl butyral), polystyrene,
polybutadiene, acrylic
resin, rosin maleic anhydride resin, ctc. in addition to natural resins such as shellac,
copal, damar gum
and cellulose derivatives.
2. Reaction Drying:
(a) Oxidative Polymerization Drying. With this form, the resin absorbs oxygen from the
air,
causing oxidation and polymerization which results in formation of a meshwork.
However,
this meshwork is coarse so the performance of the paint film is not especially good.
Further, it
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

requires considerablc time for drying as formation of the meshwork takes much time. For
these
reasons, this type is seldom used for automobiles but it is a widely used paint for building
and
bridges.
(6) Heat polymerization drying. When this form is beated to a certain temperature
(usually
above 120°C or 248°F), a reaction (polymerization) takes place in the resin, fomning a
mcshwork as shown below. Because the meshwork is large and dense, the performance
of the
finished paint coating is very good and thinner or solvent will not dissolve if after it has
dried.
With the use of catalyzers such as low temperature curing agents or hardening agents, it
is
possible to lower the heat hardening temperature to about 100-110'C (212-230°F).
EVAPORATION OF SOLVENT OR THINNER
RESIN MOLECULE
SOLVENT OR THINNER
o
ololo
ol
-
PIGMENT
09
DAYING
AA-
AFTER DRYING
IMMEDIATELY AFTER APPLICATION
Fig. 1.13.
(c) 2-Component Polymerization Drying. With this form, by mixing of a main agent
(paint
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

base) and a hardening agent (hardener), a resin reaction (polymerization), as shown

above,
occurs, resulting in formation of a meshwork. This reaction will take place at room
temperature but can be speeded up by raising the temperature. For better work efficiency,
forced dyring is normally performed at 40 - 80°C (104-176°F). The meshwork is similar
to
the heat polymerization type ; large and dense with a good paint film performance.
Resips belonging to the Oxidation Polymerization group include oil base paints (linseed
oil, oil
CS Scanned with
amScanner
EVAPORATION OF SOLVENT OR THINNER
RESIN MOLECULE
-SOLVENT OR THINNER
PIGMENT
Maio
DRYING
TITTON WIIN
IMMEDIATELY AFTER APPLICATION
AFTER DRYING
Fig. 1.12.
Resins belonging to this group including chloride, polyvinylidence chloride (saran), vinyl
acetate, polyvinyl alcohol, vinyl acetal (vinyl formal, vinyl butyral), polystyrene,
polybutadiene, acrylic
resin, rosin maleic anhydride resin, etc, in addition to natural resins such as shellac,
copal, damar gum
and cellulose derivatives.
2. Reaction Drying:
(a) Oxidative Polymerization Drying. With this form, the resin absorbs oxygen from the
air,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

causing oxidation and polymerization which results in formation of a meshwork.

However,
this meshwork is coarse so the performance of the paint film is not especially good.
Further, it
requires considerable time for drying as formation of the meshwork takes much time. For
these
reasons, this type is seldom used for automobiles but it is a widely used paint for building
and
bridges.
(b) Heat polymerization drying. When this form is heated to a certain temperature
(usually
above 120°C or 248°F), a reaction (polymerization) takes place in the resin, forming a
meshwork as shown below. Because the meshwork is large and dense, the performance
of the
finished paint coating is very good and thinner or solvent will not dissolve if after it has
dried.
With the use of catalyzers such as low temperature curing agents or bardening agents, it
is
possible to lower the heat hardening temperature to about 100–110°C (212-230°F).
EVAPORATION OF SOLVENT OR THINNER
RESIN MOLECULE
SOLVENT OR THINNER
—
PIGMENT
DRYING
AFTER DRYING
IMMEDIATELY AFTER APPLICATION
Fig. 1.13.
(C) 2-Component Polymerization Drying. With this form, by mixing of a main agent
(paint
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

base) and a hardening agent (hardener), a resin reaction (polymerization), as shown

above,
occurs, resulting in formation of a meshwork. This reaction will take place at room
ternperature but can be speeded up by raising the temperature. For better work efficiency,
forced dyring is normally performed at 40 - 80°C (104 - 176°F). The meshwork is similar
to
Scathe heat polymerization type ; large and dense with a good paint film performance.
Car Resins belonging to the Oxidation Polymerization group include oil base paints
(linseed oil, oil
HIIVIILULUULU
1.4.1. Undercoat Paint:
1. Primer. Primer is applied directly to the metal surface and has the following functions:
• Prevents occurrence of rust
• Adheres readily to metal.
• Provides a good adhesive base for other paint.
Normally, primer is applied in a thin coat. Polishing is not necessary. Listed below are
various
types of primer, but with the growing popularity of primer surfacer, primer is no longer
used very much
on automobiles.
(a) Wash Primer. Wash primer is usually called etching primer. There are 1-component
and
2-component types but the 2-component type is more commonly used. The principal
elements
are vinyl butyral resin and chromate zinc (type of rust prevention pigment) with
phosphoric
acid added as a hardener. When applied directly to metal, an anti-corrosive chemical
pre-treatment coating is formed.
(b) Lacquer Primer. The main components of lacquer primer are nitrocellulose and alkyd
resin,
Because it dries quickly, the next painting process can be begun in about an hour.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(c) Synthetic Resin Primer. Depending on the primary resin element, there are various
types of
synthetic resin primer such as phthalic acid, amino alkyd, epoxy, urethane and acrylic.
This
type primer usually has good water-proof, anti-corrosion and adhesion features.
2. Primer-surfacer. This is a combination of primer and surfacer and, to some extent, it
has
the function of both (primer: anti-corrosion, metal adhesion ; surfacer: top coat adhesion,
smoothness
and body) so is widely used for automobile repainting. There are various type of primer-
surfacer but the
following are generally used on automobiles.
(a) Lacquer Primer Surfacer. The primary constituents are nitrocellulose and alkyd resin
and
acrylic resin. Because it dries quickly, it has good work features and is widely used as a
pre-coat if the top coat is to be air dried.
(b) Urethane Type Primer-Surfacer. This is a 2-component paint using a combination of a
main and a hardening agent. Because it does not dry quickly, it is difficult to work with
but
does have good water and chemical resistance and good adhesion features. Normally, this
type
primer-surfacer is applied if the top coat is to be a urethane type paint but is also used if
the
foundation is damaged.
(c) Heat-hardening Amino Alkyd Primer-Surfacer. This is used when thermosetting
enamel is
to be applied. Although it requires heat hardening at 90 - 120°C (194 - 248°F) for 20 - 30
minutes, a fairly hard paint finish can be obtained.
3. Putty. Putty is a type of undercoating and is used to protect the foundation, smoo
rough sports and improve adhesion of the top coat. Because of its high pigment ratio,
putty makes a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

good filler for depressions and deep cuts which cannot be filled with primer, primer-
surfacer or
surfacer. There are several type of putty which are called by different names depending
on the
Inanufacturer, but normally putty is classified by either metal putty, polyester putty or
lacquer putty.
CamScanner
PAINT TECHNIQUES
Metal Putty
Polyester Putty
Lacquer Putty
POLYESTER LACQUER
PUTTY
PUTTY
POLYESTER
PUTTY
- METAL PUTTY
METAL PUTTY
2
PRIMER-SURFACER
LACQUER
PUTTY
METAL
OLD PAINT FILM LACQUER PUTTY
Primer use
Used to smooth out large Used to fill holes in metal Used to cover holes in
depressions and fill in putty and sandpaper polyester putty and small
scratches
scratches in the metal scratches after application of
primer surfacer, and to fill in
small scratches in the old
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

paint film
Below 10 mm (0.39 in.) Below 3 mm (0.12 in.) Below 0.1 mm (0.0039 in.)
Maximum
film thickness
per
application
BELOW 3 mm (0.12 in.)
BELOW 0.1 mm (0.0039 in.)
BELOW 10 mm (0.39 in.)
(a) Metal Putty. Metal putty is primarily used during body repair work to smooth out
rough
spots in the metal. Also, called body filler or plastic filler, it features pilability and can be
applied rather thickly. There is also a type which contains wax. When applied, the wax
rises to
the surface and cuts off air contact so as to prevent the adverse effects that oxygen has on
the
chemical reaction which occurs during hardening. Because it is easy for sandpaper
scratches to
occur during polishing, it is necessary to later remove the wax with a surform tool after
the
putty has partially dried. However, there is also a non-wax type which doesn't require
scraping
with a surform tool, but it is inferior to the wax type in respect to the maximum
application
thickness. In the past, wax type metal putty was used a great deal but recently there is
wider
use of the non-wax type, similar to polyester putty. Because it is also possible to apply
polyester putty rather thickly, little distinction is made between metal putty and polyester
putty.
(b) Polyester Putty. Polyester putty is used to fill in small holes or slight scratches in the
metal
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

putty. Its fornal name is unsaturated polyester putty. It is not as pliable as metal putty and
cannot be applied as thickly, but it has a fine texture, spreads easily and does not require
surform treatment. Like metal putty, polyester putty is a 2-component type requiring
mixing of
a main agent and a hardening agent. As there is no volatile component during application,
the
paint film maintains its body after hardening.
(c) Lacquer Putty. This is an air-drying putty used to cover sandpaper scratches and tiny
rough
spots after application of primer-surfacer. Although it cannot be applied very thickly, it is
Scpliable, spreads easily and has good polishing features.
CamScanner
Second Coat Paint :
1. Surfacer. Surfacer is applied to undercoatings such a primer and putty, and has the
following performance features:
• Covers slight scratches in the putty or primer in order to smooth out the surface.
• Prevents absorption of the top coat.
• Provides good adhesion for both the undercoat and top coat paint.
• Can be applied thickly and polishes well.
2. Colour Sealer. There are various types of scaler, each with a different composition
depending on its objective, prevention of bleeding, shrinking or absorption, improvement
of adhesion
between coats, etc. Generally, its perfomance features are between those of a top coat and
a surfacer,
and it is applied over the surfacer or in place of the surfacer. Sealer which is applied to
improve hiding
efficiency when the top coat has little hiding power, is called colour sealer.
rading Colou
TOCOLOR
**
AN
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 1.15.
1.4.2. Top Coat Paint. The top coat determines the quality of the external appearance.
Compared with undercoat and second coat paints, top coat paints have a higher
proportion of resin and
less pigment. Also, depending on the type of additive included, paint dispersion, gloss,
smoothness,
body and appearance can be upgraded. The following kinds of top coat paints are
available.
1. Nitrocellulose Lacquer (NC Lacquer). Often referred to as NC lacquer, nitrocellulose
is
added to the main component, alkyd resin. Because it provides a good gloss and dries
quickly,
it used to be the leading paint for automobile repainting. However, it does not provide
good
body, a durable gloss or have good solvent resistance. Also, because it is easily dispersed
by
ultra-violet rays and because yellowing and frosting occurs with time, it is rarely used
anymore
due to a greater market demand for quality.
2. NC Acrylic Lacquer. This is usually called modified acrylic lacquer or simply acrylic
lacquer. It is actually NC lacquer with the addition of acrylic resia to compensate for the
Sdrawbacks. Compared to NC lacquer, it features metallic colour vividness, good gloss
and
Cdurability to light, so along with CAB arcylic lacquer, it is one of the leading air-dry
paints
III ILUVICULO
used for automobiles today. Although yellowing does sometimes occur, due to the
nitrocellulose the use of additives gives it resistance to ultra violet rays.
CAB Acrylic Lacquer. This is also called straight acrylic, and has cellulose acetate
butyrate
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(CAB) added to the main element, acrylic resin. Because it does not contain
nitrocellulose,
there is little yellowing and, compared with NC lacquer, it has better metallic vividness
and
maintains its gloss longer, but adhesion strength is not as good. CAB will combine with
acrylic
resin but not with alkyd resin so it cannot be mixed with NC lacquer or NC acrylic. Also,
it
requires a strong solvent for thinning.
Acrylic Urethane. This is a 2-component paint having an acrylic lacquer type main
element
with isocyanate added as a hardening agent. Because it takes longer to dry (10 hours at
28°C or
82°F), it is inferior to lacquer base paints in usability. In addition isocyanate has been
established as being harmful to humans, so caution is needed from the standpoint of
safety.
However, because its paint film performance is close to that of a new vehicle, a good
gloss can
be obtained without polishing and if forced drying at 70°C (158°F) is used, it will harden
in
about an hour so it is widely used as a lacquer paint for both total body and partial
repainting.
5. Acrylic Urethane Lacquer. This is a 2-component paint having an acrylic lacquer type
as
the main component and isocyanate added as a hardening agent. It contains both the good
workability feature of a lacquer type paint and the finished paint performance features of
acrylic urethane. Although it does not provide as good performance as acrylic urethane, it
is
better than other lacquers. Because it contains isocyanate, it requires the same safety
cautions
as acrylic urethane.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

6. Heat-Hardening Amino Alkyd. Normally called melamine bake, this is a heat-

hardening
type paint used for solid colours on new vehicles. The main component is melamine resin
with
alkyd resin added. It requires high temperature drying at 130 – 140°C (266 - 284°F) for
30
minutes. It provides a very good gloss, body hardness and solvent resistance features.
However, high temperatures baking facilities are necessary and require the removal of
non-
beat-resistant parts before baking.
7. Heat-Hardening Acrylic. This is a heat-hardening type paint having acrylic resin as its
main
component and melamine added. It is used for metallic colours on new vehicles. Like
amino
alkyd above, it requires high temperature drying at 130-1400 (266-284°F) for 30 minutes.
This
paint has very good metallic vividness and gloss, weather resistance and gloss restoration
after
polishing.
Important. Although they are all evaporation drying type paints, the reason for the
difference
in spray features and film performance between NC lacquer, NC acrylic lacquer and CAB
acrylic
lacquer is the difference in the molecular weight as explained before (NC lacquer
molecules are small,
CAB acrylic large, and NC acrylic lacquer medium). Generally, the higher the molecular
weight, the
better the paint film. Conversely, the lower the molecular weight, the better the spray
features.
Consequently the best paint would be that which has a low molecular weight during
spraying but a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

high rolecular weight after drying.

16
PAINT TECHNIQUES
1.4.3. Special Paints:
1. Resin Bumper Paint
(a) Urethane Bumper Paint. This is not a special paint developed especially for urethane
bumpers, but regular urethane type paint with a softening agent added for pliability.
Undercoat. Urethane prime-surfacer +softening agent
Top coat. Arcylic urethane + Softening agent.
(b) PP (Polypropylene) Bumper Paint. For the top coat, a type similar to urethane bumper
paint
is used, but for the undercoat a special PP primer is used to maintain adhesion.
Undercoat. PP resin special primer.
Top coat. Acrylic urethane + softening agent.
2. Anti-Chipping Paint. Most modern automobile come with anti-chipping paint applied
to
the rocker panels. Compared with other paints, anti-chipping paint has better coherence
and pliability
and helps prevent rust occurrence due to stone damage.
When repainting, care is needed to apply anti-chipping paint at the designated areas so as
not
to lower the anti-corrosion effectiveness.
3. Undercoat. The inner surface of the wheel housings are coating with a bituminous (tar)
paint to protect the paint film from rust occurrence due to stone damage as well as to
provide noise and
water proofing. Therefore, when repainting, it is also necessary to apply an undercoating
which has
excellent anti-chip, anti-corrosive and noise and water proofing qualities.
1.5. PAINTING METHODS
As shown below, painting methods vary according to the adherend (object to be painted),
type
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of paint used, painting equipment, etc.

Painting Method
Outline
Automobile Example of Use
Painting
New Repaint
Spatula
©
Railroad cars
Wooden, plastic or rubber spatula used to spread thick
amounts of high viscosity putty for smoothing rough spots.
Brush
Building materials
Pig hair or horse hair brush used. Easy to apply regardless
of shape of adherend, location or equipment available. Long
established and widely used method.
Roller
Sheet metal
Roller Coater Used for continuous painting of long and smooth items
which allow passage of roller width.
Roller Brush
Uses hair or synthetic fiber roller. Suitable for flat surfaces
such as walls.
Building materials
Flow Coater
Paint flows in fom of thin curtain onto adherend which
moves by on a conveyer.
Building materials
Immersion
Dipping
Adherend dipped into paint bath. Paint reaches all areas of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

adherend.
Electrode.
position
Also called ED. Direct current passed through paint and
adherend to cause paint film adhesion.
Metal
CamScanner
PAINTING TECHNIQUES
Painting Method
Outline
Automobile
Painting
Example or lise
New Repaint
Powder nating
(dry paintige)
Adherend dipped into powdered paint. Paint tilni formed by
heat fusion. Typical types include fluidized bed coating.
flanie spotywating and eletrostatic coating.
Air spray
By means of compressed air. paint is sprayed by gun
though atomizer nozzle. Trovides good paint tinish and can
be used regardless ot' adherend shape or material so it is
used extensively. This is the most common method for
automobile painting
Spray
Building materials
Airless spray (High pressure applied directly to paint to force it from
nozzle by high-speed injection to atomize it. Compared with
air spray, there is less paint loss through scattering and a
thicker layer can be applied.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Metal
Adherend electrically charged with pusitive (+) current and
paint electrically charged with negative (-) current to cause
clectrical attraction of the paint to the adherend.
1.5.1. Spraying. Three typical methods of spray painting are Air Spray, Airless Spray and
Electrostatic Painting. The basic principle of spray painting is to atomize the paint and
utilize injection
energy to form a paint film on the adherend. Listed below are its merits and demerits.
• Because paint is atomized and sprayed on, work efficiency is very good and the finished
texture is very attractive.
Because there is no adverse effect due to shape or type of material, spray painting can be
used
for a wide variety of adherends.
• There is much paint loss due to atomization during spraying.
• It is necessary to maintain a proper viscosity throughout spraying operations.
1. Air Spray Painting. The principle of air spray painting is the same as for the vaporizer.
That is, when high pressure air is forced through the holes in an air cap, the tip of the
paint nozzle
becomes a vacuum, causing paint to be drawn up through it. The paint drawn out is
atomized into a
mist-like form by the compressed air being injected through the holes in the air cap.
Since the paint forms into a mist, a lot of paint is lost during spraying, which is one
disadvantage. However, because an attractive paint finish can be obtained with relatively
simple
equipment and the air pressure and pattern width can be adjusted so that even objects
with complicated
shapes can be painted, it is the most suitable painting method for automobiles.
There are 3 methods of paint supply to the air spray gun.
Gravity feed type
Paint is supplied by gravity and suction force at nozzle tip.
Suction feed type Paint is supplied only by suction force at the tip.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Compressor feed type Paint is pressurized and fed by a compressor tank or pump.
2 Airless Spray Painting. When the tip of a water hose is pinched, the water will scatter in
all directions in a mist-like pattern. Similarly, when paint is pressurized and discharged
into the
atmospheze through srcall holes, an expansion in volume is created within the hose due
to the pressure
difference between it and the atmosphere, so the paint is atomized into a mist pattem.
With the airless spray method, pressure is applied directly to the paint which is injected at
high
speed through small holes in the nozzle and formed into a mist. Unlike the air spray
method, there is
less mixing of air in the paint and, consequently, less mist dispersion. Also, since the
paint is
pressurized directly, less energy is used for atomization so that with the same amount of
power, a
degree of atomization is accomplished that is several times that for air spraying.
However, the paint
finish is inferior to that of spray painting and touch up is difficult so this method is not
suitable for
automobiles requiring a high degree of finish.
AIR TRANSFORMER
PLUNGER PUMP
ATOMIZATION
PAINT (HIGH
PRESSURE)
11
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HIITT
U1
11
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

AIR HOSE
Paint is not atomized by
AIR USED IS FOR
air so spray pattern is in
PLUNGER PUMP
more of a direct line.
DRIVE ONLY
HIGH-PRESSURE PAINT HOSE
PAINT TANK
Fig. 1.19. Airless Spray Painting Equipment.
3. Electrostaic Painting. Electrostaic painting utilizes the principle that positive (+) and
negative (-) electricity mutually attract each other but oppose a like charge. Therefore,
when paint
particles are given a negative charge by a high-voltage generator, the particles oppose
each other,
causing them to become atomized. On the other hand, because the adherend is grounded,
it is under a
positive electrical charge. In this manner, when high voltage is applied between the
adherend and the
electrostatic painting equipment, an electrical field is formed and the air is the field
allows the
electricity to pass through easily. In other words, electrical passages are formed and the
atomized paint
passing through these passages is sent to and adheres to the object that is being painted.
ELECTRIFICATION
- ATOMIZATION
- ELECTRICAL PASSAGE
to--0---6ers.
.
Sooo
11
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

00 000DD
-60-
100 KV)
ELECTROSTATIC
PAINTING
EQUIPMENT
Scanned with
ELECTRICAL FIELD-
CamScanner
Fig. 1.20. Principle of Electrostatic Painting.
MU
+CLEAR COAT
-ENAMEL
COAT
ELECTROSTATIC PAINTING PAINT FILM
+
CLEAR COAT
ENAMEL
COAT
NORMAL AIR SPRAY PAINT FILM
Fig. 1.21. Electrostatic Paint Film and Spray Paint Film.
Merits and demerits of electrostatic painting are as follows:
• Because the paint particles are drawn to the adherend by electrical attraction, there is
less paint
loss compared to normal spray painting.
Because atomization is promoted by opposing electrical forces, a very good quality paint
finish can be attained. This is particularly true for metallic painting because the metallic
paint
particles are formed into rows by the opposing electrical forces, providing an appearance
which cannot be attained with the usual spray gun.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Paint adhesion efficiency is very good and, as a result, painting operations are fast. The
reverse
side of cylindrical objects, lattice work and linear objects can be painted simultaneously
with
the front surface.
Because the electrical potential in depressed areas is low, the adhesion is not as good,
necessitating touch up.
Unless non-conductors like wood, plastic, glass and rubber are made conductive painting
is not
possible.
As for portable electrostatic painting equipment, there are both the air spray type and the
airless spray type.
As with normal air spray painting, an air spray gun is also used for air spray type
electrostatic
painting and the paint is atomized by the force of compressed air. However, atomization
is further
promoted by the application of a negative electrical charge. Therefore, the paint is
sprayed onto the
adherend by both the force of the compressed air and electrical attraction. Adhesion
efficiency is not as
good as with airless electrostatic spraying, but because the air spray gun is easy to use,
this method is
suitable when delicate spray gun manipulation is required.
Like the normal airless spray method, airless electrostatic spraying utilizes high pressure
to
atomize the paint by injecting it through small holes in the nozzle, but it also gives the
paint a negative
electrical charge to further promote atomization. Paint is adhered by means of both
injection pressure
and electrical attraction. This method provides a very good adhesion efficiency and work
is faster due
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tion will prepare you for later chapters tha

how to use materials and fasteners in mo
ypters that explain
ers in more detail.
6.1 REFINISHING MATERIALS
plete finishing
A vehicle body is protected by a complete finis
system. All parts of the system work together to
tect the vehicle from ultraviolet radiation, we
ing, pollutants, and corrosion.
Refinishing materials is a general term referrina
to the products used to repaint a vehicle. Refinis
ing material chemistry has changed drastically in
the past few years. New paints last longer but
require more skill and safety measures for proper
application.
The substrate is the metal, fiberglass, or plastic
material used in the vehicle's construction. It will
affect the selection of refinishing materials.
cs Scanned with
- Cam Scanner
Auto Body Materals and Fasteners
155
The hardener is added to the paint right before
spraved. When an enamel catalyst is used, the
int can be wet sanded and compounded polished)
the next day. If you make a mistake (paint run, dirt
in paint, etc.), you can fix the problem after the short
ing time. The hardener will make the enamel cure
just a few hours. Also the car can be released to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the customer sooner with less chance of paint

damage.
PA
PRIMERS AND SEALERS
Primers come in many variations-primer, primer-
sealer, primer-surfacer, primer-filler, etc. It is impor-
tant to understand the functions of subcoating or
undercoat materials. You must follow manufacturer's
instructions. Deviation from these directions will
result in unsatisfactory work.
A plain primer is a thin undercoat designed to
provide good adhesion for the topcoat. Primers are
generally used by automobile manufacturers rather
than paint and body shops. However, primers can
be used when the surface is very smooth and there is
no potential problem with bleeding. If properly ap-
plied, primer does not require sanding.
Primers are usually enamel or epoxy-based pood-
ucts because they provide better adhesion and cor-
rosion resistance than older lacquers.
A self-etching primer has acid in it to treat bare
metal so that the primer will adhere properly. Some
primer-sealers and primer-surfacers also have an etch-
ing material in them.
FIGURE 6-3 Primer-surfacer is the "workhorse" of the
auto body repair industry (Al Magrafied view of a cross-section
shows that the surface is slightly rough This might be due to
sanding or the texture of the plastic filler (B) Primer-surfacer
has been sprayed over the surface It has a high solids content
that Mows and fills indentations. (C) Sanding the primer
surfacer will quickly level and smooth the surface. This readies
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the surface for topcoats. (Courtesy of PPG Industries)

Sealers
Bleeding or bleedthrough is a problem where colors
in the undercoat or old paint chemically seep into
the new topcoats. This can discolor the new paint.
A paint sealer is an innercoat between the topcoat
and the primer or old finish to prevent bleeding. Seal-
ers differ from primer-sealers in that they cannot be
used as primers. Sealers are sprayed over a primer or
primer-surfacer, or a sanded old finish. Scalers do not
normally need sanding but some are sandable.
Sealers are sometimes used when a sharp color
fference is visible after sanding. They are also used
to prevent sand scratch swelling problems.
A primer-sealer is an undercoat that improves
hesion of the topcoat and also seals old painted
flaces that have been sanded. It will solve two
tential problems (adhesion and bleed) with one
Primer-Surfacers
A primer-surfacer is a high solids primer that fills
small imperfections and usually must be sanded. It
is often used after a filler to help smooth the surface.
Primer-surfacers are the workhorses among the un-
dercoats in refinish applications. They are used to
build up and level featheredged areas or rough
surfaces and to provide a smooth base for topcoats
(Figure 6-3).
A good primer-surfacer should have the follow-
ing characteristics:
1. Adhesion
2. Rust and corrosion resistance
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3. Buildup
4. Sanding ease
5. Color hold out
6. Quick drying speed
Strong adhesion is the first prerequisite of a
primer. All automotive topcoat colors require the use
of a primer or primer-surfacer as a first coat over bare
substrate. A good primer-surfacer should be ready to
sand in as short a period as 30 minutes.
A primer-filler is a very thick form of primer-sur-
facer. It is sometimes used when a very pitted or rough
surface must be filled and smoothed quickly. It might
be used on a solid but badly rusted and pitted body
panel, for example.
The industry trend is to use combination materi.
als (primer-sealers or primer-surfacers) over single
application.
primers-adhesion a
also have the abil
Primer-sealers provide the same protection as
s-adhesion and corrosion resistance. But they
ave the ability to seal over a sanded old finish
Provide araform color hold out, which prevents
or showing through new color.
old color showing the
156
Chapter 6
purpose materials (sealer, primer, etc.). This saves time
and money and helps improve the quality of the work.
ppa
Epoxy Primers
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

An epoxy primer is a two-part primer that cures fast

and hard. Some material manufacturers recommend
epoxy primer prior to the application of body fillers.
Using an epoxy primer greatly increases body filler
adhesion and corrosion resistance over bare metal.
Epoxy primers most closely duplicate the OEM prim-
ers used for corrosion protection.
Body fillers, once mixed with the appropriate
catalyst, start a chemical reaction, which in turn
causes heat. The heat on bare metal tends to create
condensation that may corrode the metal. Eventu-
ally the plastic body filler cracks and loosens, leav-
ing a corroded area. An epoxy primer protects against
moisture entrapment caused by condensation and
can result in a longer lasting repair.
GUNOT
COMPLETE PAINT SYSTEMS
Remember to always use a complete paint system. A
paint system means all materials (primers, catalysts,
paints) are compatible and manufactured by the same
company. They are designed to work properly with
each other. If you mix materials from different manu-
facturers, you can run into problems. The chemical
contents of the different systems may not work well
together (Figure 6-4).
FIGURE 6-4 When painting, always use a complete paint
systern produced by one manufacturer. Then you are sure that
all the chemicals used in the products will work together
without problems. (Courtesy of PPG Industries)
OTHER PAINT MATERIALS
A prep solvent or wax and grease remover is a fast-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

drying solvent often used to chemically clean a ve-

hicle. It will remove wax, oil, grease, and other de-
bris that could contaminate and ruin the paint job.
A flattener is an agent added to paint to lower
gloss or shine. It can be added to any color gloss
paint to make it a flat (dull) color. For example, some
factory and custom hoods are painted flat black for
a high performance look. A flattening agent would
be used in this instance. It can also be used where
reflection off a high glass paint could affect the
driver's vision.
A fisheye eliminator is a paint additive that helps
smooth the paint when small craters or holes in the
paint film are a problern. Contaminants (usually sill-
cone) make the paint flow away from small debris in
the paint film. Fisheye eliminator is an oil-based
material that makes the paint flow over the top of
the contaminate. It should be used only when abso-
lutely necessary. However, always have fisheye elimi-
nator on hand for emergencies.
A flex agent is an additive that allows prim-
ers and paints to flex or bend without cracking. It is
CamScanner
commonly added to paints being applied to plastic
bumper covers. Also called an elastomer, it is a manu-
factured compound with flexible and elastic proper
ties that can be added to primers and paints.
Antichip coating, also called gravel guard, chip
guard, or vinyl coating, is a rubberized material used
along a vehicle's lower panels and on the front edge
of hoods and fenders. It is designed to be flexible
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

rubbery to resist chips from rocks and other debri

flying up off the tires. Antichip coatings are usual
applied with a special spray gun, like the one
Figure 6-5.
Many manufacturers are using special chip
sistant coatings in areas that are exposed to s
and gravel. These coatings are generally betwe
E-coat primer and the topcoats. Some chip resis
coatings are clear and can be applied over the
coat. If a vehicle has chip resistant coatings, they
be replaced during the refinishing process.
Rubberized undercoat is a synthetic-based
material applied as a corrosion or rust prev
posed to stones
rally between the
ed over the top-
gs, they must
etic-based rubber
rust preventive
Masking
paper
SHOP
TALK
Spray
Chemical paint strippers are not en-
vironmentally friendly. Check with
local and national regulations re-
garding usage of chemical strip-
pers. Plastic media and soda
blasting are alternate, less pollut-
ing means of paint removal.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Rubberized
coating
A tack cloth can be used to remove dust and lint
from the surface right before painting. It is a cheese-
cloth treated with nondrying varnish to make it tacky.
A tack cloth must be wiped gently over the surface
to keep the varnish from contaminating the paint.
Masking
tape
CIGURE 6-5 Antichip coating is rubberized material often
sorayed along lower panels of a vehicle to help resist chips.
intesy of Bond-Tite Division of U.S. Chemical and Plastics
Inc.)
laver. It can be applied using a production gun or a
PLASTIC BODY FILLERS
A filler is any material used to fill or level a damaged
area. There are several types of filler. You should un-
derstand their differences.
Body filler or plastic filler is a heavy-bodied
plastic material that cures very hard for filling small
dents in metal. It is a compound of resin and plastic
used to fill dents on car bodies (Figure 6-6).
Body fillers come in cans and in plastic bags.
When in a plastic bag, a dispenser is used to force
the filler onto your mixing board. This keeps the filler
clean. A mixing board is the surface (metal, glass, or
plastic) used for mixing the filler and its hardener.
Light body filler is formulated for easy sanding
and fast repairs. It is used as a very thin top coat of
filler for final leveling and can be spread thinly over
large surfaces for block or air tool sanding.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

spray can.
Qon
A metal conditioner is phosphoric acid used
to etch bare sheet metal before priming. It is a chemi-
cal cleaner that removes rust and corrosion from bare
metal and helps prevent further rusting
Remember the following about metal con-
ditioners:
1. Acid cleans the metal.
2. It dissolves light surface rust.
3. It etches metal, improving adhesion.
4. It needs to be completely neutralized with
water after applying.
5. It may have to be diluted; follow product
directions.
6. It is always followed by conversion coating.
7. It is necessary to wear rubber gloves, a respira-
tor, and eye protection.
A conversion coating is a special metal conditioner
or primer used on galvanized steel, uncoated steel,
and aluminum to prevent rust. It is applied after acid
etching or metal conditioning.
Corrosion is a chemical reaction of air, moisture,
Or corrosive materials on a metal surface. Corrosion
of steel is usually referred to as rusting or oxidation.
Paint stripper is a powerful chemical that dissolves
paint for fast removal of an old finish. If the old paint
Is cracking or peeling, you may have to use
Stripper. It is applied over the old paint. After it
aks into and its the paint, a plastic scraper is used
reincve the softened paint.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 6-6 Plastic filler comes in cans, buckets, and

plastic bags. A dispenser will save time and keep the filler
uncontaminated. (Courtesy of Bond-Tite. Division of U.S.
Chemical and Plastics, Inc.)
Glazing Putty
Glazing putty is a material made for filling small holes
or sand scratches. It is similar to primer-surfacer but it
has more solid content. Putty is applied over the un-
dercoat of primer-sealer or primer-surfacer to correct
small surface imperfections. The purpose of glazing
FIBERGLASS
RESIN
pole metal wood.berglass
FIGURE 6-7 Cream hardeners are added to the filler to
make cure. Note that hardeners can differ and can
deterorate with age. Always use the type recommended by the
filler manufacturer (Courtesy of Bond-Tite" Division of U.S.
Chemical and Plasucs, Inc.)
COM
.
S
en 0790
UTION
Fiberglass body filler has fiberglass material added
to the plastic filler and is used for rust repair or where
strength is important. It can be applied on both metal
and fiberglass substrates. Because fiberglass-reinforced
filler is very difficult to sand, it is usually used under
a conventional, lightweight plastic filler.
Short-strand fiberglass filler has tiny particles of
fiberglass in it. It works and sands like a conventional
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

filler, but is much stronger. Long-strand fiberglass filler

has long strands of fiberglass for even more strength.
It is commonly used for repairing holes in metal or
fiberglass bodies.
Cream hardeners are used to cure body fillers and
usually come in tubes. Once the hardening cream is
mixed in, the plastic filler will heat and harden
(Figure 6-7). Too much cream hardener can also cause
problems with adhesion and pinholing.
FIBERGLASS
CLOTT
CROL
HHLI
Fiberglass
Fiberglass resin is another form of plastic body repair
material. It is a thick resin liquid that comes in a
can. The fiberglass resin must be mixed with its own
special type of hardener to cure. If you accidentally
use cream hardener in fiberglass resin, it will not
harden and you will have a mess to clean up.
Fiberglass mat is a series of long fiberglass strands
irregularly distributed to form a patch. It is used to
strengthen and form a shape for the resin liquid.
Fiberglass cloth is made by weaving the fiberglass
strands into a stitched pattern (Figure 6-8).
Fiberglass tape will stick to the repair surface to
help form the body shape and is a fast method of
applying fiberglass for repairs. Resin can be applied
over the tape, ed with
CamScanner
FIGURE 6-B Fiberglass resin and mat or cloth is often
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

used to repair fiberglass body panels and parts. It is

sometimes used for rust repair (A] Clear resin cures to a
hard, brittle solid. A special catalyst is needed. Do not use
cream hardener. (B) Fiberglass cloth, nat, or tape is used we
resin. Cut pieces to size, coat them with resin, and apply them
Over the repair area. (Courtesy of Bond-Tite". Division of U.S.
Chemical and Plastics, Inc.)
sties is to fill imperfections that cannot be filled
with a primer-surfacer.
Spot putty is the same as glazing putty except it
has even more solids. Spot putty is recommended
for scratches or nicks up to 16 inch (1.5 mm) deep.
* should not be used to till large surface depres-
cions. For larger depressions, use plastic filler or cata-
Fine line masking tape is a very thin, smooth sur-
face plastic masking tape. Also termed flush masking
tape, it can be used to produce a better paint part edge
(edge where old paint and new paint meet). When
the fine line tape is removed, the edge of the new
paint will be straighter and smoother than if con-
ventional masking tape is used.
lyzed putty.
One-part putty often comes in a tube. A rubber
spreader is used to work the putty into small holes
in the primer. After fully curing, the putty is sanded
smooth. Only the small pinholes or scratches remain
filled with the putty.
Two-part putty comes with its own hardener for
rapid curing. This is the main advantage of two-
part putty, as it cures much more quickly. If you
paint over partially cured putty, it can shrink and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cause problems.
WARNING
P
A cornmon mistake is to try to use
putty like a filler. Putty is very weak
and will not adhere to metal or
filler. Only use putty over the top of
primer to fill small pinholes or sand
scratches. Don't be a "putty
builder" or your work will be very
weak.
.
FIGURE 6 9 Masking is needed to keep overspray off
panels and parts not to be painted.
TITLE-2-
Masking Tape
Molding
Fine Line
Masking Tape
MASKING MATERIALS
Masking materials are used to cover and protect body
parts from paint overspray. Overspray is unwanted
paint spray mist floating around from a spray gun. It
can stick to glass and body parts and take consider-
able time to clean off.
Masking paper is special paper designed to be used
to cover body parts that are not to be painted. It
comes in a roll and, when mounted on a masking
machine, masking tape is automatically applied to
one edge of the paper, which speeds the work
(Figure 6-9).
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Masking plastic is used just like paper to cover and

protect parts from overspray. It also comes in rolls and
can cover large body areas more easily than paper.
Wheel masks are preshaped plastic or cloth cov-
ers for the vehicle's wheels and tires. Preshaped plas-
uc antenna, headlamp, and mirror covers are also
1. Apply Masking Tape to Within
1/8" (3mm) of Edge.
2. Apply Masking Paper.
3. Mask to Edge of Part with 1/4" (6mm) Fine Line Tape.
4. Leave a Tail or Handle.
5. Remove Fine Line Tape While Paint is
Still Wet
FIGURE 6-10 Masking tapes come in various widths,
3/4-inch wide being the most common. Masking tape has a
paper backing. Fine line tape is made of thin plastic for making
a smoother paint edge. Note the example of how fine line tape
is used along rubber molding to produce a good paint edge.
Paper masking tape is then used to hold the paper in place
next to the fine line tape. (Courtesy of HCAR)
available.
It comes in rolls
Masking tape is used to hold masking paper or
tic in position. It is a high-tack, easy-to-tear tape.
nes in rolls of varying widths, 1/4-inch (19 mm)
being the most common. Refer to
Se 6-10. To save time and improve quality of
bia, always purchase quality masking tape.
sties is to fill imperfections that cannot be filled
with a primer-surfacer.
Spot putty is the same as glazing putty except it
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

has even more solids. Spot putty is recommended

for scratches or nicks up to 16 inch (1.5 mm) deep.
* should not be used to till large surface depres-
cions. For larger depressions, use plastic filler or cata-
Fine line masking tape is a very thin, smooth sur-
face plastic masking tape. Also termed flush masking
tape, it can be used to produce a better paint part edge
(edge where old paint and new paint meet). When
the fine line tape is removed, the edge of the new
paint will be straighter and smoother than if con-
ventional masking tape is used.
lyzed putty.
One-part putty often comes in a tube. A rubber
spreader is used to work the putty into small holes
in the primer. After fully curing, the putty is sanded
smooth. Only the small pinholes or scratches remain
filled with the putty.
Two-part putty comes with its own hardener for
rapid curing. This is the main advantage of two-
part putty, as it cures much more quickly. If you
paint over partially cured putty, it can shrink and
cause problems.
WARNING
P
A cornmon mistake is to try to use
putty like a filler. Putty is very weak
and will not adhere to metal or
filler. Only use putty over the top of
primer to fill small pinholes or sand
scratches. Don't be a "putty
builder" or your work will be very
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

weak.
.
FIGURE 6 9 Masking is needed to keep overspray off
panels and parts not to be painted.
TITLE-2-
Masking Tape
Molding
Fine Line
Masking Tape
MASKING MATERIALS
Masking materials are used to cover and protect body
parts from paint overspray. Overspray is unwanted
paint spray mist floating around from a spray gun. It
can stick to glass and body parts and take consider-
able time to clean off.
Masking paper is special paper designed to be used
to cover body parts that are not to be painted. It
comes in a roll and, when mounted on a masking
machine, masking tape is automatically applied to
one edge of the paper, which speeds the work
(Figure 6-9).
Masking plastic is used just like paper to cover and
protect parts from overspray. It also comes in rolls and
can cover large body areas more easily than paper.
Wheel masks are preshaped plastic or cloth cov-
ers for the vehicle's wheels and tires. Preshaped plas-
uc antenna, headlamp, and mirror covers are also
1. Apply Masking Tape to Within
1/8" (3mm) of Edge.
2. Apply Masking Paper.
3. Mask to Edge of Part with 1/4" (6mm) Fine Line Tape.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

4. Leave a Tail or Handle.

5. Remove Fine Line Tape While Paint is
Still Wet
FIGURE 6-10 Masking tapes come in various widths,
3/4-inch wide being the most common. Masking tape has a
paper backing. Fine line tape is made of thin plastic for making
a smoother paint edge. Note the example of how fine line tape
is used along rubber molding to produce a good paint edge.
Paper masking tape is then used to hold the paper in place
next to the fine line tape. (Courtesy of HCAR)
available.
It comes in rolls
Masking tape is used to hold masking paper or
tic in position. It is a high-tack, easy-to-tear tape.
nes in rolls of varying widths, 1/4-inch (19 mm)
being the most common. Refer to
Se 6-10. To save time and improve quality of
bia, always purchase quality masking tape.
coarse grit of 36 to 60 is basically used for rough
ling and smoothing operations. This coarseness
hi be used to get the general shape of a large plas.
sanding and smo
tic filler area.
-08051
Featherng Disc
Adhesive
Medium grit of 80 to 120 is often used for sanding
ic filler high spots and for sanding of old paint.
Five writ of 150 to 180 is normally used to sand
metal and for smoothing existing painted sur-
This is also used for final sanding of plastic
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

filler and to featheredge paint.

Very fine xrit ranges from 220 to about 2000 and
ised for numerous final smoothing operations,
crits of 220 to 320 are for sanding primer-
rfacers and old paint. Finer grits of 400 to 2000 are
for colorcoat sanding and sanding before polishing
ar buffing. Very fine grits are usually wet sandpaper,
which is required to keep the paper from becoming
clogged or filled with paint.
When starting your work, use the coarsest grit
actical. This will remove and smooth the area
quickly. Then gradually go to finer paper to achieve
the desired surface smoothness. This will be detailed
in later chapters.
Backing
pad
FIGURE 6-12 Disc adhesive is sometimes used to hold
sandpaper onto the air tool's pad. Use only a small amount.
Spread it over the pad surface with the back of the sandpaper.
(Courtesy of 3M Automotive Trades Division)
Open and Closed Coat Grits
Sandpaper and discs come in either open coat or
closed coat types of grit.
With an open coat, the resin that bonds the grit
to the paper touches only the bottom of the grit.
About 50 to 70 percent of its surface is covered by
grit materials. Open coat grit will not clog as quickly.
With a closed coat, the resin completely covers
the grit. This bonds the grit to the paper or disc more
securely. About 90 percent of the surface is covered
by grit materials. Closed coat will clog faster than
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

open coat.
Grinding Discs
Grinding discs are round, very coarse abrasives used
for initial removal of paint, plastic, and metal (weld
joints). Some are very thick and do not require a back-
ing plate. Others are thinner and require a disc back-
ing plate mounted on the grinder spindle. They are
used for material removal operations, with 24 grit
being the most common.
Grinding disc size is measured across its outside
diameter. The most common grinding disc sizes are
and 9 inch. The hole in the center of the disc must
match the shaft on the grinder or sander.
auto body repair. There are several kinds, shapes, and
grits of sandpaper.
Sanding discs are round and are normally used
on air-powered orbital sanders. They might have self-
stick coating or require the use of disc adhesive
to hold the sandpaper onto the tool pad (Figure
6-12).
Sanding sheets are rectangular and can be cut to
fit sanding blocks. Long sheets are also available for
use on air files.
Dry sandpaper is designed to be used without
water. Its resin is usually an animal glue, which is
not water resistant and will dissolve when wet, ruin-
ing the sandpaper.
Dry sandpaper is often used for coarse to me-
dium grit sanding tasks, like shaping and smoothing
plastic filler. One example is 80-grit dry sandpaper,
which is often used on plastic filler. It quickly cuts
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the filler down but does not leave deep sand scratches
in the paint surrounding the filler.
Wet sandpaper, as implied, can be used with wa-
ter for flushing away sanding debris that would oth-
erwise clog fine grits. Wet sandpaper comes in finer
grits from about 220 to 2000 for final smoothing
operations before and after painting.
Wet sandpaper is commonly used to block sand
paint before compounding or buffing. Wet sanding
will knock down any imperfections (color sanding)
in the paint film. Buffing or compounding is then
needed to make the paint shiny again.
Sandpapers
sive grit. It is the
paper is a heavy paper coated with an abra-
de is the most commonly used abrasive in
When using sandpapers:
1. Sand in one direction only; this is usually along
the line of sight. If several grades of sandpaper
are used on one area, cross sand to eliminate
scratches.
2. Use the finest abrasive possible to do the job.
3. Start with as fine a grade as possible. If too fine,
go to a coarser grade; then work back to the finer
grade.
4. Adjust one grade finer for hand versus machine
sanding.
5. Support the abrasive with a block or pad to avoid
finger marks and crowning.
6. Adjust two grades finer when wet sanding, duc
to faster cutting abrasives.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

7. Choose one manufacturer's line so you learn its

cutting characteristics.
8. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations
for use.
polisher is used to carefully run the compound over
the cured or dried paint. Polishing compound is of
ten used after a rubbing compound or after wet (color)
sanding. It will make the paint shiny and smooth.
Hand glazes are for final smoothing and shining
of the paint. They are the last process used to pro-
duce a professional finish. They are applied by hand,
using a circular motion, like a wax.
Besides these, other compounds come in vari-
ous formulations. Read the label on the compound
to learn about its use.
A painter will generally use
1. Rubbing compounds to remove surface imper-
fections in paint
2. Machine glazes to restore paint gloss after wet
or color sanding
3. Hand glazes to remove swirl marks after machine
buffing
Scuff Pads
Scuff pads are tough synthetic pads used to clean and
lightly scratch the surface of paints. Being like sponges,
they are handy for scuffing irregular surfaces, like door
jams, around the inside of the hood and deck lids,
and other obstructed areas. They clean and lightly scuff
these areas so the paint will stick. Scuff pads are also
used to lightly scuff exterior surfaces prior to blend-
ing. This light roughening allows the paint and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

clearcoat to adhere without showing any scratches.

ADHESIVES
Adhesives are special glues designed to bond parts
to one another. Various types are available.
Weatherstrip adhesive is designed to hold rubber
seals and similar parts in place. Weatherstrip adhe-
sive dries to a hard rubber-type consistency. This
makes it ideal for holding door seals, trunk seals, and
other seals onto the body (Figure 6-13).
Plastic adhesive or emblem adhesive is designed to
hold hard plastic and metal parts. It is used to install
Compounds
Compounding involves using an abrasive paste
material to smooth and bring out the gloss of the
applied topcoat. It can be applied by hand or with a
polishing wheel on an air tool. A compound has a
fine volcanic pumice or dust-like grit in a water-
soluble paste. When rubbed on a painted surface, a
thin layer of paint is removed. It will remove the
very top layer of old, weathered paint, leaving a new
fresh surface of paint.
A hand compound is designed to be applied by
hand with a rag or clothi. Machine compound is for-
mulated to be applied with an electric or air polisher.
It will not cut as fast and will not break down with
the extra friction and heat of machine application.
Rubbing compound is the coarsest type of hand
compound. It will rapidly remove paint but will leave
visible scratch marks. Rubbing compound is designed
for hand application, not machine application. It is
often used on small areas to treat imperfections in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the paint surface.

Polishing compound or machine glaze is a fine grit
comround designed for machine application. A
Super Weatherstop
FIGURE 6-13 Weatherstrip adhesive is commonly used
to install rubber seals around doors and trunks Black color
adhesive is best on black rubber seals (Courtesy of 3M
Automotive Trades Division)
Epoxies
An epoxy is a two-part glue used to hold various parts
together. The two ingredients are mixed together in
equal parts. This makes the mixture cure through a
chemical reaction. Always use the type of epoxy sug-
gested by the auto manufacturer (Figure 6-17).
various types of emblems and trim pieces onto
painted surfaces. See (Figure 6-14).
Vinyl adhesive is designed to bond a vinyl top to
the vehicle body. This type of adhesive is often used
when installing or repairing vinyl tops, interior roof
liners (headliners), and similar parts (Figure 6-15).
An adhesive release agent is a chemical that dis-
solves most types of adhesives. It is used when you
want to remove a part without damage. The agent is
sprayed onto the adhesive to soften it so the part
can be lifted off easily (Figure 6–16).
CamScanner
SEALERS
Sealers are used to prevent water and air leaks be-
tween parts. They are flexible to prevent cracking and
come in several variations (Figure 6-18).
exactly the same type that was removed from the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

original equipment manufacture (OEM) assembly

Never try to re-engineer the vehicle. Keep in mind
that using an incorrect fastener or a fastener of infe
rior quality can result in failure and possible injury
to the vehicle occupants.
BOLTS
A bolt is a metal shaft with a head on one end and
threads on the other. A cap screw is a term that de.
scribes a high-strength bolt. Bolts and cap screws are
usually named after the body part they hold, such as
fender bolt or hood hinge bolt. Their shape and head
drive configurations also help name them.
FIGURE 6-18 Various types of sealers are used to
prevent leakage between body parts The technician is using a
caulking gun to seal a newly installed trunk floor panel.
(Courtesy of 3M Automotive Trades Division)
Bolt Terminology
To work with bolts properly, you must understand
basic bolt terminology. See Figure 6-19.
N
onnen
Seam sealers are designed to make a leakproof
joint between body panels. It is often needed where
two panels butt or overlap each other. Seam sealers
come in different forms and each is applied differ-
ently. Read the directions.
Tube sealers are applied directly from the tube or
by using a caulking gun. They squirt out like tooth-
paste and cure in a few hours.
Apply primer before applying seam sealer. Seam
sealers are paintable but may need to be reprimed if
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the product directions specify. Silicone sealers are not

paintable and should not be used in auto body re-
pair. Follow instructions on the product for finish-
ing sealers.
Ribbon sealers come in strip form and are applied
by hand. They are a thick sealer that must be worked
onto the parts with your fingers.
NOTE: The proper use or application of these mate-
rials will be explained later in this book. Refer to the
index if you need more information now.
H- Head
G - Grade Marking (Bolt Strength)
L- Length (inches)
T-Thread Pitch (Thread/Inch)
D.Nominal Diameter (Inches)
8.2 FASTENERS
Fasteners include the thousands of bolts, nuts,
screws, clips, and adhesives that literally hold a ve.
hicle together.
As an auto body technician, you will constantly
use fasteners when removing and installing body
parts. This makes it important for you to be able to
identify and use fasteners properly.
Remember that each fastener is engineered for a
Secific application. Always replace fasteners with
CamScanner
H- Head
P - Property Class (Bolt Strength)
L. Length (Millimeters)
T - Thread Pitch (Millimeters)
D - Nominal Diameter (Millimeters)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 6-19 Bolt measurements are needed when you

are working. Study each dimension of both English and meth
bolts. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)
The bolt head
righten the holt. A
which enables the
clish and metric
important not to
or English sizes to
withead is the top and is used to torque or
bolt. A socket or wrench fits over the head,
bles the bolt to be tightened. Some En-
metric sockets are very close in size. It is
not to use metric sizes for English bolts,
sizes for metric bolts as the heads can be
metric threads. Bolt threads can be measured with a
thread pitch gange.
A number of terms have been used over the
years to identify the various types of threads. The
terms used in the automotive trade-the United
States Standard (USS), the American National Stan-
dard (ANS), and the Society of Automotive Engineers
Standard (SAE)-have all been replaced by the Uni-
fied National Series.
The two common metric threads are coarse and
fine and can be identified by the letters SI (Système
International or International System of Units) and
ISO (International Standards Organization).
unded and damaged.
Rolt length is me
threads to the botto
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

total length inch

sured around the out
a Vinch bolt
its head or wrench
usth is measured from the end of the
the bottom of the bolt head. It is not the
neth including the bolt head.
diameter, sometimes termed bolt size, is mea-
nd the outside of the threads. For example,
h bolt has a thread diameter of 2 inch while
d or wrench size would be 3/4 inch,
thead size is the distance measured across the
the bolt head. In USC (United States Custom-
head size is given as fractions, just like wrench
few common sizes are 16, '/, and 16 inch. In
setric system, 3., 4., and 5-millimeter head sizes
WARNING
flats of the bolt hea
ary), head size
size. A few com
Do NOT accidentally interchange
thread types or damage will result.
It is easy to mistake metric threads
for English threads. If the two are
forced together, either the bolt or
the part threads will be ruined.
are typical (Figure 6-20).
Bolt thread pitch is a measurement of thread
arseness. Bolts and nuts can have coarse, fine, and
ARALMENTE
Common
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

English
(U.S. Customary)
Head
Sizes
Common
Metric
Head
Sizes
Wrench
Size
(millimeters)
Bolts and nuts are also available in right- and
left-hand threads. Right-hand threads must be turned
clockwise to tighten. Less common left-hand threads
must be rotated in a counterclockwise direction to
tighten the fastener. Left-hand threads may be de-
noted by notches or the letter "L" stamped on them.
When ordering bolts, it is necessary to designate
the bolt diameter, thread pitch, and length. An ex.
ample would be 14-inch-20 x 1 inch.
Wrench
Size
(inches)*
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
11/16
3/4
13/16
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

7/8
15/16
1-1/16
1-1/8
1-5/16
1-1/4
Bolt Strengths or Grades
Bolt strength indicates the amount of torque or tight-
ening force that should be applied. Bolts are made
from different materials having various degrees of
hardness. Softer or harder metal can be used to
achieve different hardnesses and strengths for use in
different situations.
Bolt grade markings are lines or numbers on the
top of the head to identify bolt hardness and strength.
The hardness or strength of metric bolts is indicated
by using a property class indicator on the head of
the bolt.
Bolt strength markings are given as lines (Figure
6-21). The number of lines on the head of the bolt is
related to the strength. As the number of lines in-
creases so does the strength.
Metric bolt strength markings are given as num-
bers. The higher the number is, the stronger the bolt.
These markings apply to both bolts and nuts (Figure
6-22).
1-5/16
1.5/8
7/16
1-1/2
The wrench sizes
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 8-20
So Never use a
rench sizes riven in this chart are not equivalents, but are
ad head sizes found in both inches and millimeters,
E6-20 These are common bolt head and wrench
ever use a standard wranch on metric bolts and vise
This will round off the bolt head.
SAE
Ne kun
5 Lines rar
id
SAF Grade 7
DEFINITION
ma quan
SAE Grade
LIS
commental
quan
Aum
AN BE SAF
Grade
line medium
commercial
quality
Automat
AN Rol SAF
Grade 6
Med Carbon
Sirel Quenched
Tempered
6 Lines best
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

commercial
quality
NAS Airalt
SWS SAE
Grade 8
Mat Carbon
Alloy Sirel
Quenched
Tempered
Law Darbe
Mat Carbon
Steel Tempered
Med Carbon
Alle Sil
MATERIAL
TENSILE
150,000 p
140.000 pl
120.000
STRENGTH
140.000 psi
FIGURE 6 21 Bolt tensile strengths are denoted on the heads of one
tensile strengths are denoted on the heads of bolts Slash marks (SAE) or numbers
(metric) are used
Always replace bolts with an equal or a higher rating to prevent failure.
Grade
Identification
Class
Identification
Hex Nur
Grade 5
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Hex Nu!
Property
Class 9
Arabic 9
Hex Nut
Grade 8
Hex Nut
Property
Class 10
6 Dots
Arabic 10
Increasing dois represent increasing strength
Can also have blue finish or paint dab on hex flat.
Increasing numbers represent increasing strength.
FIGURE 6-22 Quality nut strengths are also denoted. More dots or a high number means
more strength.
Tensile strength is the amount of pressure per
square inch the bolt can withstand just before break-
ing when it is pulled apart. The harder or stronger
the bolt, the greater the tensile strength.
Never replace a high-grade bolt with a bolt hav-
ing a lower grade marking as the weaker bolt could
break. If in the steering or suspension, this could se-
riously endanger the passengers of the vehicle.
Bolt Torque
Bolt torque is a measurement of the turning force ap-
plied when installing a fastener. It is critical that bolts
and nuts are torqued or tightened properly. Over-
tightening will stretch and possibly break the bolt.
Undertightening may allow the bolt or nut to loosen
and fall out.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Torque specifications are tightening values for the

specific bolt or nut. They are given by the manufac.
turer. Discussed in the tool chapter, a torque Wrench
must be used to measure torque values.
If you cannot find the factory torque specifica-
üon for a bolt, you can use a general bolt torque chart,
It will give a general torque value for the size and
CamScanner
grade of bolt. Such a chart is shown in Figure 6-23.
Normally the bolt threads should be lubricated to
get accurate results. Refer to the chart to see if the
threads should be lubricated or dry.
A tightening sequence, or torque pattern, assures
that parts are clamped down evenly by several bolts
or nuts. Tighten fasteners in a crisscross pattern, so
as to pull the part down evenly, preventing warpage.
This is commonly recommended for wheels, as
shown in Figure 6-24.
Tighten the fastener in steps, to about half
torque, three-fourths torque, and then full torque,
at least twice.
Be careful when tightening bolts and nuts with
air wrenches. It is easy to stretch or break a bolt in-
stantly. The air wrench can spin the bolt or nut so
fast that it can hammer the fastener past its yield
point. This can strip threads or snap off the bolt.
When torque is not critical, do not use the all
impact to run the nut full speed onto the bolt.
stead, run it up slowly until it contacts the w
mark the socket and watch how far it turns
Smaller air-powered speed wrenches do not prou
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

force of impact wrenches and are much

the severe force of impact wrenches ar
safer to use.
not produce
Auto Body HP
52
Grade of Bor
Sze of Sockor
Mn Tensile
Strength
Grade Martings
COK
-
on Head
Nut
ad
EGUN
Metric Standard
SAE Standard / Foot Pounds
AE
ЧА
50 G | TOK
Grade of
171.960113.800142 200 170.679
Min Ten
on 105 000 000 150.000
PSIPSIPSIPS
PIPS
Strength
Sure of
12K on Wench
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Markings
Wrench Opening
Opening
on Head
US Regular
Metric
Metc
Foot Pounds
Standard
Foot Pounds
Bolt
TUS Dec
Boa
Bolt
Head
Head
Dia
JB 7/16
10 mm
1/4
9/16
10
14 mm 5/16
9/16 5/8
17 mm
3/8
34
19 mm
5/B
7/16
3/4 13/16
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

137 22 mm 1/2
132 175 208
7/8
132 7/8
24 mm
88 120
9/16
182 236 283
27 mm
74 120
180
167
5/8
15/16 1.
394 464
1-1/8
32 mm
1-1/8
| 200
120
280 296
F6-23 factory specs are not available, use this
, use this general bolt torque chart. It gives ditterent values for each bolt
10.5
1/2
6 mm
8 mm
40
10 mm
12 mm
2362
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3150
3937
4720
5512 55
83
709111
8661182
60
6299
53
16 mm
16 mm
284
22 mm
FIGURE 6-23
tensile strength rating
Self-locking nuts produce a friction or force fit
when threaded onto a bolt or stud. The top of the
nut can be crimped inward. Some have a plastic in-
sert that produces a friction fit to keep the nut from
loosening. Locking nuts may need to be replaced af-
ter removal. Front-wheel-drive spindles sometimes
use self-locking nuts.
Jam nuts are thin nuts used to help hold larger,
conventional nuts in place. The jam nut is tightened
down against the other nut to prevent loosening.
Wing nuts have two extended arms for turning
the nut by hand. They are used when a part must be
removed frequently for service or maintenance. Air
cleaners sometimes use wing nuts.
Acorn nuts are closed on one end for appearance
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and to keep water and debris off the threads. They

can be used when they are visible and looks are
important.
Special types of nuts are used to hold parts onto
the vehicle. Sometimes a washer is formed onto the
nut. Termed body nuts, the flange on the nut helps
distribute the clamping force of the thin body panel
or trim piece to prevent warpage. Look at Figure 6–26.
Lug Nut Torque
Specifications
FIGURE 6-24 When tightening several balts that hold
one part a wheel for example, always use a crisscross
pattern. This will prevent part warpage and problems.
NUTS
A nut uses internal (inside) threads and an odd-shaped
head that often fits a wrench. When tightened onto
a bolt, a strong clamping force holds the parts to-
gether. Many different nuts are used by the automo-
tive industry. Several are shown in Figure 6-25.
Castellated or slotted nuts are grooved on top so
that a safety wire or cotter pin can be installed into a
hole in the bolt. This helps prevent the nut from
working loose. For example, castellated nuts are used
with the studs that hold wheel bearings in position.
Sotted nuts are also used on steering and suspen-
sion parts for safety.nner
n
FIGURE 8-25 Memorize nut types: (A) hex nut. (B) high
or deep nut, (C) flange nut, (D) castle or slotted nut, (E) wing
nut. (Courtesy of Dorman)
1B) hex barrel nut (C)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 6-26 Bady nuts are specially designed for specific holding af
body nuts are specially designed for specific holding applications: (A) counter boring nut.
(B) hex barrel
washer nut. (D) washer nut with rubber gasket. (E) pal or locknut (F) acorn nu
bber gasket, (E) pal or locknut (F) acorn nut. (G) plate nut. (Courtesy of TAWI
o pode
ation or leakage
1 0-0-0-0-0
parts. Fiber washers will prevent vibration or la
but cannot be tightened very much.
Finishing washers have a curved shape for a pl
ing appearance. They are used on interior piece
Split lock washers are used under nuts to preve
loosening by vibration. The ends of these spri
hardened washers dig into both the nut and the w
to prevent rotation. The lock washers should
placed next to the bolt head or nut.
Shakeproof or teeth lock washers have teeth or bent
lugs that grip both the work and the nut. Several de
signs, shapes, and sizes are available. An external type
has teeth on the outside, and an internal type has
teeth around the inside. Lock washers are extremely
hard and tend to break under severe pressure.
A rule of thumb is if the part did not come with
a lock washer, do not add one. If the bolt or nut has
a lock washer, use one. The manufacturer would not
use one if it did not have a purpose.
0
0
FIGURE 6-27 Study washer types: (A) plain flat washer,
(8) wave or spring washer. (C) spacer washer, (D) fender
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

washer. (E) fiber washer, (F) finishing washers, (G) split lock
washer, (H) external lock washer, (1) internal lack washer.
WASHERS
Washers are used under bolts, nuts, and other parts.
They prevent damage to the surfaces of parts and
provide better holding power (Figure 6-27).
Flat washers are used to increase the clamping
surface area. They prevent the smaller bolt head from
pulling through the sheet metal or plastic.
A wave washer adds a spring action to keep parts
from rattling and loosening.
Body or fender washers have a very large outside
diameter for the size hole in them. They provide bet.
ter holding power on thin metal and plastic parts.
Copper or brass washers are used to prevent fluid
leakage, as on brake line fittings. Spacer washers come
in specific thicknesses to allow for adjustment of
CamScanner
SCREWS
Screws are often used to hold nonstructural parts on
the vehicle. Trim pieces, interior panels, etc., are of.
ten secured by screws. Refer to Figure 6-28.
Machine screws are threaded their full length and
are relatively weak. They come in various configura-
tions and will accept a nut.
Set screws frequently have an internal drive head
for an Allen wrench and are used to hold parts onto
shafts.
Sheet metal screws have pointed or tapered tips:
they thread into sheet metal for light holding tasks.
Self-tapping screws have a pointed tip that helps
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cut new threads in parts.

Trim screws have a washer attached to them,
which improves appearance and helps keep the trim
from shifting.
Headlight aiming screws have a special plastic
adapter mounted on them. The adapter fits into the
headlight assembly. Different design variations are
needed for different makes and models of vehicles.
NONTHREADED FASTENERS
As implied, nonthreaded fasteners do not use threads.
They include keys, snap rings, pins, clips, adhesives,
logy
RARY
Institu
Engineer
ewing
* Build
Vaon Bk.
ceg Study common screw names: (A) pan head sheet metal screw. (B) flat head sheet
metal screw.
El Phillips head screw, (F) threaded screw, (G) oval head sheet metal screw. (H) hex or
nutariver screw
or integral washer (J) clutch head. (K) Torx head. IL) trim screw, (M) self-taping screw,
INJ body scru. U
FIGURE 6-28
of murd head, El Paul
So with fange or inters
solight aming screw
kaming screw. (Courtesy of Dorman)
etc Various le
manufacturers to re
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

portant to be abl
rious keys and pins are used by equipment
turers to retain parts in alignment. It is im-
to be able to identify these keys and pins to
position matching parts. They can also be used to se-
cure small pulleys and gears to shafts (Figure 6-30).
Dowel pins have the same general diameter their
full length. They are used to position and align the
parts of an assembly. One end of a dowel pin is
chamfered, and it is usually 0.001 to 0.002 inch
greater in diameter than the size of its hole. When
order replacements.
are keys and Woodruff keys are used to pre.
thand wheels, gears, cams, and pulleys from turn-
n their shafts. These keys are strong enough to
heavy loads if they are fitted and seated prop-
ETIV. See Figure 6-29.
Round taper pins have a larger diameter on
me end than the other. They are used to locate and
ņ po
Groove
Key Slot
or Key Way
Set Screw
Allen Head
Set Screw
Shaft
Collar
UAE B-29 Keys and set screws are both used to
on ports on shalts: A key and keyway, (B) set screw
n. Courtesy of Fiorida Dept. of Vocational Education)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE B-30 Learn these nonthreaded fastener names:

(A) internal snap or retaining ring, (8) external snap ring, (C) E-
clip or snap ring, (D) cotter pin, (E) clevis pin, [F] hitch pin, (G)
split rolipin, (H) tapered pin, (l) straight dowel pin, (J) linkage
clip. (Courtesy of Dorman)
FIGURE 6 3 1 These are a few of the special plastic retainers available. These types are
ilahle These types are often used in interiors. They quick
press into a hole. To remove them, you must carefully pryn
10 remove them, you must carefully pry next to the retainer with a flat, forked tiim tool.
(Courtesy of TAW
Workpieces
Clinching Mandret
Alvet
Riveter
replacing a dowel pin, be sure that it is the same
size as the old one (Figure 6-30).
Cotter pins help prevent bolts and nuts from loos-
ening or they fit through pins to hold parts together.
They are also used as stops and holders on shafts and
rods. All cotter pins are used for safety and should
never be reused (Figure 6-30).
The cotter pin should fit into the hole with very
little side play. If it is too long, cut off the extra length.
After insertion, bend it over in a smooth curve with
needle nose pliers. Sharply angled bends invite break-
age. Final bending of the prongs can be done with a
soft-faced mallet.
Snap rings are nonthreaded fasteners that install
in a groove machined into a part. They are used to
hold parts on shafts (Figure 6-30).
Special snap ring pliers are designed to flex and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

install or remove snap rings. They have special tips

that will hold the snap ring.
Jaws Pull Back
Mandrel Breaks and
Falls Free
FIGURE 6-32 Pop rivets provide a quick way of holding
sheet metal parts or panels. They are handy when the
backside of the panel is not accessible.
CAUTION
BEDRE
Wear safety glasses when remov-
ing or installing snap rings. Being
spring steel, they can shoot out
with great force.
Pop rivets can be used to hold two pieces of sheet
metal together (Figure 6-32). They can be inserted
into a blind hole through two pieces of metal and
then drawn up with a riveting tool or gun. This will
lock the pieces together. There is no need to have
access to the back of the rivets.
Pop rivets should not be used in areas that are
subject to excessive vibration or for structural pan-
els. The rivets can work loose and weaken the repair.
Body clips are specially shaped retainers to hold
trim and other body pieces requiring little strength.
The clip often fits into the back of the trim piece and
through the body panel (Figure 6-31).
Push-in clips are usually made of plastic and they
force fit into holes in body panels. Push-in clips are
used to hold interior door trim panels, for example.
They install easily, but can be difficult to remove.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CamScanner
REPLACING FASTENERS
When replacing fasteners, observe the following pre-
cautions:
1. Always use the same number of fasteners.
2. Use the same diameter, length, pitch, and on
of fasteners.
Auto Body Materials and Fasteners
3. Observe the
the service ma
tightening steps
4. Always replan
5. Replace stretc
ve the OEM's recommendations given in
vice manual for tightening sequence,
w steps (increments), and torque values.
s replace a used cotter pin.
tretched fasteners or fasteners with any
signs of damage,
e correct washers and pins as specified by
6. Use the corre
the OEM
7. Always replace
he found in sus
FIGURE 6-33 Note hose clamp types (A) wire spring
hose clamp. (B) wire strap hose clamp. (C) worm hose clamp.
(0) Screw.nut hose clamp. (E) plastic hose clamp (Courtesy of
Dorman)
place "one-time" fasteners. They can
nd in suspension and steering assemblies.
HOSE CLAMPS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Mose damps are use

hoses, and other he
care used to hold radiator hoses, heater
other hoses onto their fittings. See Figure
A spring hose da
harbs on each en
expands the clam
he used to remov
The pliers have a
from slipping ou
ring hose clamp is made of spring steel with
each end. Squeezing the ends opens and
the clamp. Special hose clamp pliers should
o remove or install round wire type clamps.
ors have a deep groove that will keep the clamp
pping out of the jaws. Conventional pliers
work fine on spring strap clamps.
wonin hose clamp uses a screw that engages a
band, Turning the screw reduces or enlarges
diameter. This is the most common replace-
slotted band. Turi
powder to one part of liquid will set in about five
minutes at 70 degrees Fahrenheit. Changing these
proportions will allow for faster or slower drying and
setting times.
While acrylic resin provides a very strong bond,
it sets too fast for large area work and is generally
used for heavy-duty repairs on smaller objects. Ac-
etone can be used as a cleaning solvent for acrylic
resin adhesive.
Epoxy is a two-part bonding agent that dries
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

harder than adhesive. It comes in two separate con-

tainers, usually tubes. One contains the epoxy resin
and the other contains a hardener. Epoxy does not
shrink when it hardens and is waterproof and heat-
resistant at moderate temperatures.
Read the instructions for the proper quantity
to use. If both resin and hardener are not in proper
proportions, the bond might fail. Some epoxy tubes
automatically dispense the correct amount of resin
and hardener.
Once mixed, the epoxy remains in a workable
condition for only a brief time. Therefore, try to
mix only as much as is required and use it as quickly
as possible. Clamp the work while the glue cures,
which can take several hours. Do not apply epoxy
in low temperatures (below 50 degrees Fahrenheit
or 10 degrees Celsius), because it will not harden.
Once an epoxy is applied, it is difficult to remove it
from a surface.
NOTE: Adhesives are discussed in more detail in
other chapters. Refer to the text index if needed.
ment type of hose clamp.
ACRYLIC RESIN ADHESIVE
AND EPOXY
Adhesives provide an alternate means of bonding parts
together. The two types of adhesives most often used
with automotive metals are acrylic resin and epoxy.
Acrylic resin adhesive is a two-part, somewhat flex-
ible adhesive (liquid and powder) used on small sur-
face areas. It is waterproof and not affected by
gasoline or water.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Follow the manufacturer's directions for mix-

ing materials. Drying and setting times are controlled
by the amounts mixed. For example, three parts of
SUMMARY
1 Body shop materials include more than just re-
finishing or paint materials. They include the
various fillers, primers, sealers, adhesives, sand-
papers, and other compounds common to a body
shop.
1 Refinishing materials is a general term referring
to the products used to repaint the vehicle.
The term paint generally refers to the visible top-
coat.
The primer or undercoat has to improve adhe-
sion of the topcoat. It is often the first coat ap-
Pled Paint alone will not stick or adhere as well
*primer mScanner
Basecoat/clearcoat paint systems use a colorcoat
applied over the primer with a second layer of
clearcoat over the colorcoat.
Lacquer is an older paint that dries quickly be-
cause of solvent evaporation.
Enamel finishes dry with a gloss and do not re-
quire rubbing or polishing.
A paint's chemical content includes the following:
1. Pigments
2. Binders
3. Solvents
4. Additives
Painting Method
Outline
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Example of Use
Automobile
Painting
New Repaint
Powder coating
(dry painting)
Adherend dipped into powdered paint. Paint film formed by
heat fusion. Typical types include fluidized bed coating,
flame spray coating and electrostatic coating.
Air spray
By means of compressed air, paint is sprayed by gun
through atomizer nozzle. Provides good paint finish and can
be used regardless of adherend shape or material so it is
used extensively. This is the most common method for
automobile painting.
Spray
Airless spray
Building materials
High pressure applied directly to paint to force it from
nozzle by high-speed injection to atomize it. Compared with
air spray, there is less paint loss through scattering and a
thicker layer can be applied.
Metal
Electrostatic Adherend electrically charged with positive (+) current and
Lanned W
paint electrically charged with negative (-) current to cause
CamScannlelectrical attraction of the paint to the adherend.
1.5. PAINTING METHODS
As shown below, painting methods vary according to the adherend (object to be painted),
type
of paint used, painting equipment, etc.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Painting Method
Automobile Example of Use
Outline
Painting
New
Repaint
Railroad cars
Spatula
Wooden, plastic or rubber spatula used to spread thick
amounts of high viscosity putty for smoothing rough spots.
Brush
Building materials
Pig hair or horse hair brush used. Easy to apply regardless
of shape of adherend, location or equipment available. Long
established and widely used method.
Roller
Sheet metal
Roller Coater Used for continuous painting of long and smooth items
which allow passage of roller width.
Roller Brush
Uses hair or synthetic fiber roller. Suitable for flat surfaces
such as walls.
Building materials
Flow Coater
Paint flows in form of thin curtain onto adherend which
moves by on a conveyer.
Building materials
Immersion Dipping
Adherend dipped into paint bath. Paint reaches all areas of
adherend.
| SC Electrode. Wij Also called ED. Direct current passed through paint and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Cd position nn adherend to cause paint film adhesion.

Metal
1.5.1. Spraying. Three typical methods of spray painting are Air Spray, Airless Spray and
Electrostatic Painting. The basic principle of spray painting is to atomize the paint and
utilize injection
energy to form a paint film on the adherend. Listed below are its merits and demerits.
• Because paint is atomized and sprayed on, work efficiency is very good and the finished
texture is very attractive.
• Because there is no adverse effect due to shape or type of material, spray painting can
be used
for a wide variety of adherends.
• There is much paint loss due to atomization during spraying.
• It is necessary to maintain a proper viscosity throughout spraying operations.
1. Air Spray Painting. The principle of air spray painting is the same as for the vaporizer.
That is, when high pressure air is forced through the holes in an air cap, the tip of the
paint nozzle
becomes a vacuum, causing paint to be drawn up through it. The paint drawn out is
atomized into a
mist-like form by the compressed air being injected through the holes in the air cap.
Since the paint forms into a mist, a lot of paint is lost during spraying, which is one
disadvantage. However, because an attractive paint finish can be obtained with relatively
simple
equipment and the air pressure and pattern width can be adjusted so that even objects
with complicated
shapes can be painted, it is the most suitable painting method for automobiles.
There are 3 methods of paint supply to the air spray gun.
Gravity feed type Paint is supplied by gravity and suction force at nozzle tip.
Suction feed type Paint is supplied only by suction force at the tip.
Compressor feed type Paint is pressurized and fed by a compressor tank or pump.
2. Airless Spray Painting. When the tip of a water hose is pinched, the water will scatter
in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

all directions in a mist-like pattern. Similarly, when paint is pressurized and discharged
into the
atmosphere through small holes, an expansion in volume is created within the hose due to
the pressure
difference between it and the atmosphere, so the paint is atomized into a mist pattern.
CamScanner
AIR HOLE
COMPRESSED -
AIR
PAINT
PAINT NOZZLE
Fig. 1.16. Principle of Air Spray Painting.
GRAVITY FEED TYPE
COMPRESSOR
FEED TYPE
=
-
=
=
-=
-
=
SUCTION
FEED TYPE
AIR COMPRESSOR
PAINT
COMPRESSOR
TANK
Fig. 1.17. Paint Feed Methods to Air Spray Gun.
HOSE
WATER MIST
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

SPRAY GUN
PAINT (HIGH PRESSURE)
Scanned with Fig. 1.18. Principles of Airless Spray Painting.
CamScanner g
PAIIIIIU ICUNIVIQUES
19
With the airless spray method, pressure is applied directly to the paint which is injected at
high
speed through small holes in the nozzle and formed into a mist. Unlike the air spray
method, there is
less mixing of air in the paint and, consequently, less mist dispersion. Also, since the
paint is
pressurized directly, less energy is used for atomization so that with the same amount of
power, a
degree of atomization is accomplished that is several times that for air spraying.
However, the paint
finish is inferior to that of spray painting and touch up is difficult so this method is not
suitable for
automobiles requiring a high degree of finish.
AIR TRANSFORMER
PLUNGER PUMP
S
A
ATOMIZATION
TOMZATION
PAINT (HIGH
PRESSURE)
AIR HOSE
Paint is not atomized by
AIR USED IS FOR
air so spray pattern is in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

PLUNGER PUMP
more of a direct line.
DRIVE ONLY
-HIGH-PRESSURE PAINT HOSE
PAINT TANK
Fig. 1.19. Airless Spray Painting Equipment
3. Electrostaic Painting. Electrostaic painting utilizes the principle that positive (+) and
negative (-) electricity mutually attract each other but oppose a like charge. Therefore,
when paint
particles are given a negative charge by a high-voltage generator, the particles oppose
each other,
causing them to become atomized. On the other hand, because the adherend is grounded,
it is under a
positive electrical charge. In this manner, when high voltage is applied between the
adherend and the
electrostatic painting equipment, an electrical field is formed and the air is the field
allows the
electricity to pass through easily. In other words, electrical passages are formed and the
atomized paint
passing through these passages is sent to and adheres to the object that is being painted.
ELECTRIFICATION
ATOMIZATION
ELECTRICAL PASSAGE
800-666--6-Geno
20
Dobbo oo
o ĐH
!
!
/
(- 60 -
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

100 KV)
ELECTROSTATIC
PAINTING
EQUIPMENT
ELECTRICAL FIELD —
Scanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 1.20. Principle of Electrostatic Painting.
UNIQUES
+CLEAR COAT
- ENAMEL
COAT
ELECTROSTATIC PAINTING PAINT FILM
+
CLEAR COAT
ENAMEL
COAT
NORMAL AIR SPRAY PAINT FILM
Fig. 1.21. Electrostatic Paint Film and Spray Paint Film.
Merits and demerits of electrostatic painting are as follows:
• Because the paint particles are drawn to the adherend by electrical attraction, there is
less paint
loss compared to normal spray painting.
Because atomization is promoted by opposing electrical forces, a very good quality paint
finish can be attained. This is particularly true for metallic painting because the metallic
paint
particles are formed into rows by the opposing electrical forces, providing an appearance
which cannot be attained with the usual spray gun.
Paint adhesion efficiency is very good and, as a result, painting operations are fast. The
reverse
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

side of cylindrical objects, lattice work and linear objects can be painted simultaneously
with
the front surface.
Because the electrical potential in depressed areas is low, the adhesion is not as good,
necessitating touch up.
• Unless non-conductors like wood, plastic, glass and rubber are made conductive
painting is not
possible.
As for portable electrostatic painting equipment, there are both the air spray type and the
airless spray type.
As with normal air spray painting, an air spray gun is also used for air spray type
electrostatic
painting and the paint is atomized by the force of compressed air. However, atomization
is further
promoted by the application of a negative electrical charge. Therefore, the paint is
sprayed onto the
adherend by both the force of the compressed air and electrical attraction. Adhesion
efficiency is not as
good as with airless electrostatic spraying, but because the air spray gun is easy to use,
this method is
suitable when delicate spray guo manipulation is required.
Like the normal airless spray method, airless electrostatic spraying utilizes high pressure
to
atomize the paint by injecting it through small holes in the nozzle, but it also gives the
paint a negative
electrical charge to further promote atomization. Paint is adhered by means of both
injection pressure
and electrical attraction. This method provides a very good adhesion efficiency and work
is faster due
CamScanner
PAINT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

HOSE
AIR
HOSE
HIGH-
VOLTAGE
GENERATOR
HIGH-
VOLTAGE
CABLE
COM-
PAINT
POWER PRESSOR
SOURCE
Fig. 1.22. Air Type Electrostatic Painting Equipment.
to the large discharge volume. However, because compressed air is not used, injection
energy is not as
strong and air spray pre-painting of depressed areas like the underside of the hood and
inner side of the
doors is necessary.
PAINT TANK
(HIGH PRESSURE)
HIGH
VOLTAGE
CABLE
PUMP
HIGH VOLTAGE
GENERATOR
PAINT
TANK
POWER SOURCE
Fig. 1.23. Airless Type Electrostatic Painting Equipment.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The chart below shows the features of the 3 types of painting.

Item
Air Type Airless Type
Electrostatic Electrostatic
Painting Painting
Adhesion Efficiency
60-70%
70-80%
Normal Air
Spray Painting
40%
Finish Texture
Work Environment
(paint mist dispersion)
Painting Speed
Painting of Depressed Areas
Guo Handling (partial repainting and touch up)
Immersion. With this painting procedure, the adherend is immersed into a tant
paint. There are two methods dipping and electrodeposition.
1. Dipping Method. As illustrated below. the adherend is immersed into a tank of paint
Vents of this system is that there is little paint loss and both large and small items can be
painted
ver, disadvantages are that a difference in thickness of the upper and lower paint film
occurs and
8 of closed cross-sectional areas is difficult because of the formation of air pockets.
REMOVE EXCESS PAINT
TAKE OUT
DIP
Fig. 1.24. Principle of Dipping Method.
HOT AIR DRYING
CO
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

A
CONVEYER
ADHERENDE
SPLASH PAN
HOT AIR DRYER
PANT TANK
Fig. 1.25. Example of Paint Dipping Line.
2. Electrode Electro Deposition Method. Usually referred to as ED (Electro Deposition),
the adherend is dipped into a tank of paint and then both the paint and the adherend are
given an
electrical charge to form a paint film on the adherend.
In addition to the merits of dipping, this method provides an even paint film and, by
control of
the electrical volume, there is less sagging and running of the paint, the paint can reach
the closed
and automation is easier. A drawback is the rather high cost of equipment.
CamScanner
OOO
19
OO
2.
OO
(b)
Fig. 1.26.
(a) Resin and pigment particles are electrified within the solvent.
(b) Adherend is dipped into the paint tank and then both are given a charge of direct
current,
causing the resin and pigment particles to move toward and adhere to the adherend. (This
is
called electrophoresis).
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(c) The adhering resin and pigment fom a film which loses its electrical charge. (This is
called
electrocrystallization).
(d) Moisture is adhered paint dehydrates so that a continuous film is formed. (This is
called
electrical infiltration).
If adherend is given (+) charge, - anionic painting.
If adherend is given (-) charge, - cationic painting.
Principle of Electrodeposition painting,
- CONVEYER
ELECTRODE
PAINT
PAINT
SHOWER
SH
ddddd8
TIME
888
RINSING BOOTH
888888
ED PAINT TANK
HEAT
EXCHANGER
PAINT SUPPLY
TANK
SUB-TANK
PUMP
FILTER
(FOR PAINT TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT)
Fig. 1.27. Example of an ED Painting Line.
1.6. PAINTING OF NEW VEHICLES
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1.6.1. Body components. Automobiles are composed of various types and shapes of
components, each painted with a paint suitable to its objective. This illustration shows the
main body
Component areas and the chart below gives the paint film formation and the type of paint
used for each.
CamScanner
COLETGO
PAINT DEFECTS, CAUSES
AND CORRECTIONS
5.1. CORRECTIONS FOR PAINT FINISH DEFECTS
There are a variety of causes for defects occurring in a paint finish and they usually
originate
in the preparation of the base metal, painting procedure, environment, paint ingredients
and external
influences.
If defects are noted, the remedy should be in accordance with the instructions. If any of
these
procedures do not work, the defect should be wet sanded with a #400-600 abrasive paper
until smooth
and then repainted.
If defects are noted while painting, either stop work and take the proper steps
immediately or
wait until the painting is finished to take the proper remedy. One of the best ways to
reduce the
likelihood of defects occurring is to closely follow the proper fundamental painting
procedures outlined
in this manual.
5.2. DEFECTS OCCURRING DURING PAINTING AND IMMEDIATELY AFTER
DRYING
cs 5.2.1. n Seeds. Seeds may occur during or immediately after painting due to adhesion
of dirt
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

mulier foreign particles. These foreign particles not only come from extemal sources but
also from
CAUSES OF SEEDS
FOREIGN
PARTICLES IN
PAINT INSIDE OF GUN
DIRT FROM THE FLOOR
.
Fig. 5.2. Causes of Seeds.
within the paint itself.
Causes :
• Painting surface not properly cleaned.
• Painting area dirty.
• Paint not filtered sufficiently.
• Air spray gun not cleaned sufficiently after previous work.
Remedy and Prevention :
Properly clean surface before painting.
Sprinkle water on the floor before painting to keep aust from rising.
Filter paint through a strainer.
Properly clean air spray gun after each use (If not sufficiently cleaned, the old paint in the
gun hardens and then is discharged in small particles during the next painting).
Closely check for seeds immediately after painting and, if any, remove with a pin.
cs S5.2.2. e Fish Eyes. Fish eyes occur when oil or water on the painted surface is
blocked by the
naint film and fomnus a cavity instead of rising to the top.
CAUSES OF SEEDS
FOREIGN
PARTICLES IN
PAINT INSIDE OF GUN
DIRT FROM THE FLOOR
.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 5.2. Causes of Seeds.

within the paint itself.
Causes :
• Painting surface not properly cleaned.
• Painting area dirty.
• Paint not filtered sufficiently.
• Air spray gun not cleaned sufficiently after previous work.
Remedy and Prevention :
Properly clean surface before painting.
Sprinkle water on the floor before painting to keep aust from rising.
Filter paint through a strainer.
Properly clean air spray gun after each use (If not sufficiently cleaned, the old paint in the
gun hardens and then is discharged in small particles during the next painting).
Closely check for seeds immediately after painting and, if any, remove with a pin.
cs S5.2.2. e Fish Eyes. Fish eyes occur when oil or water on the painted surface is
blocked by the
naint film and fomnus a cavity instead of rising to the top.
DAINT DEFECIU,
Phenomena. Creating and fisheyes occurs
yes occurs partly on the paint surface and the film becomes
uneven.
Causes :
Oil. wax, silicon, compound, etc. on the surface being painted.
Oil or water in the compressed air to the gun.
Foreign articles such as waxes adhere on the painting surface and cause catering.
Unsoluable foreign articles adhere on the paint film of before touch-dry and this casues
catering.
VG
Fig. 5.4.
Circumstances
Near the wax work
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

• Near the silicon processing factory.

1
Fig. 5.5.
Fig. 5.6.
Facility and Equipment
Improper container such as oil tins, tins of anti-freezing agents.
Penetration of oil or water into spray air.
scanner with
insufficient cleaning of spray booth dusts.
CamScanner
Fig.5.7.
Painting Works :
• Insufficient degreasing
• Insufficient draining of compressed air
Insufficient abrasion of oil paint film
Insufficient abrasion of old paint film
Paint mists of different types of paints
Fig. 5.7.
Hand marks on the painting surface.
Materials
• Improper mixing of additives
• Adhesion of masking tape glue.
Measures. Most troubles can be resolved
by avoiding the factors mentioned above. Slight
fisheyes can be repaired with dry mist spraying. (The
trails are requested in prior to usage of
Fig. 5.8.
anti-createring agents.
Treatment. Completely abrase off the cratering area after drying and repaint.
Remedy and Prevention :
• Sufficient degreasing before painting. Pay particular attention to wax deposits near
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

mouldings, outside mirrors, etc.

After degreasing, do not touch the surface to be painted..
Do not use dirty shop cloths for wiping the surface.
Remove oil or water from the compressed air at the transformer or air dryer.
• Do not paint near areas where rubbing compound or wax is being used.
• Check for fish eyes with a dry coat. If found, raise the air pressure and blow over the
area
to fill in any cavities.
5.2.3. Orange Peel. This is an uneven or noticeable film resembling an orange peel.
rol Scan It occurs when the paint dries and hardens too quickly before levelling can take
place, and
effects both the paint condition and film thickness.
AIR SPRAY GUN
-SMOOTH FINISH FORMED
BY LEVELING
PROPER VISCOSITY
PAINT FILM
DRIES TO
SMOOTH FINSH.
EVAPORATING
SOLVENT
PAINT FILM DOES
NOT FORM SMOOTHLY
BECAUSE OF INSUFFICIENT
SOLVENT
INSUFFICIENT SOLVENT
IN HIGH VISCOSITY PAINT
ORANGE PEEL
FINISH
Fig. 5.10. Formation of Orange Peel.
Phenomena. Paint surfaces become uneven like orange peel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Causes:
• Viscosity of paint too high.
A fast evaporating thinner used (Surface bardens before levelling can occur).
• Air spray gun held too far away,
• Paint film too thin to form a smooth finish.
Temperature of paint shop and/or painted surface too high (Solvent evaporates too
quickly before a film can be formed).
During the process of the paint liquid forrning the film, convective phenomenon (vortex
occurs in the non-dired film layer when the solvents evaporate. The earlier stoppage of
convection in the process causes orange peel.
Circumstances :
• High temperature
• Too fast blowing speed.
Facility and Equipment:
• Too big size of spray gun nozzle (improper atomization of the paint).
Defective spray pattern (Insufficient cleaning of spray gun).
PES
nepanther Fig. 5.11.
Fig. 5.12
Painting Works :
• High temperature of the car body
Low spray pressure
Fast spray gun Speed
Thin paint film
Insufficient spraying emission volume
Too long Spray gun distance.
Dicio
1.
png
C
Wir
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 5.13.
Fig. 5.14.
Measure. Slower the evaporation speed of the solvent or lower the viscosity and maintain
the
liquidity of the paint. But, too much dilution may cause running of the paint.
Treatments. Watersand with #800 - 1000 waterpapers and polish up gradually with
Medium-Fine-Extra-fine compounds.
Remedy and Prevention :
Adjust paint viscosity in accordance with ambient temperature by following
manufacturer's instructions.
Use proper thinner depending on ambient temperature.
Maintain gun distance and air pressure in accordance with paint manufacturer's
instructions.
Maintain proper film thickness.
• Do not apply top coat immediately after forced-drying while panel is still hot.
5.2.4. Blemished Metallic Finish :
cs Siangur Blemishes. If spray gun conditions are not consistent the aluminium particles
in the
enamel base will not scatter evenly resulting in a non-uniform appearance.
PAN-
2. Flow Blemishes. Flow blemishes will appear if the paint is allowed to flow directly,
after
lication because the aluminium particles arrange into a flow-like pattern.
3. Flash Blemishes. These occur if a clear coat is applied immediately on top of an
enamel
hase. Both will tend to mix and the aluminium particles and pigment in the base coat
transfer to the
clear coat, resulting in a non-uniform appearance.
Fig. 5.16. Flash Blemish (Cloudness).
4. Polishing and Base Metal Blemishes. These occur if there are deep sandpaper scratches
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

in the base metal. The aluminium particles and pigment sink into the scratches and
showed in a
cloud-like formation that is darker than the rest of the finish.
Causes :
1. Gun Blemishes :
• Inconsistent gun bandling (pattern wrap-around distance speed, etc.)
Inconsistent gun discharge volume.
==
==
UNEVEN PATTERN
WRAPAROUND
INCONSISTENT
GUN DISTANCE
Sanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 5.17. Causes of Gun Blomishes.
•
nel base, causing
Flow and Flash Blemishes :
Viscosity of enamel base coat too low.
Viscosity of clear coat too low (Solvent in clear coat dissolves the enamel base.
flow and flash blemishes. Metallic blemisbes such as these occur easily if the
Viscosity is too low when painting over a freshly painted finish that has not
sufficiently).
Insufficient flash time before clear coat applied.
occur easily if the paint
ALUMINIUM
PARTICLES
CLEAR COAT
- ENAMEL BASE
-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

-
Fig. 5.18. Flash Blemish.
3. Polish Blemish :
• Too coarse abrasive paper used for sanding the base metal.
Remedy and Prevention :
1. Gun Blemishes :
• Keep gun pattern wrap-around, distance, speed, etc. consistent.
Keep air spray gun clean. When not in use, keep thinner in the cup to prevent the nozzle
from clogging.
2. Flow and Flash Blemishes :
Follow manufacturer's instructions for adjusting paint viscosity.
Use the proper type thinner.
Before application of the clear coat, allow a proper flash time in accordance with paint
viscosity, thinner evaporation time, etc.
Metallic colours require more coats than solid colours. Therefore, examine the entire
finish after each coat and allow a sufficient flash time.
3. Polishing and Base Metal Blemishes :
• Use a #400 - 600 abrasive paper for final sanding.
Remedy Method
If blemishes are noted in the metallic coat before application of the clear coat, W
remove the blemishes with a dry (air) coat by raising the air pressure while lengthens
the gun distance.
If slight blemishes are noted after application of the clear coat. allow a sufficient flasu
me remove the blemishes and do not finish with a thick clear coat.
25 Runs. Runs are caused by a too-heavy application of one coat of paint.
aint will flow downward and dry in streams.
CamScanner
INT DEFECIU,
PANT FILM
SUBSTRATE
Fig. 5.19. Runs
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

phenomena. Paint film partly becomes too thick and the paint sags.
Causes :
• Gun air pressure too low.
. Inconsistent gun operation (patter wrap-around, distance, speed, etc.).
• Paint viscosity too low.
• Too slow evaporating thinner used.
. Paint applied too thickly in one application,
The paint dries too slowly and is in liquid condition for long. This causes sagging and
running.
IMPROPER PATTERN IMPROPER GUN DISTANCE
WRAPAROUND
Fig. 5.20. Causes of Runs.
Circumstances. Low temperature.
Facility and Equipment.
Too big size of spray gun nozzle. (Insufficient atomization of the paint).
efective spray pattern (insufficient cleaning of spray gun).
CamScanner
Fig. 5.21.
Fig. 5.22.
C3
Painting Works:
Low temperature of the car body
Thick paint film
Low spray pressure
Too much spraying emission volume
Slow spray gun speed.
Fig. 5.23
Too short spray gun distance
Defective spray pattern,
Materials
• Too slow evaporator of thinner
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

• Too low viscosity of the paint.

Measures. Make the set-to-touch time faster and
stop the liquidity of the paint. Proper application of spray
pattern, spray gun distance and spray speed are important.
Treatments. In case of overall sagging, abxase off
whole sagging areas and refinish. In case of slight sagging,
abrase off the sagging area with waterpapers (#800-1000)
Fig. 5.24.
after drying and finish with Fine-Extra-fine compounds.
Remedy and Prevention :
Keep gun pattern wrap-around distance, speed etc. consistent.
• Adjust paint viscosity in accordance with manufacturer's directions.
Use propeo type thinner.
Do not apply the paint in one, thick coat,
but in several thin coats with a proper
amount of flash time in between
Proper gun air pressure speed distance,
etc. depends on the paint viscosity thioner
drying qualities etc. so keep these in mind
and closely observe the finish condition
while painting.
s Sca As shown an right, runs occur most easily at
overlap areas, so these require special attention,
Fig. 5.25. Gun overlap area wher runs occur easily
I
PAINT UEL
5.2.6. Blushing. Blushing can occur with air-dry and 2-component reaction type paints.
As
revaporates, is absorbs heat from the surrounding area. Any humidity in the air then
condenses in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The main film and causes a cloudy appearance in the finish. This defect can often be seen
during the
suunner wet season.
Phenomena. Paint film surfaces gets hazed whitened and less glossy.
SUBSTRATE
Fig.5.26. Blushing
Causes :
Temperature too high.
A too-quick evaporating type thinner used.
Spray gun air pressure too bigh.
Due to quick evaporation of the solvent just after painting and consequent decrease of
temperature, the moisture in air coagulates onto the paint surface and gloss is lost.
This tends to occur with lacquer type paints and casily occurs under high temperature and
humid conditions.
EVAPORATING
SOLVENT
S::2:6:24
MOISTURE
PSYCHROMETER
NOISTURE
Ambient temperature talks,
moisture is condensed and
mixes with paint film.
Scanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 527. Formation of Blushing
PAINT UEL
5.2.6. Blushing. Blushing can occur with air-dry and 2-component reaction type paints.
As
revaporates, is absorbs heat from the surrounding area. Any humidity in the air then
condenses in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The main film and causes a cloudy appearance in the finish. This defect can often be seen
during the
suunner wet season.
Phenomena. Paint film surfaces gets hazed whitened and less glossy.
SUBSTRATE
Fig.5.26. Blushing
Causes :
Temperature too high.
A too-quick evaporating type thinner used.
Spray gun air pressure too bigh.
Due to quick evaporation of the solvent just after painting and consequent decrease of
temperature, the moisture in air coagulates onto the paint surface and gloss is lost.
This tends to occur with lacquer type paints and casily occurs under high temperature and
humid conditions.
EVAPORATING
SOLVENT
S::2:6:24
MOISTURE
PSYCHROMETER
NOISTURE
Ambient temperature talks,
moisture is condensed and
mixes with paint film.
Scanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 527. Formation of Blushing
Circumstances. High temperature and high humdiity.
Fig. 5.28
Material. Quick evaporation of thinner.
Fig. 5.29.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Measures. Make evaporation speed slower using slow drying thinner and avoid
coagulation
of moisture.
Treatments. Watersand the blushing spot with waterpapers of #800 - 1000 and refinish
with
diluted paints.
Remedy and Prevention :
• If humidity is high, add retarded to slow down evaporation of the thinner or use a
thinner
which evaporates more slowly. The panel can also be warmed before painting.
Do not raise gun air pressure very high (the higher the air pressure, the faster the solvent
evaporates).
5.2.7. Shrinkage. Shrinkage can occur when the solvent from a fresh top coat penetrates
the
paint of the old coat, causing the old paint to swell and then shrink. When this happens,
inner
Scanned with
CamScanner
Fig. 5.30. Shrinkage
Cause. Use of a paint with poor weather resistance.
Remedy and Prevention. Use a paint with good weather resistance characteristics.
5.3.6. Yellowing. Yellowing occurs if the clear coat or resin in a light coloured paint film
is
scorched by the ultra-violet rays of the sun. The paint finish turns yellowish or brownish.
WWW Apollo
Fig. 5.59. Yellowing.
Phenomena. Paint film turns yellowish (The phenomenon is remarkable in whitish
colours
and silver metallic colours).
Causes :
Use of a paint with poor weather resistance.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

• Cellulose nitrate yellows easily.

Resins turns yellowish by ultra-violet ray (Yellowing is remarkable in nitro-cellulose
based paints such as lacquer and NC modified acrylic paint).
Materials:
• Mis-choice of the paint
Mis-choice of hardener
• Too much amount of hardener
Circumstances :
• Strong ultra-violet ray.
O
A HARDENER B HARDENER
Scanned lith
CamScanner
Fig. 5.60.
Fig. 5.61.
170
Measures. Choose the paints of less yellowing tendency. Apply the specified volume of
bardener for poly-urethane type paints.
Treatments. Repaint with the paint of less yellowing tendency.
Remedy and Prevention :
• Use a paint with good weather resistance characteristics.
5.3.7. Cracking. Cracking may occur after the paint finish is exposed to the ultra-violet
rays
of the sun, rain, beat and other elements for some time. When union of the resin is broken
(depolymerization), it allows absorption of moisture which causes the paint film to swell.
Then, as it
dries, the film shrinks.
During repeated swelling and shrinking the finish gradually becomes brittle and frail so
that
any external impact, sunlight, rain, sudden temperature changes, etc. causes it to crack.
PE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 5.62. Cracking

Causes:
Use of a single thick coat of air-dry type clear coat (air-dry type paint does not have good
softness of adhesion characteristics and cannot withstand the contraction between the
outer and under layers of paint).
Undercoat applied too thickly and in sufficient drying time allowed before application of
the top coat.
• Repainted several times with air-dry type paint.
Remedy and Prevention :
Instead of a single thick coat of air-dry type clear, apply a mist coat of clear and base
paint.
• Do not apply undercoat too thickly and allow sufficient time to dry.
If the panel has been painted several times in the past, strip off all the old paint before
repainting.
Remedy Method:
. If severe, strip off the paint and repaint.
5.3.8. Nibs :
Scanned with
Phonenoma. Popping appears on the film surface.
SUBSTRATE
La Scanner
170
Measures. Choose the paints of less yellowing tendency. Apply the specified volume of
bardener for poly-urethane type paints.
Treatments. Repaint with the paint of less yellowing tendency.
Remedy and Prevention :
• Use a paint with good weather resistance characteristics.
5.3.7. Cracking. Cracking may occur after the paint finish is exposed to the ultra-violet
rays
of the sun, rain, beat and other elements for some time. When union of the resin is broken
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(depolymerization), it allows absorption of moisture which causes the paint film to swell.
Then, as it
dries, the film shrinks.
During repeated swelling and shrinking the finish gradually becomes brittle and frail so
that
any external impact, sunlight, rain, sudden temperature changes, etc. causes it to crack.
PE
Fig. 5.62. Cracking
Causes:
Use of a single thick coat of air-dry type clear coat (air-dry type paint does not have good
softness of adhesion characteristics and cannot withstand the contraction between the
outer and under layers of paint).
Undercoat applied too thickly and in sufficient drying time allowed before application of
the top coat.
• Repainted several times with air-dry type paint.
Remedy and Prevention :
Instead of a single thick coat of air-dry type clear, apply a mist coat of clear and base
paint.
• Do not apply undercoat too thickly and allow sufficient time to dry.
If the panel has been painted several times in the past, strip off all the old paint before
repainting.
Remedy Method:
. If severe, strip off the paint and repaint.
5.3.8. Nibs :
Scanned with
Phonenoma. Popping appears on the film surface.
SUBSTRATE
La Scanner
Causes. Foreign articles adhere on the film before
wuch-dry and the part of the film projects.
Circumstances. Insufficient cleaning of the painting
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

work floor
Fig. 5.63.
AN
Facility and Equipment:
Shortage of booth air pressure
Defects of booth filters
• Insufficient cleaning of spray guns
Defects of air cleaner.
Painting Works :
• Dusty working clothes.
Insufficient cleaning of the car body.
Insufficient cleaning of the sanding dusts.
• Trash of masking papers (newspapers etc.)
Material:
Insufficient straining the paints.
Fig. 5.64
WS
YO
IZOL
Fig. 5.65.
Fig. 5.66.
Measures :
Keep the painting area clean and free from trashes and dusts.
Prevent working area from floating dusts by watering the floor before painting.
• Wear the anti-dust working clothes and use the proper masking papers and tapes.
Treatments. Abrase off small nibs with a knife or grinding stone of #1500-2000 and
polish
up the area with Fine to Extra-fine compounds.
5.3.9. Metallic Mottling - Pearl Mottling (Spray Mottling, Re-Mottling):
Phenomena. Uneven location of aluminium (pearl)
particles produces different partial reflections.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Causes. Spray-painted metallics produce uneven locations

of aluminium particles. Or, aluminium particles flow, float and locate
unevenly when clear coat is applied. (Mottling of painting metallic
enamels : Spray mottling. Mottling after clear coating: Re-mottling.)
Circumstances
• Low temperature
Scann-foo fast blowing speed.
CamScanner
Fig. 5.67
PAINT TECHNIQUES
172
-
-
AMAL
Facility and Equipment
Too big size of spray gun nozzle (Insufficient
atomization of the paint)
• Defects of spray guns (uneven spray pattern).
Painting Works
Low temperatures of car body
Thick paint film
Low spray pressure
Fig. 5.68.
Too much spraying emission volume.
Too narrow spray pattern
Too slow pray gun speed
Too short spray spray gun distance
Too thick clear coating
Short intervals of coatings (especially clear
coatings)
Fig. 5.69
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Materials:
• Slow evaporation of thinner.
• Too low viscosity, or too high viscosity.
• Improper separation of aluminium particles (insufficient agitation).
Measures. Spray under good atomization of the paints and with proper spraying intervals
and
stop the liquidity of paint film quickly. Refrain from a thick film clear coating.
Treatments. Slightly abrase after curing and touch-up.
5.3.10. Loss of Gloss:
Phoenomena. Gloss of paint surface disappears in short period after painting (about one
month).
Causes. High absorption of paints into the old film or under coat. Also, sbortage of
hardener
and poor evaporation of solvent of top coat causes loss of the gloss of paint film.
Painting Works:
Thin paint film
Scanned with
CamScanne Fig. 5.70.
Fig. 5.71.
PAINT TECHNIQUES
172
-
-
AMAL
Facility and Equipment
Too big size of spray gun nozzle (Insufficient
atomization of the paint)
• Defects of spray guns (uneven spray pattern).
Painting Works
Low temperatures of car body
Thick paint film
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Low spray pressure

Fig. 5.68.
Too much spraying emission volume.
Too narrow spray pattern
Too slow pray gun speed
Too short spray spray gun distance
Too thick clear coating
Short intervals of coatings (especially clear
coatings)
Fig. 5.69
Materials:
• Slow evaporation of thinner.
• Too low viscosity, or too high viscosity.
• Improper separation of aluminium particles (insufficient agitation).
Measures. Spray under good atomization of the paints and with proper spraying intervals
and
stop the liquidity of paint film quickly. Refrain from a thick film clear coating.
Treatments. Slightly abrase after curing and touch-up.
5.3.10. Loss of Gloss:
Phoenomena. Gloss of paint surface disappears in short period after painting (about one
month).
Causes. High absorption of paints into the old film or under coat. Also, sbortage of
hardener
and poor evaporation of solvent of top coat causes loss of the gloss of paint film.
Painting Works:
Thin paint film
Scanned with
CamScanne Fig. 5.70.
Fig. 5.71.
PANVI ULI LUIU, UMUULU ANULUHRECTIONS
• Polishing of insufficient drying film,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Material:
• High absorption of under coat
Insufficient drying of under coat
• Too low viscosity of top coat paint
Shortage of hardener
• Too slow evaporation of thinner,
Measures. Refrain from too slow drying thinner and observe the proper film thickness.
Also,
keep the proper mixing ratio of the hardener.
Treatment :
• In case of slight matting, dry the film sufficiently and polish with compounds.
• When putty marks or traces of sanding appear, abrase with wet sanding and repaint.
Scanned with
cas In case of mixing failure of 2-component paints, remove the whole area and repaint.
CamScanner
T tt
PAINI ULILULU
distortions occur, wrinkles forn in the top coat and these expand when beated.
Causes :
Deterioration of the old coat.
The old coat was insufficiently force-dried (baked).
The old coat was an oxidation polymerization type paint (acrylic enamel).
Repainting was done during the reaction time of 2-component reaction type paint.
As shown in the illustration at right, the paint film was exposed to thinner during
repainting
Remedy and Prevention :
If the old film is deteriorated, scrape if off or apply an anti-shrinkage sealer.
If the old, thermosetting type coat was not sufficiently dried, either dry it completely or
scarp if off.
If the old coat was an oxidation polymerization type paint (acrylic enamel), scrape if off
or apply an anti-shrinkage sealer.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

If using a 2-component reaction type paint, allow it to dry completely before applying
another coat.
If a paint film which would dissolve in thinner is partially exposed, cover it with urethane
primer-surfacer or anti-shrinkage sealer before repainting.
SOLVENT
TOP COAT PAINT
2-COMPONENT
REACTION TYPE
PAINT FILM
AIR-DRY TYPE
PAINT FILM
Fig.5.31. Shrinkage during Repainting.
Remedy Method :
. If severe, smooth by wet sanding with a #400 - 600 grit abrasive paper and then apply
urethane primer-surfacer or anti-shrinkage sealer. Otherwise, strip off the paint and
repaint.
Note. If an anti-shrinkage sealer or urethane primer-surfacer is used is some areas,
curling
may occur at the boundaries of the old film (such as with air-dry type paint wben
dissolved in solvent),
so repainting should be done in block style.
5.2.8. Bleeding Bleeding occurs when the colour of the old finish or undercoat is
dissolved
in the top coat solvent and rises to the top.
CamScanner
Fig. 5.32. Bleeding.
Causes :
Use of a primary colour which causes bleeding in the old paint film.
• Putty not dried sufficiently.
Tar, etc. adhered to the painted surface.
- TOP COAT PIGMENT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

RESIN
- SOLVENT
OLD PAINT PIGMENT
RESIN
O
10
OOO
A~A~A~A
OLD PAINT PIGMENT
APPLICATION OF TOP COAT
OLD FILM PIGMENT DISSOLVES INTO
TOP COAT LAYER.
Fig. 5.33. Formation of Bleeding.
Remedy and Prevention :
Before total application, test a small portion to see if bleeding is likely to occur. If so,
apply anti-bleeding sealer or scrape off the old finish.
Dry putty sufficiently.
Clean painting surface sufficiently.
Remedy Method:
If light bleeding occurs, wet sand with a #400 - 600 grit abrasive paper, apply anti-
sealer and repaint
. If severe, scrape off the paint and repaint.
529. Pip Holes. Pin Holes or scales may occur in the paint finish if it is dried too lasu
Cand hardens before all of the solvent in the paint film can evaporate, the solvent is 10
the paint dries and hardens before all of the solve
o burst through the finish, leaving tiny pin-holes. Pin-holester
CamScanner
is tend to appear mostly at panel edges, che
c
Solvent is forced
PAINT DEFEL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 5.34. Pin Holes

where the paint accumulates and all of the solvent cannot evaporate quickly enough
during
forced-drying.
Phenomeana. Small soluables like pinholes appear on the paint filmn.
Causes :
High viscosity paint applied in one thick coat.
Heat applied suddenly after painting.
Lasufficient drying of under coat.
Pin-holes in under coat or putty (Air is trapped in these holes and bursts out when the
paint is dried, leaving more pin holes).
SOLVENT EVAPORATES BY
BURSTING THROUGH FINISH
INFRA-RED LAMP
FILM DRIES BEFORE HOLES
CAN BE FILLED IN.
food
102020
SOLVENT
SURFACE
HARDENING
SUDDEN O
DRYING
O
O
PAINT HAS TIME
TO FLOW AND
COVER UP HOLES
IN FINISH
SOLVENT EVAPORATES
THROUGH PAINT FILM.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

SOLVENT EVAPORATES Voloso

01010
O
0
PROPER
0
0
0
DRYING
CS Scale
CamScanner
Fig. 5.35. Formation of Pin Holes.
PAINT TECHNIQUES
Use of quick-evaporating thinner.
Solvents of the paint film evaporate
too fast in the drying process of
surface portion and these traces
produce pinholes. (This tends to occur
at the corner of component parts
where solvents tend to be pooled).
Circumstances :
High temperature
• Too fast blow speed.
Facility and Equipment
Fig. 6.36.
• Too quick heating-up.
• Moisture in the spray air,
Painting Works :
• Too much spraying emission volume
Thick paint film
Putty boles
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Too low spray pressure

Fig. 5.37
High viscosity
Insufficient setting time.
Material:
Mis-choice of thinner
Too fast evaporation of thinner.
Measures. Refrain from thick film
Fig. 5.38.
painting. Dry the paint film gradually to prevent
suddent popping of solvents.
Treatments, Abrase off the pinhole part
and touch-up.
Remedy and Prevention :
Adjust viscosity according to
THINNER
manufacturer's instructions.
THINNER
Apply paint in 3-4 coats, allowing
Fig. 5.39.
sufficient flash time in between.
Allow sufficient setting time before force-drying and raise heat gradually.
Allow under coat to dry thoroughly before application of top coat.
Check for pipholes before application of top coat. If found, fill in with putty.
Use a thinner suitable to the temperature.
Remedy Method:
• If severe, wet sand with a #400 - 600 grit abrasive paper and fill in pin-boles with putty.
Scanned with
CamScanner
T
.DEFECTS, CAUSES AND CORRECTIONS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

PAINT DEFECTS
5.2.10. Putty Traces. Putty traces can occur if the putty has not sufficiently dried before
lication of the top coat because the solvent will cause the putty to soften. Also, if there is
a
nice in the swelling between the old paint and the putty, it will appear as putty traces in
the new
nop coal.
Fig. 5.40. Putty Tracos.
Causes :
• Putty not allowed to dry sufficiently before application of top coat.
Feather edging of poly putty extends to old coat (especially true for air-dry paint). The
old paint will swell due to the solvent from the new top coat but poly putty swells very
litule, resulting in deformation around the poly putty feather edge.
Primer-surfacer or top coat applied in one coat only.
• Paint viscosity too low.
OLD COAT SWELLS DUE TO
SOLVENT IN NEW TOP COAT.
POLY PUTTY
PUTTY TRACES
TOP COAT SOLVENT
PENETRATES
-OLD PAINT FILM
Fig. 5.41. Ocourrence of Putty Traces due to Differences in Expansion Between the in
Old Film and Poly Putty
Remedy and Prevention :
• Allow the putty to dry sufficiently.
• Do not apply putty on top of old paint (especially air-dry type paint).
Adjust viscosity in accordance to the ambient temperature by referring to maker's
Scaree
instructions, and apply paint in 3 or 4 coats.
Camscanner
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Remedy Method:
• If severe, wet sand with a #400 - 600 grit abrasive paper and apply anti-shrinkage sealer
or urethane primer-surfacer before repainting. Otherwise, scrape off the paint and repaint.
Note. In anti-shrinkage scaler or urethane primer-surfacer is used in some areas, curling
may
occur at the boundaries of the old film (such as with air-dry type paint when dissolved in
solvent), so
repainting should be done in block style.
5.2.11. Abrasion Marks. This occurs when the solvent in the top coat causes the sanding
marks in the old paint film or base metal to expand and appear on the surface.
Fig.5.42. Abrasion Marks.
Phenomena. Sanding marks of abrasive papers appear remarkably.
Causes :
Too large grained abrasive paper used.
Undercoat not allowed to dry sufficiently before sanding and application of top coat.
Low viscosity paint applied in one thick coat.
Solvents of top coat paint swell the area abrased
with coarse sanding paper and paper marks
expand.
Painting works:
Excessive dillution of top coat paint.
Too thick spraying at one time.
Fig. 5.43
• Insufficient drying of undercoat paint.
Materials :
• Usage of too coarse sanding papers
Strong dissolvability of top coat paint.
Measures. Apply the finer sanding papers. Refrain
from too thick spraying of top coat at one time and spray with
proper intervals. Usages of sanding papers by the steps of #40
# 80 # 160 - 320 so that grains can cover the previous
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

paper marks.ed with

CamScanner
Fig. 5.44.
PA
163
Treatments. After full cure, eliminate the paper marks with # 600 - 800 papers and touch-
ud.
Also paper marks being inore remarkable on dark colours, usage of finer papers is
mended when dark colours are used for finishing.
Remedy and Prevention :
. Wet sand with a #400 - 600 grit abrasive paper before applying top coat.
. Allow undercoat to dry thoroughly before sanding.
• Adjust paint viscosity according to manufacturer's instructions, and apply in 3 or 4
coats.
5.2.12. Fade (Absorption). Fading occurs as the luster of the top coat is lost with passage
of time. If the undercoat is porous, the paint is absorbed, resulting in colour fade. Fade
also occurs if the
paint film has not sufficiently dried before rubbing compound is used on it.
Fig. 5.45. Fade.
Causes :
• Undercoat is high in viscosity and is porous.
Top coat applied before undercoat is allowed to dry sufficiently.
Top coat not allowed to dry thoroughly before using rubbing compound on it.
Too slow evaporating thinner used.
Top coat too thin.
Remedy and Prevention :
Use a paint which will not be so easily absorbed by the undercoat.
Allow both undercoat and top coat to dry thoroughly.
Use a thinner specified by the paint manufacturer.
• Apply the proper thickness top coat.
5.3. DEFECTS OCCURRING WITH TIME
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

5.3.1. Blisters. Blisters are small swells which occurs along the panel boundary when
there
As a decrease in the adhesion force of the paint film usually caused by moisture
absorption.
Pheonmearta. Various bubbles appear on the paint film surface.

CHAPTER 5
After you have studied this chapter,
you should be able to:
MEASURING
SYSTEMS AND
MEASURING
TOOLS
Describe the basic differences
between the metric system and
the USC system.
- Explain the relationship among
linear measurements, weight,
and volume in the metric system.
Explain how to convert measure-
ments from one system into the
other metric into USC or USC
into metric).
List and describe the measuring
tools discussed in the chapter.
Demonstrate how to use
measuring tools in the shop.
MEASUREMENTS AND
MEASURING SYSTEMS
> 5-1 MEASUREMENTS
The metric system is used for the measurements in all
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

imported cars and most cars made in the United States. In

this book, the USC measurements are given first. The
metric equivalent follows in brackets. For example, 1 inch
[25.4 mm).
DIAL
INDICATOR
You make many kinds of measurements in the automotive
shop. These measurements tell you if parts are worn or
damaged. They also tell you if the parts are out of
adjustment or out of specs (3-4), and by how much.
Sometimes you measure engine vacuum or power,
alternator output, or battery voltage. Alignment specialists
measure angles in the front suspension system. But for
much service work, you measure length, diameter, or
clearance. For example, in engine work you often measure
the bore or diameter of the engine cylinders (Fig. 5-1).
You make these measurements either in inches or in mil-
limeters (mm). Which units you use depends on whether
you are measuring in the United States Customary (USC)
system or in the metric system. Figure 5-2 compares the
two systems. Markings along the upper edge of the rule or
steel scale are in centimeters and millimeters (metric). The
markings on the lower edge are in inches and fractions of
inches (USC system).
CYLINDER-
BORE GAUGE
>
5-2 USC AND METRIC SYSTEMS
CYLINDER
BORE
In the United States, we have grown up with the USC
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

system. It uses inches, feet, miles, pints, quarts, and

gallons. We all know the meaning when someone says a
piston measures 3 inches in diameter. In the metric system,
tinis is 76.2 millimeters (mm). One inch equals 25.4 mm.
Fig. 5-1 Measuring the diameter or bore of a cylinder with a
cylinder-bore gauge. (Chrysler Corporation)
1 MILLIMETER (mm)
(1/1000 OF A METER)
1 CENTIMETER (cm)
[1/100 OF A METER)
METRIC
NIITTIMET
1 centimeter (cm), 10 cm cquals 1 dccimcter (dm), and
10 dm equals 1 meter (m) (Fig. 5-3). One thousand meters
equals 1 kilometer (km), which is 0.62 mile.
The system works because prefixes like milli., centi-.
and kilo- have special meanings. For example,
Kilo- means 1000 (one thousand).
Deci- means 0.10 (one-tenth).
Centi- means 0.01 (one-hundredth).
Milli- means 0.001 (one-thousandth).
Compare this with our USC system:
12 inches = 1 foot.
3 feet = 1 yard, or 36 inches.
1760 yards = 1 mile, or 5280 feet, or 63,360 inches.
→ 5-4 USING THE USC SYSTEM
USCS
IN
1/163/16 5/16 7/16 9/16 11/16 13/16 15/16
Fig. 5-2 Rule or steel scale marked in both the metric and the
USC systems.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

>
5-3 REASONS FOR GOING METRIC
Every other major country in the world uses the metric
system. There are only three basic measurements. These
are meter (m) for length, liter (L) for volume, and gram (g)
for weight. The system is based on multiples of 10, just like
our money system. Ten cents cquals one dime and ten
dimes equals one dollar. In the same way, 10 mm equals
When making small measurements in the USC system, you
deal with small fractions of an inch (Fig. 5-2). For
example, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64. Sometimes these
may not be small crough. Many automotive measurements
are in thousandths and sometimes ten-thousandths of an
inch. For example, 1/64 inch is 0.0156 inch. A bearing
clearance may be 0.002 inch (two thousandths of an inch).
To convert fractions of an inch into decimal fractions, you
may need a table of decimal equivalents (Fig. 5-4). In the
metric system, just move the decimal point (Fig. 5-3).
5-5 WEIGHT AND VOLUME IN THE
METRIC SYSTEM
10 millimeters (mm)
10 centimeters
10 decimeters
10 meters
10 dekameters
10 hectometers
1 centimeter (cm)
I decimeler (dm) = 100 millimeters
I meter (m) = 1000 millimeters
1 dekameter (dam)
I hectometer (hm) = 100 m.eters
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters

The metric unit of mass, or weight, is the gram. It is the
weight of 1 cubic centimeter (cc) of water at its tem-
perature of maximum density. A cubic centimeter is a cube
that measures 1 cm (1/100 m] on a side (Fig. 5-5). One
Fig. 5-3 Complete list of metric linear measurements. To convert
from one unit of measurement to another, move the decimal poir.t.
Inches
Inches
Inches
Fraction
Decimal
mm
Fraction
Decimal
mm
Fraction
Decimal
mm
0.0156
0.3969
0.3594
0.0312
0.7938
0.3750
0.0469
1.1904
C.3906
0.0625 1.5875
C.4062
0.0781
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1.9844
C.4219
0.0938
2.3812
C.4375
0.1094 27781
0.453'
0.1250 3.1750
0.4688
0.1406
35719
0.4844
0.1562
3 9688
0.5000
0.1719 4.3656
0.5156
0.1875
4.7525
0.5312
0.2031 5.1594
0.5469
0.2188
5.5562
0.5625
0.2344 5.9531
0.5781
0.2500
5.3500
0.5938
AWIT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Vi 54 Table for changing common fractions (in inches) to their

decimal or metric equivalen er
9.1281
9.5250
9.9219
10.3188
10.7156
11.1125
11.5094
11.9062
12.3091
12.7000
13 0969
13.4938
13.8906
14.2875
14.6844
15.0812
0.6875
0.7031
0.7188
0.7344
0.7500
0.7656
0.7812
0.7969
0.8125
0.8281
0.8439
0.8594
0.8750
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

0.8905
0.9C62
0.9219
17.4625
17 8594
18 2562
18.6531
19.0500
19.4469
19.8438
20.2406
206375
21,0344
21.4312
21.8281
22.2250
22.62.19
23.0188
23.4156
Length
1 km
= 1000 m
= 100,000 cm
im
= 100 cm
= 1000 mm
(millimeters)
Capacity and Volume
1 KL kiloliter)
= 1000 liters
= 100,000 CL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

centiliters)
= 1000 CC
= 1000 ml
(milliliters)
Mass and Welght
= 1000 g
= 100,000 g
(centigrams!
Fig. 5-6 Metric measurements for length, capacity and volume,
and mass and weight.
- 10 cm
1 kg
- 10 cm
10 cm
f-1cm
Fig. 5-5 A cubic centimeter is a cube measuring 1 cm on a side.
A liter is 1000 cc. Since the gram is the wcigkt of 1 cc of water, a
liter of water weighs 1000 g, or 1 kg.
LINEAR MEASUREMENT TOOLS
► 5-8 RULES
The simplest tool used for measuring linear distances is the
6-inch-long steel scale, or rule (Fig. 5-2). The tape
measure is another type of steel rule. However, neither is
accurate enough for most automotive service work.
> 5-9 THICKNESS GAUGES
thousand grams is 1 kilogram (kg). This is equal to 1000 cc
(Fig. 5-6).
The metric unit of volume for fluid (liquid) measurement
is the liter (L). It is slightly larger than a quart. The liter is
the volume of a cube that measures 10 cm on a side (or
1000 cc). This is the same measurement for weight or mass.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

One liter of water weighs 1 kg (1000 g). One kg equals 2.2

pounds.
> 5-6 WEIGHT AND VOLUME IN THE
USC SYSTEM
Thickness gauges, or feeler gunges, are strips or blades of
metal of various thicknesses (Fig. 5-7). They are used to
measure small gaps or distances such as the clearance
between two parts. Many thickness gauges are dual-dimen-
sioned. For example, the "3" and "0.08 mm" on the first
blade in Fig. 5-7 means it is 0.003 inch or 0.08 mm thick.
Stepped thickness gauges have a tip that is thinner than
the rest of the blade. The top blade in Fig. 5-8 is 0.004 inch
[0.10 min) thick at the tip. The rest of the blade is 0.006
inch (0.15 mm) thick.
Figure 5.9 shows a thickness gauge being used to check
the clearance between the rocker arm and valve stem in an
engine. On some engines, turning the adjusting nut changes
There is no direct relationship among linear measurements,
weight, and volume in the USC system. The relationship
among inches, feet, yards, and miles is given in 5-3.
These are linear measurements.
In measuring liquid volume in the USC system:
16 fluid Ounces (fl oz) = 1 pint (pt)
2 pints = 1 quart (qt)
4 quarts - 1 gallon (gal)
In weight measurements in the USC system:
16 ounces (oz) = 1 pound (lb)
2000 pounds = 1 ton
→ 5-7 CONVERTING USC
MEASUREMENTS TO METRIC
3
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

5
6
)
0.08 mm
0.10 mm
0.13 mm
8
0.15 mm
10
0.20 mm
0.25 mm
0.30 mm
0.33 mm
Sometimes you must convert USC measurements to metric
measurements, or from metric to USC. One way is to use
conversion tables, which your instructor may give you as a
handout for your notebook. These relate the various mea-
surements in one system to measurements in the other
systern. Another way is to use a hand-held calculator
CamScanner
O
)
Fig. 5-7 Set of thickness gauges.
4-6
0.10-0.15
68
0.15-0.20
WIRE THICKNESS GAUGE
18-TO
0.20-0.25
10-12
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

0.25-0.30
Fig. 5-8 Set of stepped thickness gauges.
SPARK PLUG
Fig. 5-20 Measuring spark-plug gap with a wire thickness gauge.
5-11 MICROMETERS
ADJUSTING
NOT
RACKER
ARM
TAPPET
COLLAPSER
A
The micrometer or "mike" is a hand-held precision meas-
uring instrument. In the USC system, it measures thick-
nesses in thousandths or ten-thousandths of an inch. Metric
measurements are in hundredths of a millimeter. The two
types of micrometer are the inside micrometer (Fig. 5-11)
and outside micrometer (Fig. 5-12). The outside
microme:er is used most in the automotive shop.
To be sure of accurate measurements, calibrate the
micrometer regularly. "Calibrate" means to check for
accuracy. Check the outside micrometer by first cleaning
the contact faces. Then close them lightly against the
standard bar or test gauge from the micrometer set. Follow
the procedure in the manufacturer's operating instructions,
or as explained by your instructor. A micrometer can be
damaged by improper use.
THICKNESS VALVE
GAUGE STEM
Fig. 5-9 Using a thickness gauge to check the clearance between
an engine rocker arm and valve stem. (Ford Motor Company)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ochner
INSIDE MICROMETER
ute of
nettora
THIMBLE
the clearance. The adjustment is correct when the specified-
thickness blade fits the gap snugly, without binding.
Stepped thickness gauges are used for fine adjustments.
For example, suppose the specifications call for a valve
clearance of 0.005 inch (0.13 mm). Select the 0.004 to
0.006 inch (0.10 to 0.15 mm) stepped gauge. Then make
the adjustment. Clearance is correct when the 0.004-inch
[0.10-mm) end enters the gap but the thicker part does not.
Stepped thickness gauges are called go no-go gauges.
Most thickness gauges are made of steel. However,
sometimes you need a nonmagnetic thickness gauge. Brass
thickness gauges are available for use near permanent
magnets. One example is measuring the air gap in an elec-
tronic ignition distributor (>33-23). The permanent magnet
that is part of the pickup coil in the distributor will attract
the steel gauge. This prevents an accurate measurement.
Brass or plastic gauges are unaffected by magnetism.
> 5-10 WIRE GAUGES
EXTENSION ROD
HUB
Wire gauges are precisely-sized pieces of round wire (Fig.
5-10). The diameter is usually marked on the handle or
holder, Spark-plug gaps and other openings are measured
with wire gauges. The specified gauge should fit into the
gap snugly, without bindinger
Fig. 5-11 Measuring the cylinder diameter or bore with an inside
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

micrometer. (ATW)
RATCHET STOP
RATCHET
SCREW
RATCHET PLUNGER
RATCHET BODY
RATCHET SPRING
ADJUSTING NUT
SPINDLE NUT-
BARREL SPRINGE N
RATCHET
THIMBLE -
SLEEVE
LOCKNUT
BARREL (HUB)
STOP
BERTO
SPINDLE
LOCKNUT
D
ANVIL
FRAME
ROD
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS
Fig. 5-12 Principle parts of an outside micrometer. (The L.S.
Starren Company)
Fig. 5-13 Using an outside micrometer to measure the diameter
of a rod.
→
5-12 OUTSIDE MICROMETER
→
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

5-13 READING THE USC

MICROMETER
The outside micrometer (Fig. 5-12) has a frame and a
movable spindle. To measure ex object, place it between
the spindle and the anvil. Turning the thimble moves the
spindle toward or away I'rom the anvil. The thimble has
precision screw threads. These cause de spindle to move as
the thimble is tumed.
The USC or "inch micrometer" reads in thousandths of an
inch. Some read in len-thousandths. To read the mike, look
at both the revolution line and the thimble position (Fig.
5:14). Every revolution of the thimble moves it exactly one
marking on the revolution line. Each marking means
I wenty-five thousandıhs (0,025) of an inch. The markings
on the thimble run from 0 to 24. There are 25 markings on
the thimble. When the thimble is turned cnough for its next
mark to align with the revolution line, the spindle has
moved (1.0%)inch. This is the measurement, for example, if
the thimble moves from 24 to 23. When the thimble turns
one complete revolution, it moves the spindle 25 markings
Improper use can damage a mike. Use it properly
After each use, wipe it clean with a clean shop towel. Then
return the mike to its case. Never drop a mike or treat it
roughly. This could destroy its accuracy.
Figure 5-13 shows how to measure the diameter of a rod.
Hold the rod against the anvil. Tum the ratchet stop until
the spindle touches the rod. The ratchet stop prevents you
from applying excessive force on the mike. When the
spindle touches the rod, the ratchet stop clicks and slips.
Now take the reading.
HUB
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

THIMBLE
0
1
2
21
20
CAUTION!
Never try to measure a rotating shaft or other moving part.
The mike might jam on the part and start spinning around
with it. You could be hit by the mike, or by flying particles if
the mike breaks. Serious injury could result.
REVOLUTION LINE
Fig. 5-14 Hub and thimble markings on a inch micrometer which
measures in thousandths (1/1000) and ten-thousandths (1/10.000)
of an inch.
(0.025 inch). This is the distance between the revolution-
line marks.
To read the mike setting shown in Fig. 5-14, notice that
you can see the "2." You can also see one of the in-between
markings on the revolution line. This means that the
distance between the spindle and anvil is 0.2 inch plus
0.025 inch, or 0.225 inch--plus something more. That
something more is the amount the thimble has turned away
from the 0.225 reading on the revolution line. This is 24, or
0.024 inch. So add 0.024 to the 0.225 to get the total
reading of 0.249 inch. Figure 5-15 shows other micrometer
readings. Practice using the micrometer.
> 5-14 METRIC MICROMETERS
mark on the reading line, plus one of the upper markings
(1.0 mm). This makes 11 mm. To this, add the thimble
marking of 45 (0.45 mm). The total reading is 11.45 mm.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

One complete revolution of the thimble moves it along the

reading line 0.50 mm.
Some micrometers provide direct readings in millimeters
(Fig. 5.17) or in inches. As you adjust the thimble, a
counter inside the mike shows the measurement in numbers
or digits. Therefore, these mikes are metric (or inch) digital
micrometers.
→ 5-15 MEASURING INSIDE
DIAMETER WITH OUTSIDE
MICROMETER AND
TELESCOPE GAUGE
The metric micrometer reads in hundredths of a millimeter.
You read directly from the revolution or reading line on the
barrel, and the thimble. Millimeter marks are above the
reading line and half millimeter marks are below. In Fig.
5-16, the thimble is backed off to show the 10 (10 mm)
An outside mike and a telescope gauge can measure inside
diameters (Fig. 5-18). Adjust the telescope gauge to the
diameter. Then measure the telescope gauge with the
outside mike.
HUB
10
5
COUNTER
0
REVOLUTION LINE
CORRECT READING 0.304 INCH
Fig. 5-17 A metric digital micrometer adjusted to a reading of
7.00 mm. (The L.S. Starrer Company)
CORRECT READING 0.226 INCH
THIMBLE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TELESCOPE
GAUGE
CORRECT READING 0.224 INCH
Fig. 5-15 Reading the micrometer.
READING
LINE
THIMBLE
11,45 mm
BARREL
25 mm
@
Scened
Fig. 5.16 Metric micrometer adjusted to a reading of 11.45 mm.
Fig. 5-18 Using a telescope gauge and an outside micrometer to
measure the diameter of a small cylinder. (The L.S. Starrett
Company)
>
5-16 MACHINE-TOOL MICROMETER
ADJUSTMENTS
Many machine tools in the automotive shop have
micrometer adjustments. The machines have knobs or dials
with markings similar to those on mikes. This enables the
technician to set the machine precisely.
>
5-17 DIAL INDICATORS
bezel, or grooved rim, until the needle aligns with the 0
mark. Then move the part back and forth. Read the amount
of needle movement on the dial. The total distance that the
needle moves--to the left and to the right of the 0 mark is
the total indicator reading (TIR).
Figures 5-1 and 5-21 show how to check an engine
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cylinder with a cylinder-bore gauge. It is basically a dial

indicator in a special holder. The gauge is moved up and
down and then around the cylinder bore. Needle movement
shows surface variation. This is the wcar, taper, and out-
of-round it the cylinder.
A cylinder-bore gauge and an outside micrometer
together can measure the diameter of the cylinder. Place the
gauge in the cylinder and note the needle position. Remove
the gauge from the cylinder. Then measure the same
reading with an outside micrometer (Fig. 5-22).
> 5-18 VERNIER CALIPER
The dial indicator has a dial face and a needle to register
measurements (Fig. 5-19). The necdle moves in relation to
movement of a movable arm or plunger. As the plunger
moves, the needle shows the distance or variation. The
reading may be in thousandths of an inch or hundredths of
a millimeter.
The dial indicator can measure end play in shafts or
gears (Fig. 5-20). To take the measurement, push the
plunger against the part you are measuring until the needle
moves. Tighten the clamp screw (Fig. 5-19). Rotate the
A vernier caliper (Fig. 5-23) can take both inside and
outside measurements. These may be in either thousandths
of an inch or hundredths of a millimeter. On the USC
vernier caliper shown in Fig. 5-23, marks on the frame
BEZEL
SERRATIONS
DIAL
NEEDLE
OS
BEZEL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CLAMP
SCREW
REVOLUTION
COUNTER
MOVABLE
ARM
(PLUNGER)
CONTACT
POINT
Fig. 5-19 A dial indicator that has a range of 1.000 inch. Each
mark around the dial represents 0.001 inch. (The L.S. Starreti
Company)
Fig. 5-21 A cylinder-bore gauge can measure cylinder wear,
taper, and out-of-round.
INPUT SHAFT
SEAL
NEEDLE
DIAL
CONTACT ARM
GA
DIAL
INDICATORKY
Fig. 5-20 Checking the endplay of an automatic transmission
ihpur shaft with a dial indicator. (Chrysler Corporation)
CamScanner
Fig. 5-22 Measuring the reading of the cylinder-bore gauge 10
find the diameter of an engine cylinder.
JAW LOCK SCREW
SLIDING RULE
CARRIER LOCK SCREW
FRAME
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

I
CARRIER
CARRIER
0 0.001 IN INSIDE
Wamwulinimo
O
.
2
2
4THOLMASSA
......
..............
HARDCNCD & STABILITE
NUKA!
non
inn
Hinta
0.001 IN, OUTSIDE O
tanto
MASTER OR
0
ROD
ADJUSTING NUT
FIXED
JAW
VERNIER
SCALE
ADJUSTABLE JAW
-MEASURING SURFACES FOR INSIDE DIAMETERS
MEASURING SURFACES FOR OUTSIDE DIAMETERS
Fig. 5-23 Measuring the diameter of a rod with a vernier caliper. (The L.S.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Starrett Company)
RATCHET STOP
THIMBLE
BARREL
show twentieths (0.050) of an inch. Every other mark is
numbered to represent one-tenth (0.100) inch. The vernier
scale is divided into 50 parts and numbered by fives from 0
to 50. The 50 divisions on the vernier scale occupy the
same space as 49 divisions on the frarne. The difference is
1/1000 (0.001) inch.
Read the vernier caliper (Fig. 5-23) by noting how far
the O mark on the vemier scale is from the O mark on the
frame. Do this by adding up how many inches, tenths
(0.100), and twentieths (0.050) there are between the two
marks. Then add the number of divisions on the vernier
scale from 0 to the line which aligns exactly with a line on
the frame. Each of these lines represents 0.001. There are
also dial calipers which combine a vernier caliper with a
dial indicator. The dial makes reading small measurements
easier and more accurate.
> 5-19 DEPTH GAUGE
BASE
OF
MEASURING
ROD
Fig. 5-24 Using a depth gauge to measure the depth of a slot.
(The L.S. Starrett Company)
feel a slight drag as the split ball slides in the hole. Remove
the gauge. Then measure the distance between the two
sides of the split ball with an outside micrometer.
The depth gauge (Fig. 5-24) is a type of micrometer. It
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

measures the depth of grooves or holes. You can insert dif-

ferent length measuring rods after unscrewing the ratchet
stop. Rods that measure depths up to 9 inches (228.6 mm)
are available.
On some vernier and dial calipers (>5-18), a thin blade
attaches to the adjustable jaw. As the jaw moves, the blade
extends from the other end of the frame. This extension can
serve as a depth gauge.
>> 5-20 SMALL-HOLE GAUGE
PRESSURE AND VACUUM
MEASUREMENTS
> 5-21 PRESSURE GAUGE
The small-hole gauge (Fig. 5-25) measures the diameter of
small holes. Figure 5-25 shows how to measure the wear in
an engine valve guide (>14.9). Adjust the gauge until you
CamScanner
A fluid is a substance that has no rigidity. A liquid or gas is
a fluid. Squeezing or compressing causes it to exert equal
force in all directions. This force applied to each unit of
surface area is pressure.
>
5-22 VACUUM GAUGE
GAUGE
L BELLMOUTH
WEAR
SPLIT BALL
VALVE
GUIDE
MICROMETER
Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi at sea level. When the
pressure is less than atmospheric, the reduced pressure is a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

vacuum. The engine is a sort of vacuum pump. The intake

strokes create a vacuum that causes the air-fuel mixture to
enter the cylinders. The amount of vacuum the engine
develops is a measure of its condition. Suppose the engine
is running at a steady idle speed. Normal vacuum in the
intake manifold should be from 15 to 22 "inches of
mercury."
If the engine cannot produce normal vacuum, something
is wrong. Improper vacuum may affect braking, fuel
economy, and exhaust emissions. It may also affect the
shifting of the automatic transmission, and the operation of
the heater and air conditioner.
Figure 5-27 shows a vacuum gauge connected to the
intake manifold to read manifold vacuum. The gauge
measures vacuum in inches of mercury. There is no
mercury in the gauge. The reading only indicates how high
the vacuum would raise a column of mercury in a
barometer (>9-16). This is an instrument for measuring
atmospheric pressure. In Fig. 5-27, the needle shows a
reading of "20 inches," or "20 inches Hg." Hg is the
chemical symbol for mercury.
In the metric system, vacuum is measured in millimeters
of mercury. To convert inches of vacuum to millimeters of
vacuum:
1 inch Hg = 25.4 mm Hg
For shop use, 1 inch Hg = 25 mm Hg is usually accurate
enough.
Fig. 5-25 Using a small-hole gauge to measure the size of a small
hole.
You measure many pressures on the car. These include
pressure in the automatic transmission, cylinder com-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

pression pressure, fuel pump pressure, power-steering

pump pressure, and tire pressure. In the USC system,
pressure is measured in pounds per square inch (psi). This
is the pounds of force applied to each square inch of
surface. In the metric system, pressure is measured in
kilopascals (kPa).
1 psi – 6.895 kPa
For quick conversions in the shop, use I psi equals
7 kPa.
VACUUM
GAUGE
Figure 5-26 shows a cylinder-compression tester. It
measures the pressure in the engine cylinder at the end of
the compression stroke. If the compression pressure is low,
there is trouble in the engine. Later chapters explain the
possible causes.
To convert a compression pressure of 120 psi to its
metric equivalent:
120 psi X 7 = 840 kPa
COMPRESSION
TESTER
INTAKE
MANIFOLD
C
ADAPTER
Fig. 5-26 Using a cylinder compression tester. (Sun Electric
Corporation)
CamScanner
Fig. 5-27 Vacuum gauge connected to measure the vacuum in the
engine intake manifold. (Sun Electric Corporation)
CHAPTER 7
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

After studying this chapter, you

should be able to:
SHOP HAND
TOOLS
Describe the four types of basic
hand tools used in the
automotive shop, and give
two examples of each.
Explain the difference between
a torque Wrench and a
torque angle gauge, and
demonstrate their use.
Show how to remove a broken
bolt or stud.
Demonstrate how to select, set
up, and use a pressure-screw
puller and a slide-hammer puller.
Show how to cut threads on
a rod and in a hole using a
tap-and-die set.
7-1 HAND TOOLS AND POWER
TOOLS
dead-blow hammer has a hollow head partially filled with
small metal shot (Fig. 7-2). This reduces rebounding.
TURNING TOOLS
→ 7-3 SCREWDRIVERS
Automotive service work requires a great variety of tools.
The proper tools properly used enable you to do a job with
safety, speed, and efficiency. You need two main types of
tools in the shop. These are hand tools and power tools.
This chapter covers hand tools (Fig. 7-1). Your hand
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

supplies the energy to use them. They include striking,

turning. gripping, and cutting tools. They also include tube
bending and flaring toots.
Power Tools or machine Tools use an energy source other
than your muscle power. Chapter 8 describes these tools
which are powered by electricity, compressed air, or
hydraulic pressure.
Use the proper screwdriver to drive or turn screws.
Screwdrivers are made in a variety of sizes, shapes, and
special-purpose designs. The most common type has a
single flat blade for driving screws with slotted heads (Fig.
7-3). There are also Torx-head and Phillips-head screw-
drivers (Fig. 7-3). Figure 6-8 shows other types.
Always select a screwdriver of the proper type and size
for the job. When using a single-blade screwdriver, the
blade should completely fill the screw slot. This helps
prevent damage to the screw head.
7-4 WRENCHES
STRIKING TOOLS
> 7-2 HAMMERS
A hammer is a hand tool used for striking. The ball-peen
hammer (Fig. 7-2) is the one used most in the shop. Grip
the hammer on the end of the handle. Swing it so the
hammer face strikes the object or surface squarely. Avoid
hitting the object at an angle. Use rawhide, plastic, brass,
and rubber hammers to strike easily marred surfaces. A
cam scanne
ed surfaces. A
A wrench is a long-handled tool with fixed or adjustable
jaws. You use a wrench to turn bolts, nuts, and screws
(Fig. 7-4). To work on both USC and metric fasteners, you
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

need both USC and metric wrenches. A 3/8-10 1-inch USC

set and a 6- to 19-mm metric set will handle most jobs.
You need these sizes in sets of open-end, box, and combi-
nation wrenches.
HEAD
BALL-PEEN
TOOL
CHEST
HANDLE
FACE
BALL-PEEN
RAWHIDE-FACED
ROLL
CABINET
PLASTIC-TIP
BRASS
Snapon
METAL
SHOT
RUBBER
DEAD BLOW
Fig. 7-2 Various hammers used in the shop.
Fig. 7-1 A set of hand tools used by the automotive technician
(Snap-on Tools Corporation)
SLOTTED-HEAD SCREW
HANDLE
BLADE
7-5 OPEN-END WRENCH
SHANK
SLOTTED-HEAD SCREWDRIVER
The open-end wrench usually has the jaw opening at a 15-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

degree angle to the handle (Fig. 7-4). Turn the bolt or nut
as far as the space permits. Then flip the wrench over for
further turning of the fastener.
An open-end wrench has a different size on each end.
Make sure the wrench fits snugly against the flats. These
are the sides of a nut or bolt head. A loose fit may break or
spring the jaws of the wrench. Springing jaws spread apart
and round off the comers of the hex. This makes use of the
proper wrench more difficult.
PHILLIPS-HEAD SCREW
carerum Never use an open-end wrench to final-
tighten a fastener or to free a frozen fastener. The jaws may.
spread enough to allow the wrench to slip. Use a box wrench
-6) or a socket wrench (7-10) for these jobs.
CamScanner
PEX LLIPS-HEAD SCREWDRIVER
Fig. 7-3 Slotted-head screwdriver (top) and Phillips-head screw-
driver (bottom).
15° HAND
CLEARANCE
than on other wrenches. This helps prevent slipping and
rounding off the points on soft-metal he fittings. The six-
point box end has one of the flats cut out (Fig. 7-5). The
opening is large enough to slip over the tube.
Figure 7-5 shows the second wrench in back of the first.
Most flare nuts attach to a compling nut (Fig. 7-6). Hold the
coupling nut while turning the flare nut.
BOX WRENCH
12-POINT
BOX WRENCH
FIXED
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

JAWS
HANDLE
Careful!
Do not turn the flare nut without holding the
coupling nut. This will usually twist and break the metal tube.
7-9 ADJUSTABLE WRENCH
COMBINATION WRENCH
OPEN-END WRENCH
DISTANCE
ACROSS
FLATS
Fig. 7-4 Types of wrenches. (ATW)
An adjustable wrench (Fig. 7-7) has a movable jaw that
you adjust to fit nuts and bolt heads of various sizes,
Figure 7-7 shows how to use it. Tighten the jaws against
the flats of the nut or bolt before applying a turning force,
Adjustable wrenches are normally used only when
applying relatively light torque. They are no: always as
strong as fixed jaw wrenches and may be damaged if
excessive torque is applied.
> 7-10 SOCKET WRENCH
> 7-6 BOX WRENCH
Socket wrenches (Fig. 7-8) are the most widely used tools
in the shop. They are like box wrenches except that the
S
LOPEN END
The box wrench opening surrounds or "boxcs in the nut or
bolt head (Fig. 7-4). An advantage is that the box will
seldom slip off. However, you must lift the box wrench
completely off and then place it back on for each swing.
The wrench-head is thin for use in tight places. The head
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

usually sets at a 15-degree angle to the body. This provides

hand clearance for swinging the wrench.
The most common box wrench has 12 notches or
"points" in the head (Fig. 7-4). This allows turning the
fastener if the wrench can swing 30 degrees. A six point
box wrench holds better on a nut or bolt hut needs a
greater swing. The box wrench has different-size openings
on each end.
→ 7-7 COMBINATION WRENCH
- FLARE
NUT
The combination wrench has a box on one end and an open
end on the other (Fig. 7-4). The two ends are usually the
same size. The box end is more convenient for breaking
loose or final-tightening a nut or bolt. But you must lift the
box completely free after each swing. The open end is
more likely to slip off. However, once the fastener is loose,
the open end can turn it faster.
→ 7-8 FLARE-NUT WRENCH
FIA
A flare-nut wrench is a special type of combination or box-
end wrench. It is used to attach or loosen a flare nul or
IC Tubing nut. The ends of the flare-nut wrench are thicker
CamScanner
Fig. 7-5 Using a flare-nus wrench on a tubing nut or flare nut.
(Chrysler Corporation)
KNUALED NOT
ADJUSTS JAWS
MOVABLE JAW
COMPUNO
APPLY FORCE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

IN DIRECTION
INDICATED
BY ARROW
A
RIGHT
WRONG
DV
Fig. 7-7 How to use an adjustable wrench. (Ford Motor
Company)
2. HANDLES Figure 7-8 shows several handles. The
ratchet handle has a mechanism that permits free motion in
one direction but lockup in the other. You select the
direction for lockup by moving the reversing lever (Fig.
7-10).
Extensions of various lengths provide access to hard-to-
reach bolts or nuts. The universal joint allows you to turn a
nut or bolt while holding the driver at an angle. Adapters
allow you to use a driver with a socket having a different
drive size. Also, various kinds and sizes of screwdrivers,
Torx drives, Allen wrenches, and flare-nut wrenches will
fit the drivers and adapters.
Fig. 7-6 If the flare nut is tumed without holding the coupling
nut, the metal tube will usually twist and break. (Chrysler
Corporation)
NOTE
To work on a variety of domestic and imported
cars, you need both USC and metric socket sets.
head or socket is detachable from the handle. You
assemble the socket wrench you need from the socket set
in your toolbox.
First, select the handle or driver. Figure 7-8 shows the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

nut spinner, ratchet, speed handle, and other drivers. Then

select the socket to fit the bolt head or nut. There are
several kinds of sockets (Fig. 7-9). The 12-point socker is
the most common. Attach the socket to the driver (Fig. 7-
10). If you need an extension or universal joint, attach it to
the driver first. Then attach the socket.
The drive end of the socket snaps onto the driver (Fig. 7-
10). The drive lug is square and always sized in fractions
of an inch. Common drive-lug sizes are 1/4, 3/8, 1/2 inch.
>
7-11 TORQUE WRENCH
1. SOCKETS The 12-point socket (Fig. 7-9) allows you to
turn a bolt or nut in tight spots. However, if a bolt head or
nut has rounded corners or excessive resistance to turning,
the 12-point Socket may slip. Use a six-point socket for
these. The eight-point socket is for turning square heads.
These include drain plugs, fill plugs, and pipe plugs.
Deep sockets reach nuts on bolts or studs that are too
long for the standard socket to reach. You remove and
install spark plugs with a spark-plug socket. This is a six-
point deep socket with a rubber insert. The insert holds the
plug to prevent it from falling out of the socket.
A torque wrench (Fig. 7-11) is basically a special handle
for a socket (>7-10). An indicator on the torque Wrench
measures the torque or twisting force. This is the amount
of force applied to a nut or bolt while tightening it. Vehicle
service manuals and auto repair manuals give the torque
specifications for most fasteners. A typical specification
might be to tighten a bolt to "20 lb-ft." This means to
apply a 20-pound pull at a distance of 1 foot from the bolt.
To use the torque wrench, attach the proper socket.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Place the socket on the nut or bolt head. Then pull on the
wrench handle. When the torque Wrench indicates the
specified torque, the bolt or nut is properly tightened.
However, the threads must be clean and in good condition.
Dirty or damaged threads put a drag on the threads as the
bolt or nut is tightened. This gives a false reading on the
torque Wrench. It can also result in not enough tightening.
METAL
CASE
6-INCH
EXTENSION
NUT
SPINNER
RATCHET
SOCKETS
SLIDING
HANDLE
UNIVERSAL
JOINT
12-INCH
EXTENSION
SPEED
HANDLE
3-INCH
EXTENSION
Fig. 7-8 Set of sockets with handles, extensions, and universal joints. (Snap-on
Tools Corporation)
0 000
12-POINT STANDARD
6-POINT 8-POINT
12-POINT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Many torque Wrenches read in pound-feet (lb-ft). Some

read in pound-inches (Ib-in). Use these where you need to
accurately apply a small torque. Twelve pound-inches
equals one pound-foot.
The scale on metric torque Wrenches is in kilogram-
meters (kg-m), kilogram-centimeters (kg-cm), or newtox-
meters (N-m). Newton-meters is the preferred unit. To
convert from USC to newton-meters, multiply pound-feet
by 1.35.
6-POINT DEEP
Fig. 7-9 Various types of sockets. (ATW)
7-12 TORQUE-ANGLE DAUGE
REVERSING LEVER
RATCHET
HANDI.E
DHIVE LUG
DRIVE
OPENING
Tighten torgue-10-yield bolts (6-12) to an initial torque
with a torque wrench (7-11). Then final-tighten the bolts
by turning them through a specified angle with a socket
wrench ( 7-10).
You can easily see a 90-degree turning angle by
watching how far a ratchet handle or breaker bar moves.
For other angles, usc a torque-angle gauge (Fig. 7-12). IL
accurately measures the turning angle in degrees. The
gauge attaches to the socket driver. The socket attaches to
the gauge. As the handle turns, the degree indicator
remains at the greatest angle reached.
DAIVE END-
SOCKET END-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ALWAYS USC-
MAY BE METRIC
f/4, 3/8, OR 1/2 INCH
OR USC
Sanned with
Fig. 7-10 How a socket attaches to a ratchet handle. (ATW)
MICROMETER SETTING
Fig. 7-11 Types of torque wrenches.
DEFLECTING BEAM
DIAL INDICATOR
ec
1/2-INCH
INPUT
DAIVE
ANGLE
SCALE
ZERO
TURN
PLATE
ARM
and sizes of pliers. Combination slip-joint pliers may have
cutting edges at the back of the jaws for wire cutting.
Tongue-and-groove or groove-and-land pliers such as
Channellock pliers have the tongues or lands on one jaw.
The grooves are on the other. Shifting the tongues or lands
to different grooves changes the distance the jaws can
open. The jaws remain parallel at any setting.
Locking pliers such as Vise-Grip pliers (Fig. 7-13) have
locking jaws. This makes them useful as pliers, wrenches,
clamps, and small vises. Lock the jaws by turning a screw
in the end of the handle. This adjusts the size of the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

opening. Closing the handles then locks the jaws into

place. To release the jaws, pull the release lever.
Figure 7-14 shows how to adapt combination pliers for
use as hose-clamp pliers by drilling holes in the jaws. You
can then use the pliers to remove and install spring-wire
hose clamps.
inn
MESUM
ANGLE
INDICATOR
1/2-INCH
OUTPUT
DRIVE
ARM
TIGHTENING
KNOB
Fig. 7-12 A torque-angle gauge. (Snap-on Tools Corporation)
Carefull
Never use gripping pliers on hardened steel
surfaces. This dulls the pliers' teeth. Never use pliers on nuts or
bolt heads. The pliers may slip and round off the edges of the
hex. Then a wrench or socket will not fit on the fastener
properly.
>
7-13 REMOVING FROZEN NUTS
AND BOLTS
>
715 REMOVING BROKEN BOLTS
AND STUDS
Sometimes a nut or bolt is frozen. It will not break loose
with normal turning force. Try applying penetrating oil
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

around the threads. Give the penetrating oil time to soak in.
Then try loosening the fastener again. Tapping lightly on
the nut or bolt with a hammer may help. Use a chisel (5-7-
18) or a nut cracker or splitter to split off a frozen nut.
GRIPPING TOOLS
Excessive torque applied to a bolt or stud may cause it to
break. For example, suppose a bolt or stud is damaged,
rusted, or stretched. Then the bolt or stud may break as you
apply the specified torque.
When a threaded fastener breaks, approach the problem
logically. You must remove the broken part. Be patient,
and be careful not to create an even bigger problem.
Removal methods to try depend on where the break
occurred on the fastener.
1. BREAK ABOVE SURFACE When the break is above
the surface, you may be able to file flats on two sides.
7-14 PLIERS
Pers are hand tools with a pair of adjustable pivoted jaws
for chatting or gripping (Fig. 7-13). There are many styles
TEETH PIVOT
JAWS
8
HANDLES
(LEGS)
CUTTER
COMBINATION SLIP-JOINT
DIAGONAL
(DIKES)
MOS
CON
TONGUE-AND-GROOVE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(CHANNELLOCK)
LINEMEN'S
MULTIPURPOSE ELECTRICIAN'S
(CR IMPING TOOL)
LOCKING
(VISE-GRIP)
LONG NOSE
(NEEDLE NOSE)
END-CUTTING
ANIPPERS)
CURVED LONG NOSE
SNIPS
GRIPPING PLIERS
CUTTING PLIERS
Fig. 7-13 Various types of gripping pliers and cutting pliers. (ATW)
Mi MI:
Then use a wrench to back out the broken part. Sometimes
you can cut a slot in the bolt. Then remove it with a screw-
driver. Another way is to attach locking pliers to the
threads. Then turn the bolt out.
2. BREAK CLOSE TO SURFACE If the break is close to
the surface, try removing the bolt with a center punch,
Place the point of the punch on the bolt, but off center,
Then tap the punch lightly with a hammer. By moving the
punch and tapping it, the bolt may back out.
3. BREAK BELOW SURFACE Sometimes the break is
near or below the surface. Try removing the broken bolt
with a bolt or stud extractor (Fig. 7-15), Center-punch the
HOSE
C
ADJUSTABLE WRENCH
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

SECOND
1/8-INCH HOLE
SPAING-WIRE
HOSE CLAMP
STUD EXTRACTOR
DRILLED HOLE
BROKEN BOLT
FIRST
1/8-INCH-
DIAMETER
HOLE THIRD HOLE
VERTICAL
Fig. 7-14 flow to adapi combination pliers so they can handle
spring-wire hose clamps.
Fig. 7-15 Using a stud extractor to remove a broken stud.
PRESSURE SCREW
broken bolt and then drill it. Use a drill that makes a hole
almost as large as the inside diameter of the threads. Then
use an extractor of the proper size to remove the bolt.
Carefull
Extractors are hard and brittle. Excessive force
will break the extractor. A broken extractor can be more dif-
ficult to remove than the broken bolt. If a reasonable turning
force on the extractor does not turn the bolt, remove the
extractor. Drill out the hole to remove the rest of the bolt.
Then retap the hole >7-231 or install a thread insert (6-15).
>
7-16 PULLERS
STEERING
SHAFT
CROSS ARM
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 7-17 Using a pressure-screw puller to remove a steering

wheel. (Lisle Corporation)
Pullers remove parts assembled with an interference fit.
This includes removing gears and hubs from shafts, and
bushings from blind holes. Pullers also remove seals from
bores and cylinder liners from engine blocks.
A puller ser (Fig. 7-16) has many pieces that can fit
together to form the puller needed for the job. There are
three basic types of pullers. These are pressure screw (Fig.
7-17), slide hammer (Fig. 7-18), and combination.
SLIDE HAMMER
Fig. 7.18 Removing an axle seal with a slide-hammer puller.
(Proto Tool Company)
CUTTING TOOLS
> 7-17 CUTTING TOOLS
→
7-18 CHISELS
Cutting tools remove metal. They include chisels,
hacksaws, files, punches. Drills, taps, and dies are also
cutting tools. Power cutting tools include grinders, hones,
lathes, and boring machines. Later chapters cover these.
The chisel (Fig. 7-19) is a cutting tool with a single cutting
edge. There are various sizes and shapes of chisels.
Striking the chisel with a hammer makes the chisel cut
Fig. 7-16 A puller set. (Snap-on Tools
Corporation)
9
scanned with
CamScanner
CAUTION!
COLD CHISEL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Always wear eye protection when using a chisel. Never use a

chisel with a mushroomed head. When the hammer strikes
the head, a piece could fly off. The flying metal could cut you
or injure an unprotected eye.
CAPE CHISEL
>
7-19 HACKSAW
HALF ROUND CHISEL
DIAMOND POINT CHISEL
A hacksaw is basically an adjustable metal frame that
holds a steel saw blade (Fig. 7-22). The blade is
replaceable and has from 14 to 32 teeth per inch. Cutting
occurs on the forward stroke as you push the blade across
the metal. The teeth act like tiny chisels and cut off fine
shavings or chips.
Use a long steady forward stroke. Apply enough
downward force so the teeth cut rather than slide. Lift the
down force on the return stroke. This helps prevent dulling
the teeth. A light drag may help clear chips from the teeth.
Select a blade with the proper number of teeth per inch
for the job. The teeth must be close enough so at least two
teeth are cutting. Teeth that are too close together clog and
stop cutting. The hacksaw blade for general cutting has 18
teeth per inch.
ROUND NOSE CHISEL
Fig. 7-19 Various types of chiscls.
metal (Fig. 7-20). Hold the chisel with one hand and the
hammer in the other. Hit the end of the chisel squarely,
Holding the chisel in a chisel holder or smooth-jaw locking
pliers will protect your hand,
The cutting edge of the chisel may chip and get dull
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

after use. The head may “mushroom" (Fig. 7-21). Chapter

8 describes how to grind the cutting edge and head on a
grinding wheel. Keep the chisel sharp. A sharp chisel cuts
better.
>
7-20 FILES
Files (Fig. 7-23) are used for cutting and shaping metal,
They have many cutting edges or teeth. There are many
types of files with various "cuts" (Fig. 7-24). When the
cuts are far apart, there are only a few per inch. This is a
rough-or coarse-cut file. When the cuts are close together,
the file is a smooth or dead-smooth file. A single-cur file
HAMMER
CHISEL
CHISEL
VISE
Fig. 7-20 How to use a chisel and hammer. (Mazda Motors of
America Inc.)
sof
MUSHROOM HEAD
Fig. 7-22 Using a hacksaw.
TANG
-LENGTH
EDGE
HEEL
FACE
TIP
Fig. 7-21 Top, a chisel with a mushroom on head and chipped
cutimg edge. Bottora, chisel with mushroom on head ground off
and cutting edge sharpeneda er
HANDLE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 7-23 The parts of a file.

Always use a handle with a file. Tapping the end of the
handle on the bench tightens the file in the handle. Keep
the file teeth clean with a file card. It has short stiff-wire
bristles that remove chips and dirt from the teeth.
> 7-21 PUNCHES
SINGLE-CUT FILE
DOUBLE-CUT FILE
Punches (Fig. 7-25) are used to knock out rivets and pins.
They also align parts for assembly. To remove a rivet,
grind off the rivet head. Or cut it off with a chisel. Then
use the starting punch and pin punch as shown in Fig.
7-26.
Mark spots where holes are to be drilled with a center
punch. The punch mark keeps the drill bit centered as it
starts cutting (Fig. 7-27). You can use the center punch to
mark parts before they are disassembled. Align the punch
marks to reassemble the parts in the same position.
SINGLE CUT
BASTARD SECOND CUT SMOOTH
USE
STARTING
PUNCH
FIRST
DOUBLE CUT
Fig. 7-24 Types of files and file cuts.
THEN
PIN
PUNCHY
has a series of sharp blades. A double-cut file has a second
senes cut at an angle to the first. This creates a series of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sharp teeth. Various sizes and cuts of round, half-round,

flat, and triangular files are used during automotive service
work.
Fig. 7-26 Using a starting and a pin punch.
CENTER PUNCH
PRICK PUNCH
DRIFT OR STARTING PUNCH
WITHOUT
CENTER
PUNCH
MARK
THE
DRILL
DOES
THIS
CENTER
PUNCH
MARK
KEEPS
THE
DRILL
FROM
WANDERING
PIN PUNCH
ALIGNING PUNCH
ii
ScaHOLLOWSHANK GASKET PUNCH
19.05 Various types of punches.
CamScanner
Fig. 7-27 Center-punching a hole location will keep the drill from
wandering,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

BODY —
LIP OR
CUTTING EDGE
MARGIN
BODY
CLEARANCE
120
SA
SHANK
CU
DO EXRANCE
T
BODY CLEARANCE
MAAGIN
DEAD
CENTER
LIP CLEARANCE
LIP CLEARANCE
ANGLE
Fig. 7-28 The parts of a twist drill.
>
7-22 TWIST DRILLS
NOTE
You can use taps and dies to clean and straighten
damaged threads. However, a thread chaser is the
preferred tool for this job.
Drill bits or twist drills (Fig. 7-28) are tools for making
holes. The material being drilled determines the preferred
shape of the cutting edges that form the point. The grooves
along the body carry the chips out of the holc. A hand-held
air or electric drill motor, or a drill press, drives the drill
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

bit. These are described in Chapter 8.

DRILL
DRILL
THREAD
SIZE AND
THREADS
PER INCH
THREAD
SIZE AND
THREADS
PER INCH
NO.
NO.
53
16
53
8Z
50
→
7-23 TAPS AND DIES
4
X
46
SIZE
0.0595
0.0595
0.0670
0.0700
0.0781
0.0810
0.0890
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

0.0935
0.0995
0.1 040
0.1065
0.2130
0 1360
0.1360
0.1470
43
1-64
1-72
2-56
2-64
3-48
3-56
4-40
4-48
5-40
5-44
6-32
6-40
8-32
8-36
10-24
SIZE
0.1510
0.1770
0.1 BOO
0.1990
0.2090
0.2187
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

0.2570
0.2720
0.2812
0.3125
0.3320
0.3437
0.3906
0.4162
0.4531
42
10-32
12-24
12-28
X-20
4-24
K-32
38-18
50-24
X-32
%-16
%-24
*-32
-20
7-28
-20
39
Most shops have tap-and-die sets for cutting USC and
metric threads. Taps cut inside threads (Fig. 7-29). To tap a
hole, determine the thread size needed. Refer to a tap drill
chart (Fig. 7-30) and select the size of drill bit required.
The hole made by the specified tap drill will be the proper
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

diameter for tapping.

Dies cut outside threads on rods (Fig. 7-31). A diestock
holds the die. Chamfer or bevel the rod end so the die starts
easily. The basic procedure is the same for both taps and
dies. Apply cutting lubricant to the surface. Then begin
thread cutting. After every two turns, back off the tap or
die and apply more lubricant.
37
36
33
29
29
26
*Drill sizes are designated in four ways-by numbers iNos. 80 color from
0.135 to 0.228 in. Ly letters (A to Z or from 0.234 to 0.413 Inl, by fractions 14
10 3% ini, and by mill meters in the metric system. The drill sizes Indicated in
the table are based on approximately 75 percent thread depth; that is, the tap
will not give a ful thread when it is run down into the hole but will give a 75
percent thread. This means that the top 25 percent or one-'ourth of each
thread crest is absent. However, the remaining 75 percent is sufficient for most
corrmercial purposes. For spec al precision applications, a fuller thread may be
desirable. The fuller thread increases the thread strength only slightly (perhaps
S percent) but makes the tapping job much harder; many more taps are
broken.
Fig. 7-30 Tap drill sizes.
TAP
WRENCH
Q
ue
DIE STOCK
cs Scanned We
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 1-29 Tap being used to cut threads in a hole. (ATW)

Fig. 7-31 Die being used to cut threads on a rod. (ATW)
>
7-24 TUBE CUTTING, BENDING,
AND FLARING
ADJUSTING
SCREW
TUBING
CUTTING
WHEEL
AOLLER
GROOVE
LLLL
REAMER
CUTTING THE TUBING
REAMER
Metal pipes or tubes are sometimes called lines. They carry
pressurized fluid or vacuum from one place to another on
the car. The fuel line carries gasoline from the fuel tank to
the engine compartment. A vapor-return line sends fuel
vapor from the carburetor back to the fuel tank. Brake lines
and flexible hose carry brake fluid from the master
cylinder to the brakes at the wheels. Other lines are part of
the air conditioner, automatic transmission, fuel injection
system, and power-steering system.
Steel lines may be copper-coated to protect against rust
and corrosion. The tube ends usually have either a double
flare (Fig. 7-32) or the metric International Standards
Organization (ISO) flare. Flaring the ends of the tube helps
prevent leakage. Tube nuts or flare nuts (7-8) fasten the
tube to a coupling nut or other fitting.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

A damaged tube must be replaced. Make the new line by

cutting, bending, and flaring a length of new tubing. It
must be of the proper length and material.
1111
TUBING
REAMING THE TUBING
Fig. 7-33 Using a tubing cutter to cut and ream metal tubing.
(Gould Inc.)
Careful
TUBING
FLARING TOOL
Never replace steel tube with aluminum or
copper tube. These soft metals may fail from high pressure or
excessive vibration.
ZUV
2
Figure 7-33 shows how to use a tube cutter to cut and
ream the tubing. Reaming removes any burts created on
the inside of the tube during cutting. Place fittings or nuts
on the tube and flare the ends of the tube with a flaring tool
(Fig. 7-34). Use a tube bender (Fig. 7-35) to bend the tube
to the desired shape
A
FLARING HEAD
BUILDING YOUR TOOL SET
7-25 APPRENTICE'S TOOLBOX
To get a job as an automotive technician you usually must
have your own hand tools. This means you must also have
a toolbox, tool chest, or roll cabinet to store your tools in
YOKE
Fig. 7-34 Using a flaring tool to flare the end of a tube. (Gould
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Inc.)
DOUBLE
/FLARE
ISO
FLARE
PRESSURE
POST
TUBING
L
RATCHET
MALE
FITTING
TUBE
ADJUSTING
FORMING SCREW
BLOCK
Fig. 7-35 One type of tube bender. (Lisle Corporation)
Fig. 7-32 Two types of flates on ends of metal tubing. (Bendix
Corporations canner
Figure 7-1 shows a complete set of technician's hand tools
in a tool chest sitting on a roller cabinet.
You may not need a complete tool set to get your first
job. However, most employers want you to continually
expand and upgrade your tools. Your school may supply
you with the tools you need in this course. But it is
important for you to start working now on building up
your own set of tools.
If possible, buy a tool every week or so. Get tools as you
need them. Many technicians start by keeping their tools in
a toolbox with a top tray. Ask your instructor's advice on
the toolbox and tools you need. Figure 7-36 is a suggested
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

list of tools that provides a basic tool set to build on in the

future.
16-ounce (0.45-kg] ball-peen hammer.
• Plastic hammer.
• Five-piece screwdriver set (two Phillips).
• Standard pliers.
• Needle-nose pliers.
• Channellock pliers.
• Diagonal pliers.
• Spark-plug ratchet (%-inch drive with break-over handle).
• Spark-plug sockets (X and X. inch)
Set of combination wrenches, through % inch.
• Set of metric combination wrenches, 6 mm thru 22 mm.
• Flashlight (one that works, with new batteries).
Short jumper wires. (You can make these, and more as
needed.)
• 12-volt continuity light.
• Tape measure.
• 6-inch (152.4-mm) scale (metric on one side, inches on the
other).
• Screw starter with magnet on one end.
Tire-pressure gauge.
Thickness-gauge set (can be go no-go type). Buy combi-
nation thickness gauges, marked with both inches and mil-
limeters.
Spark-plug gauge set (round wire).
• Point file.
Center punch.
• Set of X-through '%-inch flare nut wrenches.
.k-inch drive socket set.
• Ratchet.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

• Speed handle.
• Breaker bar.
• 4-inch [100-mm) extension.
.8-inch (200-mm) extension.
• U-joint.
Set of sockets, % through Winch (12 point).
Set of metric sockets, 6 mm through 22 mm (12 point).
Optional,
Vise-Grip pliers.
Insulated pliers.
Small adjustable wrench.
• Large adjustable wrench.
Fig.-7-36 Suggested list of tools for the apprentice or beginning automotive
technician.
TRADE TALK
torque
twist drill
bolt extractor
dead-blow hammer
flare-nut wrench
flats
puller set
spark-plug socket
torque-angle gauge
Torx-head screwdriver
MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST
OPER
Select the one correct, best, or most probable answer to each question.
You can find the answers in the section indicated at the end of each question.
1. An open-end wrench should fit the flats snugly to 2. Use a flare-nut wrench when
working on (7-8)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

avoid (>7-5)
a. metal tubing and fittings
a. springing the jawsh
b. adjustable nuts
b, breaking the jaws
c. thread cutting
Grounding off the corners of the hex
d. Phillips-head screws
CHAPTER 8
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:
SHOP EQUIPMENT
AND POWER
TOOLS
Define power tools and shop
equipment, and explain when to
use each type.
Demonstrate the use of the
electric drill, drill press, and
grinding wheel.
Show how to use the air
hammer, air impact wrench, air
drill, and air ratchet.
Demonstrate the use of the
hydraulic jack, shop crane,
hydraulic press, and automotive
lift.
• Explain when and how to use
the various types of parts
cleaners.
>
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

8-1 POWER TOOLS AND

SHOP EQUIPMENT
work on it. Turning the handle of the vise moves the
movable jaw toward or away from the stationary jaw.
Sometimes you must protect the surface of a part. Cover
the steel jaws with caps of soft metal, or soft jaws. Some
vises have pipe jaws below the flat jaws. The pipe jaws
are less likely to damage a pipe or other round object while
holding it more securely than the flat jaws.
Tools powered by electricity, compressed air, or hydraulic
pressure are power tools. They include electric drills, drill
presses, air impact wrenches, air drills, and air ratchets.
When you are doing any automotive service job, use the
proper power tool whenever possible. This saves time and
increases productivity. That may increase your income
(>3-7). Hand tools are too slow to meet or beat most time
allowances in the flat-rate manuals ( 3-6).
The shop furnishes some equipment the technician uses
in diagnosis and repair. This is shop equipment. It includes
power tools and machine tools, cranes and lifts, air com-
pressors, and testers and analyzers. Also included are work
benches, holding fixtures (8-2), cleaning equipment, and
welding equipment.
This chapter is divided into four parts, electric tools,
pneumatic tools, hydraulic tools, and cleaning equipment.
Later chapters cover specialized power tools and shop
equipment.
→ 8-2 BENCH VISE
SOFT
JAWS
STEEL
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

JAW
HANDLE
MOVABLE
JAW
The bench vise (Fig. 8-1) is a holding device mounted on a
workbench. The vise has flat steel jaws that you can close
o grip an object. Then the object does not move while you
CamScanner
C
Fig. 8-1 A bench vise with soft jaws being put on the vise jaws.
CHAPTER 8
After studying this chapter, you
should be able to:
SHOP EQUIPMENT
AND POWER
TOOLS
Define power tools and shop
equipment, and explain when to
use each type.
Demonstrate the use of the
electric drill, drill press, and
grinding wheel.
Show how to use the air
hammer, air impact wrench, air
drill, and air ratchet.
Demonstrate the use of the
hydraulic jack, shop crane,
hydraulic press, and automotive
lift.
• Explain when and how to use
the various types of parts
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

cleaners.
>
8-1 POWER TOOLS AND
SHOP EQUIPMENT
work on it. Turning the handle of the vise moves the
movable jaw toward or away from the stationary jaw.
Sometimes you must protect the surface of a part. Cover
the steel jaws with caps of soft metal, or soft jaws. Some
vises have pipe jaws below the flat jaws. The pipe jaws
are less likely to damage a pipe or other round object while
holding it more securely than the flat jaws.
Tools powered by electricity, compressed air, or hydraulic
pressure are power tools. They include electric drills, drill
presses, air impact wrenches, air drills, and air ratchets.
When you are doing any automotive service job, use the
proper power tool whenever possible. This saves time and
increases productivity. That may increase your income
(>3-7). Hand tools are too slow to meet or beat most time
allowances in the flat-rate manuals ( 3-6).
The shop furnishes some equipment the technician uses
in diagnosis and repair. This is shop equipment. It includes
power tools and machine tools, cranes and lifts, air com-
pressors, and testers and analyzers. Also included are work
benches, holding fixtures (8-2), cleaning equipment, and
welding equipment.
This chapter is divided into four parts, electric tools,
pneumatic tools, hydraulic tools, and cleaning equipment.
Later chapters cover specialized power tools and shop
equipment.
→ 8-2 BENCH VISE
SOFT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

JAWS
STEEL
JAW
HANDLE
MOVABLE
JAW
The bench vise (Fig. 8-1) is a holding device mounted on a
workbench. The vise has flat steel jaws that you can close
o grip an object. Then the object does not move while you
CamScanner
C
Fig. 8-1 A bench vise with soft jaws being put on the vise jaws.
PULLEY GUARD
MOTOR
-HOLE DEPTH
ADJUSTMENT
HEAD
ID
SPINDLE SLEEVE
DRILL CHUCK -
-FEED LEVER
- COLUMN
TABLE LOCKING
CLAMP
TABLE
BASE
Fig. 8-4 Drill press. (Ford Motor Company)
8-6 GRINDING WHEEL
LEFT HAND ON
TOOL REST
The grinder (Fig. 8-5) mounts on a bench or pedestal. It
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

may have one grinding wheel and one wire wheel, or two
grinding wheels. Figure 8-6 shows the use of a grinding
wheel to sharpen a chisel (>7-18). The grinding wheel
also removes the mushroom from the head of a chisel or
punch (7-21).
Observe the following CAUTIONS when using a
grinding wheel:
1. Do not hammer on the grinding wheel or apply
excessive force against it.
2. Do not grind on the side of the wheel.
3. Do not adjust the tool rest while the grinder is running.
4. Watch for sparks. They are hot and can burn you or set
your clothing on fire.
5. Do not touch the rotating wheel. It removes skin on
contact.
6. Adjust the light to see clearly what you are doing.
7. When grinding a tool, do not overheat it. This will
"draw the temper." The tool will get soft and not hold
CHISEL CANTED AND
MOVED SIDE TO SIDE
(B)
Fig. 8-6 (A) Grinding the mushroom from the head of a chisel.
(B) Grinding the cutting edge of a chisel.
1
LIGHT
an edge. To prevent overheating, dip the tool in water
repeatedly while grinding it.
8. Always wear eye protection even if the wheel has an
eye shield.
9. Always make sure the safety guards and shields are in
place and correctly adjusted. Never operate a grinder
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

that has any safety device removed.

> 8-7 SOLDERING GUN
WHEEL
GUARD
EYE SHIELDS
WORK
REST
ON-OFF
SWITCH
Soldering is a semi-permanent metal joining process. Heat
from the tip of an electric soldering iron or gun (Fig. 8-7)
melts solder. This is a soft metal alloy or mixture of tin and
lead. It melts at a relatively low temperature.
The shop solder is usually a spool of hollow wire con
taining a liquid flux. This cleans the surfaces being joined.
Use rosin-core solder for electrical work. This type of flux
prevents a coating forming from the heat. The coating
prevents a good electrical connection.
Scanned with
HS Bench grinder. (Rockwell International)
CamScanner
SPOTLIGHT
SECOLELE
Cordless tools are not capable of continuous operation.
As the battery discharges, the tool lacks power and slows
down. Some tools have a replaceable battery pack.
Remove it and put it in a charging stand for charging. Or
install a spare battery back that is kept charged. Other tools
recharge when placed on their storage stand.
SOLDERING TIP
LOW-VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TRIGGER SWITCH
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
→
8-9 AIR COMPRESSOR AND
AIR-SUPPLY SYSTEM
Fig. 8-7 An electric soldering gun. (Ford Motor Company)
A variety of shop jobs require soldering. These include
replacing brushes and diodes in the alternator, and
repairing a broken wire. After you connect or splice two
wires together, solder the splice. Then wrap the splice and
any bare wires or terminals with three layers of electrical
tape. Later chapters cover the precautions for working on
automotive electrical systems and components.
> 8-8 CORDLESS TOOLS
The air compressor produces compressed air. The air
supply system distributes the compressed air throughout the
shop (Fig. 8-8). The air-compressor assembly is usually, an
air tank with an electric motor that drives a two-cylinder
air compressor. When the pressure in the tank falls below a
preset limit, the motor automatically starts running. The
compressor then forces more air into the air tank to rebuild
the pressure. This reserve of compressed air is ready to
power the air-operated tools and equipment in the shop.
Flexible air hose connects from the quick disconnect on
the shop air line to the air tool. Air hose also supplies com-
pressed air to inflate tires and for blowguns (Fig. 4-7).
>
8-10 AIR TOOLS
All the electric tools described above require a cord con-
nected to a shop electrical outlet. Somctimes outlets are not
available. Or you may not want a cord in the way. Then
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

use a battery-powered cordless tool. These include the

cordless soldering gun (> 8-7), drill (8-4), and screw.
driver. The chuck on the cordless drill is the same as on the
electric drill (8-4). It takes the same drill bits and other
tools.
Pneumatic tools or air tools give either rotary or recipro-
cating (back and forth) motion. You need rotary motion to
turn nuts and bolts, and to spin a drill bit. You need recip-
rocating motion to drive a cutting or hammering tool.
These include a cutter, chisel, hammer, or punch.
I
STARTER BOX
MAIN AIR LINF (11NCH MINIMUM DIAMETER)
IT
COOLING AIRFLOW
COMPRESSOR
IL
S
E PRESSURE
GAUGE
P
DRIVE
BELT
BRAIDED
FLEX
HQ$E
SERVICE
AIR LINE
(1/2 - 3/4
INCH
DIAMETER)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

DRAIN LEG
(3/4 INCH
DIAMETER)
Ilo
ll
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
G
0
AIR
0
QUICK
DISCONNECT
DISCON
TANK
SHUT-OFF VALVE
SHOTO
MOISTURE
SEPARATOR
MOTOR
Scanned with
8-8 Cornpressors and air-supply system. (Leroi Division of Dresser Industries, Inc.)
AUTOMATIC
TANK
DRAIN
AUTOMATIC DRAIN
8-11 CAUTIONS ON OPERATING
AIR TOOLS
Air tools operate on compressed air supplied by the shop
air system (Fig. 8-8). Observe the following CAUTIONS
when using an air tool:
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

SOCKET
REVERSING
CONTROL
TRIGGER
1. Air nozzles or blowguns (Fig. 4-7) should have a
diffuser. It reduces the outlet pressure to less than 30 psi
1207 kPa). This safety device is required by law and
helps reduce the risk of personal injury.
2. Never use the blowgun to blow dust off your clothes
and never point it at anyone. The air pressure can drive
dust particles at high speed. They can penetrate the
flesh or eyes. High-pressure air hitting an open wound
can force air into the blood stream. This can result in
death!
3. Never look into the air outlet of a pneumatic tool.
4. Never operate an air hammer without a bit installed.
This can damage the tool.
5. Never blow-clean brake or clutch parts. This could put
asbestos dust into the air. Use a vacuum cleaner with a
HEPA filter (>4-6).
> 8-12 AIR HAMMER
AIR LINE
Fig. 8-10 Using an air impact Wrench. (ATW)
The air hammer (Fig. 8-9) produces a reciprocating (back
and forth) motion to drive a hammering or cutting tool.
Figure 8-9 shows a chisel splitting a frozen nut. Many dif-
ferent types of bits and tools attach to the air hammer.
These include chisels, cutters, punches, and separators.
Observe the following CAUTIONS when using an
impact wrench:
1. Always use impact sockets of the correct size. Hand-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tool sockets will "pound out" and may break.

2. Hold the impact wrench so the socket fits squarely on
the nut or bolt. Apply a slight forward force to hold the
socket in place.
3. Once a nut or bolt tightens, never impact it beyond an
additional one-half tum.
4. Use a torque Wrench (>7-11) or torque-angle gauge
(>7-12) for final tightening.
5. Soak rusty nuts or bolts with penetrating oil before
impacting them.
8-13 AIR IMPACT WRENCH
The air impact wrench (Fig. 8-10) produces a high-torque
rotary (spinning) motion. This pounding or impact force
loosens or tightens nuts and bolts. Moving a reversing
button or lever changes the direction of rotation. The most
common impact wrenches have a 1/2-inch or 3/8-inch
drive lug. Hand-tool sockets (7-10) will fit, but only
heavier impact sockets should be used.
>
8-14 AIR DRILL
An air drill (Fig. 8-11) does the same job as an electric
drill (8-4). However, the air drill has an air motor. This
makes the tool lighter than an electric drill. Repeated stalls
NOTE
Some impact Wrenches are electric. Attach only
impact sockets to either type of impact Wrench.
AIR DRILL
-COUPLER
TP BIẾN TIỆCom-
AIR HOSE
NIPPLE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

NIPPLE
CHUCK
3
POWER
REGULATOR
Scanned with
Fig. 8-9 Using an air hammer to split a frozen nut.
Camscanner
DO NOT INSTALL
LEADER HOSE
QUICK-COUPLER
HERE
Fig. 8-11 Air drill with hose and couplings. (Chicago Pneumatic
Tool Company)
and overloads do not overheat or damage the air motor.
The same drill bits are used in air drills as in electric drills.
> 8-15 AIR RATCHET
points (Fig. 8-13, bottom). Opening the air valve sends
compressed air into the pneumatic cylinder. This causes
the ram to extend and raise the vehicle. Reversing the lever
exhausts the air. Then the vehicle settles back to the floor.
Air ratchets (Fig. 8-12) are similar to hand-tool ratchets
(>7-10), but operate faster. They are available in 1/4-, 3/8-,
and 1/2-inch drive. Air ratchets apply less force than an
impact wrench. This allows them to use hand-tool sockets.
CAUTION!
Never work under a vehicle supported only by a jack. Always
support the vehicle on safety stands before going under it
[Figs. 4-13 and 4-19). A jack could slip or release. Then the
vehicle would fall on you. Serious injury or death could result
8-16 CARE OF AIR TOOLS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

HYDRAULIC TOOLS
→ 8-18 HYDRAULIC JACKS
Never drag around an air tool by its hose. Never drop an
air tool on the floor or otherwise abuse the tool. When not
in use, disconnect the air tool from the air hose. Put the
tool away in its storage place. Lubricate the air tool every
day before using it. Apply three or four squirts of air-tool
oil into the nipple closest to the tool (Fig. 8-11). Then
connect the air hose to the nipple and operate the tool. This
lubricates the internal parts. It also flushes out dirt and
moisture.
The automotive shop uses a variety of hydraulic jacks. One
type is the portable floor jack (Fig. 8-14). Pumping the
handle increases the pressure in the hydraulic cylinder.
CAUTION!
Do not flush air tools around an open flame. The mist coming
out is flammable. Always point the air exhausting from the
tool away from your body.
8-17 PNEUMATIC JACKS
AND END LIFTS
There are many types of pneumatic jacks and end lifts.
They use compressed air to raise one corner, end, or side of
the car. Some lift under the front or rear bumper (Fig. 8-
13, top). Others lift under the axle housing or other lift
REVERSING
LEVER
SOCKET
TRIGGER
PNEUMATIC
CYLINDER
AIA LINE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Scanned with
Fig. 3-12 Ar wir reichet, (ATW)
Fig. 8-13 A pneumatic end lift (top) and a pneumatic undercar lift
(bottom). (Blackhawk Automotive Inc.)
ENGINE
SUPPORT
TOOL
CAUTION!
Stand clear of the crane while an engine or other heavy com-
ponent is suspended. This prevents injury if it falls off, the
boom collapses, or the crane topples over Never work on a
suspended assembly. Lower it onto a workbench or holding
fixture.
Calle
ROPEAN
>
8-20 HYDRAULIC PRESS
HANDLE
HYDRAULIC
FLOOR
JACK
To operate the hydraulic press, pump the handle on the
hydraulic cylinder up and down (Fig. 8 16). This increases
the pressure on the ram. It then exerts a much greater force
against the part it is touching. This force can straighten
bent parts or remove and install press-fit parts. These
include bushings, bearings, brake-drum studs, piston pins,
and rivets. The press can do many other jobs requiring a
high and steady force.
Some shops have an arbor press. It is a hand-operated
press that applies only a light force.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fig. 8-14 Hydraulic floor jack and engine support tool. (Mazda
Motors of America Inc.)
This causes the ram to extend and raise the lifting saddle
Turning the top of the handle or moving a lever on the
handle relcases the pressure. Then the saddle and load
settle back down.
Always lift at the proper lift point (>8-21) under the
vehicle. If in doubt, refer to the vehicle manufacturer's
service manual. Lifting at the wrong points can cause
vehicle damage. Follow thc CAUTION in 8-17
> 8-19 SHOP CRANE
CAUTION!
Always wear eye protection when using a press. Place a safety
shield between you and the workpiece in the press.
>
8-21 AUTOMOTIVE LIFTS
The hydraulic shop crane (Fig. 8-15) lifts and transports
heavy objects. One use is removing the engine from the
vehicle. The crane operates hydraulically by pumping the
handle.
Automotive lifts are in-ground lifts or surface lifts. In-
ground lifts may be single-post or double-post (Fig. 8-17).
Both types require excavation of the ground for installation
of hydraulic cylinders. Surface lifts bolt to the shop floor
(Fig. 8-18). If a lift has movable arms, position the lift pads
RAM
TELESCOPING
BOOM
CHAIN
SLI
RAM-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

PRESSURE
GAUGE
HANDLE
HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER
HANDLE
ms
HYDRAULIC
CYLINDER
Searned with
Fig 3-15 Hydraulic shop crane. (Kwik-Way Manufacturing
Companya mScanner
Fig. 8-16 Hydraulic press. (ATW)
FRONT
POST
REAR
POST
hicle onto two metal tracks. Moving the lift control causes an
air or electric motor to operate a hydraulic pump. It sends
liquid under pressure to the hydraulic cylinder. As the ram
or post extends from the cylinder, the vehicle goes up.
CAUTION!
Some cautions to observe when using an automotive lift are
described in number 7 of 4-6. Never overload the lift. A
name plate attached to the lift gives its rated capacity.
HYDRAULIC
CYLINDERS
Fig. 8-17 A double-post in-ground lift. (Lincoln St. Louis
Division of McNeil Corporation)
CLEANING EQUIPMENT
8-22 VACUUM CLEANER
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Many shops have a shop vacuum cleaner (Fig. 8-20). Its

uses include cleaning floors and vehicle interiors after
service work. Never use this vacuum cleaner to clean
Rockwel
Fig. 8-18 A surface lift bolted to the shop floor. (Vendredi II)
before raising the vehicle. Vehicle service manuals show
the lift points on the underbody, frame, and suspension
(Fig. 8-19).
Many models of in-ground and surface lifts are
available. Refer to the lift manufacturer's operating
instructions for information about the lift you are using.
Some surface lifts are the drive-on type. You drive the ve-
Fig. 8-20 Shop vacuum cleaner. (Rockwell International)
FRONT LIFT POINT
FOR TWIN-POST LIFT
WOOD BLOCK
E
REAR LIFT
POINTS
FOR
SINGLE-POST
LIFT
FRONT LIFT
POINTS
FOR
SINGLE-POST
LIFT
LIFT ADAPTER
(SINGLE-POST LIFT)
REAR LIFT POINTS
FOR TWIN-POST LIFT
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Fi 8-19 Designated lift points for one vehicle, specified by the vehicle manu-
iacturer. (Ford Motor Company)
and scraper to remove the remaining deposits. Wash and
rinse off the parts with the spray from the nozzle.
clutch and brake assemblies. The filter will not trap
asbestos dust on clutch and brake parts. For this, use a
special vacuum cleaner with a High Efficiency Particulate
Air (HEPA) filter (Fig. 4-6). Chapter 53 and number 2 of
>>4-6 describe hazards of working around asbestos dust.
→ 8-23 PARTS CLEANERS
CAUTION!
Some parts-cleaning solutions and solvents are toxic and
caustic. This means they are poisonous and will burn your
eyes and skin. They should be used only in well-ventilated
areas. Always wear eye pro:ection while using shop cleaning
equipment Wear gloves >4-141, if necessary, and avoid over.
exposure of your skin to cleaning solutions. Afterwards wash
your hands, arms, and other contacted areas with soap and
water. This helps prevent skin irritation.
Servicing automobiles requires clean parts. Even an expe-
rienced technician cannot always tell if a dirty part is
defective. Also, if the parts are dirty, the dirt may ruin a
rebuild or overhaul job. Parts cleaning is so important that
many technicians will not let anyone else clean the parts
they are working on. It is during the cleaning process that
clues to the cause of the trouble often show up.
Following sections describe cleaning equipment used in
automotive shops.
> 8-24 SOLVENT TANK
Dirty solvent may be hazardous waste (>4-13). Dispose
of it properly. Some shops have a solvent reclaimer or
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

recycler. It heats the dirty solvent. The solvent evaporales

into another container leaving the contaminants in the
recycler. As the vapor cools, it condenses and becomes
clean liquid solvent. Other shops use a parts-cleaner
service. These companies provide the shop with fresh
solvent regularly. They pick up the dirty solvent and
recycle or dispose of it.
> 8-25 SPRAY WASHERS
Remove old gaskets and thick deposits on parts with a
putty knife, scraper, and wire brush. Then final-clean by
washing and degreasing the part in the solvent tank (Fig.
8-21). It contains solvent which is a cold liquid cleaner.
Brush or spray the solvent on the dirty part. An clcctric
pump in the tank provides the spray. For soaking, place
parts in a tray or basket and lower it into the solvent. This
loosens and dissolves some deposits. Strainers, filters, and
sediment trays help keep the solvent clean.
Always remove thick deposits before placing the dirty
part in the tank. Then use solvent along with a bristle brush
Engine blocks and transmission cases are too large to clean
in a solvent tank (8-24). These and other large parts may
be cleaned in a spray washer (Fig. 8-22). Place the part on
the turntable and close the washer. Cleaning occurs as the
pressurized spray of hot clcaning solution hits the rotating
part. Washing, rinsing, and drying cycles are automatically
controlled.
BRUSH
SPRAY
NOZZLES
BASKET
NOZZLE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

(A) SOLVENT TANK

SOLVENT
STREAM
SOLVENT
SPRAY RINSE
TUANTABLE
Scan (B) RINSINO PARTS
F. 3-21 Solvent tank. (Ford Motor Company)
CamScanner
Fig. 8-22 Spray washer. (intere
Products Inc.)
The damage shown in the drawing has tension in
one direction and pressure in another. Look at the
damage from the flat side (side view of drawing):
it appears similar to that in Figure 8-18. Look at it
from the end view; it appears similar to that of
Figure 8-19.
Pressure Forces Zero
Direction
of Damage
Tension
Here
Metal Before
Damage
Metal Alter
Damage
Pressure
Tension
opposite. It is recessed below the surrounding sur-
face. Minor low and high spots in sheet metal can
often be fixed with a body hammer.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The term raising means to work a dent out-

ward or away from the body. The term lowering
means to work a high spot or bump down or into
the body.
It is important to understand their meanings.
There are pressures and tensions (stresses and strains)
within the metal before any damage occurs. All
crowns, for example, are under pressure. Metal that
is forced up has a new pressure applied to it. The
pressure is being held there by the work-hardened
buckles. If they were to suddenly disappear, the metal
would return to its original shape. Consider the metal
as being without pressure or tension before it was
damaged when evaluating the changes that have
taken place and the corrections that must be made.
The metal that is pushed up is called a pres-
sure area. An area that is pushed down is called a
tension area. The drawing in Figure 8-16 shows a
typical cross section of a crowned panel that is dam-
aged. The movement of the metal is obvious.
All panels are crowned to some degree. A panel
with a large crown is called high crowned. A nearly
flat panel is called low crowned. There are three types
of outer panels:
Single crown
Combination crown
Double crown
The important thing to remember is that both
the repair procedure and the application of tools are
determined by whether the area is under tension or
pressure. A hammer should never strike in a tension
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

area; the dolly should never strike the underside of a

pressure area. Power hookups are determined by the
direction of pressure forces. No plastic filling can be
done when there are pressure areas present because
the filler could pop off from movement of the pres-
sure area.
SIDE VIEW
END VIEW
FIGURE 8-17 Study the high and low spots created in a
crowned panel
Direction
of Damage
The movement caused
this melal to pull down.
This pulling action has
creating a tension almost shortened this
Immediately.
dimension
FIGURE 8-1B The tension area in a darnaged low-crown
area has affected the dimension at the nght
Single Crown Panels
Figure 8-17 shows a drawing of a single crowned
panel. This panel is flat in one direction (left to right)
and crowned in another (90 degrees or crosswise).
Direction
of Damage
Unlike the panel
In Figure 7-18.
further movement
did not force the
melal through the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

center to create a
tension. Very high
crowned panels
rarely go through
the center
The movement of
metal again created
a pressure area here.
Pressure Area
Tension
Area
Pressure
Area
------
Scanned with
FIGURE 8-16 High and low tension areas often occur in
a damageu combination bype panel.
FIGURE 8-19 Sudy the results of pressure areas in a
damaged hugt-crown panel.
SHOP
TALK
All damage to the crowned areas of
a panel must be straightened first
rather than just filled with plastic
This means there is a three-dimensional effect
on all pressure and tension areas. An area that is low
is accompanied by a high (or pressure) area adjacent
to it. This is true on all crowned areas.
Parking lot dings are a good example of pres-
sure and tension areas (Figure 8-20). The impact cre-
ates a shallow tension area surrounded by a ridge or
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

pressure area. Sometimes you can correct a small door

ding by using a pick from inside the door. Carefully
position the pick and push while watching where
pressure is being applied. When you are on the cen-
ter of the ding, use enough pushing force to move
the ding out level with the panel. You may not even
have to repaint the door.
With deeper dings having more serious tension
areas, you may have to use a hammer and dolly to
work the ding. The ridge around the ding must be
taped down level with the panel and the low area
must be pushed out. The area might then need to be
leveled with a plastic body filler and refinished.
During the damage, the same force was applied
to both sides of the arrow (at P). Yet, the metal to the
left has a greater area of damage. The significance here
is that if the novice body technician merely "drives"
the metal upward to correct it, further damage would
be caused at the flatter area of the panel. The flat area
would yield to corrective forces (blows), and the great.
est resistance area (P to BC) would remain intact. The
correction here is to unroll the buckle (P to BC). This
is the key to opening up the metal in the flatter area.
It is the area of greatest resistance.
If a crowned panel has a shrunken area on it
(caused by either welding, improper hammer and dolly
techniques, or the results of a buckle in the crown).
the level of that area will be lower than the normal
level yet have no pressure areas present. Whenever a
low area on a crown is not accompanied by a nearby
pressure area, the low area is shrunken and can be
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

corrected only by stretching. To attempt straighter

ing by picking up the low area will only lower the
adjacent metal, as shown in Figure 8-22.
A damaged Crown panel will always have some
pressure areas present somewhere, unless it is dam-
aged from underneath. In this case, the metal will be
pulled inward creating the opposite condition from
those described in Figures 8-18 and 8-19.
Understanding these principles will help you
determine correct repair procedures. For example,
when welding on a concave surface (panel section-
ing, perhaps), is the metal going to sink inward
Arrow shows
direction of
damage.
Combination Crown Panels
The shifting of the pressure areas on a combination
panel is shown in Figure 8-21. The direction of dam-
age showri is from above and almost straight down,
yet there are two collapsed rolled buckles (P to BF
and P to BC) that are of different lengths. This is
because the crown is stronger than the flatter area
and resisted the pressure forces more.
Pressure Area
P = Point of First Contact
BF - End of Collapsed Rolled Buckle
in Flat Section
BC - End of Collapsed Rolled Buckle
In Crowned Section
Scan Tension Area
SICURE B-20 A simple door ding or small dent easily
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

show pressure and tension Greas in damage.

The crown begins
and the flat metal
ends at this line.
FIGURE 8-21 Work hardened areas often result in a
damaged combination panel.
Improper corrective action
can lower the metal In this
area rather than raise the
Normal Level of
Metal Belore
Damage
metal in the center.
FIQURE 8-23 This is n doublecrownad panel.
Level of Metnl
After Belng
Shrunk by Damage
Corrective
Force
FIGURE 8-22 A shrunken panel must be otratchad to
return it to its original contour
A.
or rise because of the weld shrinkage? The answer is
that the metal wil rise. A high area will be created
This problem can be corrected by using the hammer
on-dolly technique to lower the metal. The novice
usually feels that stretching will raise metal. On a
crowned panel, it will
Diroct Damage
Simple Rollod
Buckles
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Collapsed Rolled
Buckle "C
Double Crowns
For simplicity, the various buckles have been discussed
as they occur on panels that are curved or crowned in
one direction and flat in another direction. Most pan
els are reasonably close to this type of construction
Some, however, are crowned in both directions
(Figure 8-23). These are called double crowns
Rolled buckles occur on crowned surfaces and
roll (or travel) toward the nearest flat area. In the
case of a panel that has a double-crowned surface,
the rolled buckles will travel normaliy in all direc
tions from the point of impact. The collapsed rolled
buckles spread out from the impact point, ike spokes
of a wagon wheel, the hub being the initial point of
impact. The damage shown in Figure 8-24A is typi
cal of an impact on that type of panel
Collapsed
Rolled
Buckle "B"
Collapsed
Rolled Buckle "A"
Collapsed Rolled Buckle "D"
в
FIGURE 8-24 (A) Collapeed rolled buckles norrmally
occur in a double-crowned panel. (B) Study the procedure for
bumping out a collapsed rolled buckle
studying each buckle, and unfolding each work-hard
ened section of metal, you can determine how the
repair operations should be formed
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Of course, it is not possible to always reverse the

damage conditions in the order that they occurred
Buckles cannot be unfolded simultaneously
Shrunken metal that is work hardened cannot be
softened in reverse. Tears in the metal will not re
weld themselves. But before the damaged area can
be repaired, you must know how the damage oc
curred, recognize the conditions existing in the metal
and use the correct repair tools and procedures
DETERMiINING THE DIRECTION
OF DAMAGE
All the information given so far will help determine
the direction of damage. To fix collision damage, you
must apply force in the reverse of how the damage
occurred. Visual inspection can usually tell what
happened. However, sometimes it becomes compli
cated when there are overlapping conditions.
Collapsed rolled buckles always move away
from the point of first contact. When two or three
of them are present, it becomes easier. Where they
all converge (like spokes of a wheel to the hub) is
the point of first contact. It is also usually approxi
mately 90 degrees straight out from the collapsed
rolled buckle (Figure 8-24B)
dt helps to visualize the accident happening
in slow motion. Then, by reversing the accident
8.3 METAL BTRAIGHTENING
TECHNIGUES
Analysis and theory will tell you what is wrong. Next
you must have the basic skills to repair the damage.
After this, you must know how to put these things
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

together to produce the overall results required of a

an Canre
When using the grinder, only the top I‘lz to 2 inches (38 to 51 mm) should contact the
surface. Do not use excessive pressure. The weight of the grinder should just about be
enough.

On vertical surfaces, use pressure equal to the weight of the grinder. The grinder should
be held so the back of the disc is raised 10 to 20 degrees off the metal. It is sometimes
difficult to use the round sanding disc in a sharp reverse crown area. The edge of the disc
will cause a deep groove to be cut in the metal. This can be avoided by cutting the edge
of

Bumng

Scratch Pattern / C: ‘ .\ Q _ _ . t.’

at;

:‘J

-‘

’ao

gr

\\

‘W‘qqg(«n\h§ hm(???(?«ummumii

Dlrectlon of Tnvel
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

A <4-~ Crosacut , Scratch Pattern Dlrectlon --> 0! Travel Dlrectlon 0! Travel -> Disc
Rotatlon 3

FIGURE 3-27 Two grinding actions: [A] buffing method and [B] cmsscuming method.

, _. M. L4,

”‘lC-J IRE 8-23 Round discs can be cut into star disc “hm“ for better cutting action.

tar disc the disc into points. commonly called a 5

(Figure 8-28).

8.4 METALwonKING TECHNIQUES

The buckles and creases in a dented panel can be unlocked in a variety of ways. On
panels where the backside is accessible, hammers and dollies or spoons are used for the
initial roughing out. On areas where the backside of the panel is difficult to reach, slide
hammers, picks, and welded studs can be used to reverse the damage.

Damage in an exterior panel can be locked in by indirect damage to structural panels or

inner reinforcements. Before metalworking techniques are used, structural damage must
be repaired by pushing or pulling the damaged understructure into alignment. Usually
when this is necessary, it is best to maintain the hydraulic push or pull until the exterior
panels have been straightened using one of the techniques described here.

BUMPING DENTS
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The body repair hammer is designed to strike the sheet metal and rebound off the surface.
It is not designed to be driven down, as in driving a nail. A driving action would create
additional damage in the sheet metal.

The secret of metal straightening is to hit the right spot at the right time with the right
amount of force. When using a body hammer, swing in a circular motion at your wrist.
Do not swing the hammer with your whole arm and shoulder. Hit the part squarely and
let the hammer rebound off the metal. Space each blow 3/a to ‘/z inch (9.5 to 13 mm)
apart until the damaged metal is level. The hammer should be held as shown in Figure 8-
29.

The face of the hammer must fit the contour of the panel. Use a flat face on flat or low-
crown panels. Use a convex~shaped or high-crown face when bumping inside curves.

Heavy body hammers should be used for roughing out the damage. Finishing, or dinging,
hammers

‘31: Before bumping any sheet metal,

make sure that both sides of the panel are clean of road tars. mud undercoating. and so
on. This will V ensure that the tools come in d'

rect contact with the metal. F

'~: Sci

BESID AULU JI IUUUU

the disc into points, comme
the disc into points, commonly called a star disc
(Figure 8-28).
When using the grinder, only the top 1/2 to 2
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

inches (38 to 51 mm) should contact the surface. Do

not use excessive pressure. The weight of the grinder
should just about be enough.
On vertical surfaces, use pressure equal to the
weight of the grinder. The grinder should be held
so the back of the disc is raised 10 to 20 degrees off
the metal. It is sometimes difficult to use the round
sanding disc in a sharp reverse crown area. The edge
of the disc will cause a deep groove to be cut in the
metal. This can be avoided by cutting the edge of
8.4 METALWORKING
TECHNIQUES
Buffing
Scratch Pattern
The buckles and creases in a dented panel can be
unlocked in a variety of ways. On panels where the
backside is accessible, hainmers and dollies or spoons
are used for the initial roughing out. On areas where
the backside of the panel is difficult to reach, slide
hammers, picks, and welded studs can be used to
reverse the damage.
Damage in an exterior panel can be locked in
by indirect darnage to structural panels or inner re-
inforcements. Before metalworking techniques are
used, structural damage must be repaired by push-
ing or pulling the damaged understructure into align-
ment. Usually when this is necessary, it is best to
maintain the hydraulic push or pull until the exte-
rior panels have been straightened using one of the
techniques described here.
Direction_(litat de
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of Travel
CAMIC
w
a
WW
Crosscut
Scratch
Pattern
-
Direction
of Travel
Direction
of Travel
BUMPING DENTS
The body repair hammer is designed to strike the
sheet metal and rebound off the surface. It is not
designed to be driven down, as in driving a nail. A
driving action would create additional damage in the
sheet metal.
The secret of metal straightening is to hit the
right spot at the right time with the right amount of
force. When using a body hammer, swing in a circu-
lar motion at your wrist. Do not swing the hammer
with your whole arm and shoulder. Hit the part
squarely and let the hammer rebound off the metal.
Space each blow" to "2 inch (9.5 to 13 mm) apart
until the damaged metal is level. The hammer should
be held as shown in Figure 8-29.
The face of the hammer must fit the contour of
the panel. Use a flat face on flat or low-crown pan-
els. Use a convex-shaped or high-crown face when
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

bumping inside curves.

Heavy body hammers should be used for rough-
ing out the damage. Finishing, or dinging, hammers
Disc
Ratation
FIGURE 8-27 Two grinding actions: (A) buffing method
and (B) crosscutting method.
SHOP
TALK
Before bumping any sheet metal,
make sure that both sides of the
panel are clean of road tars, mud,
undercoating, and so on. This will
ensure that the tools came in di-
rect contact with the metal.
1282
FIGURE 6 28 Plcuna discs can be cut into star disc
shenee for better cutting action.
8-3 TYPES OF POWER TOOLS
DRILL SHANK
C10
CHUCK
There are three types of power tools: electric, pneumatic,
and hydraulic. Electric tools have electric motors.
Examples are the electric drill (8.4) and drill press
(8-5). The word pneumatic means "of or pertaining to
air." Pneumatic tools operate by compressed air. They
include air hammers, air impact Wrenches, air ratchets, and
air jacks.
The word hydraulic means of or pertaining to a fluid or
liquid." Hydraulic tools work because of pressure on a
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

liquid. These tools include hydraulic jacks, shop cranes,

hydraulic presses, and automotive lifts.
Following sections cover these various types of power
tools.
JAW
w.
X
U
CAUTION!
- CHUCK
KEY
Never use any power tool or piece of shop equipment until
after you have received instruction on when and how to use
it. Also, your instrucccr must give you permission to begin.
7
e
ELECTRIC TOOLS
> 8-4 ELECTRIC DRILL
Fig. 8-3 Installing a twist drill in a drill chuck
The electric drill (Fig. 8-2) has an electric motor that drives
a chuck. This is a device with adjustable jaws that holds a
tool in a machine. The chuck jaws are opened and a drill
bit inserted (Fig. 8-3). Turning a-chuck key closes the jaws.
They tightly grip the shank of the drill bit. Chapter 7
describes drill bits or twist drills.
Observe the following cautions when using an electric
drill:
2. Do not drag the drill by its cord. Do not kink the cord,
step on it, or run a vehicle or machine over it. This
could damage the insulation. Then someone could get a
dangerous electric shock.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3. Keep your hands and clothes away from the rotating

chuck and drill bit.
4. Keep a firm grip on the drill. Be ready to shut it off if
the drill bit jams.
5. If the bit jams, do not try to break it free by turning the
drill on and off. This can damage the drill. Pull the drill
back to free it.
6. When you finish with the drill, disconnect it. Wipe it
clean and put it away. Most drills have preoiled
bearings which do not require periodic lubrication,
1. Drill must be properly grounded (Fig. 4-8) through the
third blade or ground terminal in the plug. Some drills
are double-insulated instead.
>
8-5 DRILL PRESS
GEARED CHUCK
TRIGGER SWITCH
SWITCH LOCKING
BUTTON
A drill press (Fig. 8-4) is a vertical drilling machine
powered by an electric motor. Clamp the piece you are
drilling to the table of the drill press. Place the drill bit
(>7-22) in the chuck Pull down on the hand-operated feed
lever. This moves the chuck down and forces the drill bit
into the workpiece.
Adjustments on the drill press set the hole depth and
cutting speed. You usually control the feed. The drill press
cuts holes more accurately than a hand-held electric drill
(>8-4).
Scanned with
Fig 8-2 Electric drill. (Black & Decker Inc.)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CamScanner
The damage shown in the drawing has tension in
one direction and pressure in another. Look at the
damage from the flat side (side view of drawing):
it appears similar to that in Figure 8-18. Look at it
from the end view; it appears similar to that of
Figure 8-19.
Pressure Forces Zero
Direction
of Damage
Tension
Here
Metal Before
Damage
Metal Alter
Damage
Pressure
Tension
opposite. It is recessed below the surrounding sur-
face. Minor low and high spots in sheet metal can
often be fixed with a body hammer.
The term raising means to work a dent out-
ward or away from the body. The term lowering
means to work a high spot or bump down or into
the body.
It is important to understand their meanings.
There are pressures and tensions (stresses and strains)
within the metal before any damage occurs. All
crowns, for example, are under pressure. Metal that
is forced up has a new pressure applied to it. The
pressure is being held there by the work-hardened
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

buckles. If they were to suddenly disappear, the metal

would return to its original shape. Consider the metal
as being without pressure or tension before it was
damaged when evaluating the changes that have
taken place and the corrections that must be made.
The metal that is pushed up is called a pres-
sure area. An area that is pushed down is called a
tension area. The drawing in Figure 8-16 shows a
typical cross section of a crowned panel that is dam-
aged. The movement of the metal is obvious.
All panels are crowned to some degree. A panel
with a large crown is called high crowned. A nearly
flat panel is called low crowned. There are three types
of outer panels:
Single crown
Combination crown
Double crown
The important thing to remember is that both
the repair procedure and the application of tools are
determined by whether the area is under tension or
pressure. A hammer should never strike in a tension
area; the dolly should never strike the underside of a
pressure area. Power hookups are determined by the
direction of pressure forces. No plastic filling can be
done when there are pressure areas present because
the filler could pop off from movement of the pres-
sure area.
SIDE VIEW
END VIEW
FIGURE 8-17 Study the high and low spots created in a
crowned panel
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Direction
of Damage
The movement caused
this melal to pull down.
This pulling action has
creating a tension almost shortened this
Immediately.
dimension
FIGURE 8-1B The tension area in a darnaged low-crown
area has affected the dimension at the nght
Single Crown Panels
Figure 8-17 shows a drawing of a single crowned
panel. This panel is flat in one direction (left to right)
and crowned in another (90 degrees or crosswise).
Direction
of Damage
Unlike the panel
In Figure 7-18.
further movement
did not force the
melal through the
center to create a
tension. Very high
crowned panels
rarely go through
the center
The movement of
metal again created
a pressure area here.
Pressure Area
Tension
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Area
Pressure
Area
------
Scanned with
FIGURE 8-16 High and low tension areas often occur in
a damageu combination bype panel.
FIGURE 8-19 Sudy the results of pressure areas in a
damaged hugt-crown panel.
SHOP
TALK
All damage to the crowned areas of
a panel must be straightened first
rather than just filled with plastic
This means there is a three-dimensional effect
on all pressure and tension areas. An area that is low
is accompanied by a high (or pressure) area adjacent
to it. This is true on all crowned areas.
Parking lot dings are a good example of pres-
sure and tension areas (Figure 8-20). The impact cre-
ates a shallow tension area surrounded by a ridge or
pressure area. Sometimes you can correct a small door
ding by using a pick from inside the door. Carefully
position the pick and push while watching where
pressure is being applied. When you are on the cen-
ter of the ding, use enough pushing force to move
the ding out level with the panel. You may not even
have to repaint the door.
With deeper dings having more serious tension
areas, you may have to use a hammer and dolly to
work the ding. The ridge around the ding must be
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

taped down level with the panel and the low area
must be pushed out. The area might then need to be
leveled with a plastic body filler and refinished.
During the damage, the same force was applied
to both sides of the arrow (at P). Yet, the metal to the
left has a greater area of damage. The significance here
is that if the novice body technician merely "drives"
the metal upward to correct it, further damage would
be caused at the flatter area of the panel. The flat area
would yield to corrective forces (blows), and the great.
est resistance area (P to BC) would remain intact. The
correction here is to unroll the buckle (P to BC). This
is the key to opening up the metal in the flatter area.
It is the area of greatest resistance.
If a crowned panel has a shrunken area on it
(caused by either welding, improper hammer and dolly
techniques, or the results of a buckle in the crown).
the level of that area will be lower than the normal
level yet have no pressure areas present. Whenever a
low area on a crown is not accompanied by a nearby
pressure area, the low area is shrunken and can be
corrected only by stretching. To attempt straighter
ing by picking up the low area will only lower the
adjacent metal, as shown in Figure 8-22.
A damaged Crown panel will always have some
pressure areas present somewhere, unless it is dam-
aged from underneath. In this case, the metal will be
pulled inward creating the opposite condition from
those described in Figures 8-18 and 8-19.
Understanding these principles will help you
determine correct repair procedures. For example,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

when welding on a concave surface (panel section-

ing, perhaps), is the metal going to sink inward
Arrow shows
direction of
damage.
Combination Crown Panels
The shifting of the pressure areas on a combination
panel is shown in Figure 8-21. The direction of dam-
age showri is from above and almost straight down,
yet there are two collapsed rolled buckles (P to BF
and P to BC) that are of different lengths. This is
because the crown is stronger than the flatter area
and resisted the pressure forces more.
Pressure Area
P = Point of First Contact
BF - End of Collapsed Rolled Buckle
in Flat Section
BC - End of Collapsed Rolled Buckle
In Crowned Section
Scan Tension Area
SICURE B-20 A simple door ding or small dent easily
show pressure and tension Greas in damage.
The crown begins
and the flat metal
ends at this line.
FIGURE 8-21 Work hardened areas often result in a
damaged combination panel.
Improper corrective action
can lower the metal in this
area rather than raise the
metal in the center.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Normal Lovel of
Metal Belore
Damage
FIOURS B-R3 This is a double crowned panel
Level ol Metal
Alter Being
Corrective Shrunk by Damage
Force
FIGURE 8-2e A shrunken panel must be stretched to
return it to its original contour.
A
or rise because of the weld shrinkage? The answer is
that the metal will rise. A high area will be created.
This problem can be corrected by using the hammer-
on-dolly technique to lower the metal. The novice
usually feels that stretching will raise metal. On a
crowned panel, it will.
Direct Damage
Simple Rollod
Duckles
Collapsod Rolled
Buckle "C"
109
Collapsod
Rolled
Buckle "B"
Collapsed
Rolled Buckle "A"
Double Crowns
For simplicity, the various buckles have been discussed
as they occur on panels that are curved or crowned in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

one direction and flat in another direction. Most pan-

els are reasonably close to this type of construction.
Some, however, are crowned in both directions
(Figure 8-23). These are called double crowiis.
Rolled buckles occur on crowned surfaces and
roll (or travel) toward the nearest flat arca. In the
case of a panel that has a double-crowned surface,
the rolled buckles will travel normally in all direc-
tions from the point of impact. The collapsed rolled
buckles spread out from the impact point, like spokes
of a wagon wheel, the hub being the initial point of
impact. The damage shown in Figure 8-24A is typi-
cal of an impact on that type of panel,
Collapsed Rolled Buckle "D"
FIGUAE 8-24 (A) Collapsed rolled buckles normally
occur in a double-crowned panel. (B) Study the procedure for
bumping out a collapsed rolled buckle.
studying each buckle, and unfolding each work-hard-
ened section of metal, you can determine how the
repair operations should be formed.
Of course, it is not possible to always reverse the
damage conditions in the order that they occurred.
Buckles cannot be unfolded simultaneously.
Shrunken metal that is work hardened cannot be
softened in reverse. Tears in the metal will not re-
weld themselves. But before the damaged area can
be repaired, you must know how the damage oc.
curred, recognize the conditions existing in the metal,
and use the correct repair tools and procedures.
DETERMINING THE DIRECTION
OF DAMAGE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

All the information given so far will help determine

the direction of damage. To fix collision damage, you
must apply force in the reverse of how the damage
occurred. Visual inspection can usually tell what
happened. However, sometimes it becomes compli-
cated when there are overlapping conditions.
Collapsed rolled buckles always move away
from the point of first contact. When two or three
of them are present, it becomes easier. Where they
all converge (like spokes of a wheel to the hub) is
the point of first contact. It is also usually approxi-
mately 90 degrees straight out from the collapsed
rolled buckle (Figure 8-24B).
It helps to visualize the accident happening
in slow motion. Then, by reversing the accident,
8.3 METAL BTRAIGHTENING
TECHNIGUES
Analysis and theory will tell you what is wrong. Next
you must have the basic skills to repair the damage.
After this, you must know how to put these things
together to produce the overall results required of a
BESID AULU JI IUUUU
the disc into points, comme
the disc into points, commonly called a star disc
(Figure 8-28).
When using the grinder, only the top 1/2 to 2
inches (38 to 51 mm) should contact the surface. Do
not use excessive pressure. The weight of the grinder
should just about be enough.
On vertical surfaces, use pressure equal to the
weight of the grinder. The grinder should be held
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

so the back of the disc is raised 10 to 20 degrees off

the metal. It is sometimes difficult to use the round
sanding disc in a sharp reverse crown area. The edge
of the disc will cause a deep groove to be cut in the
metal. This can be avoided by cutting the edge of
8.4 METALWORKING
TECHNIQUES
Buffing
Scratch Pattern
The buckles and creases in a dented panel can be
unlocked in a variety of ways. On panels where the
backside is accessible, hainmers and dollies or spoons
are used for the initial roughing out. On areas where
the backside of the panel is difficult to reach, slide
hammers, picks, and welded studs can be used to
reverse the damage.
Damage in an exterior panel can be locked in
by indirect darnage to structural panels or inner re-
inforcements. Before metalworking techniques are
used, structural damage must be repaired by push-
ing or pulling the damaged understructure into align-
ment. Usually when this is necessary, it is best to
maintain the hydraulic push or pull until the exte-
rior panels have been straightened using one of the
techniques described here.
Direction_(litat de
of Travel
CAMIC
w
a
WW
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Crosscut
Scratch
Pattern
-
Direction
of Travel
Direction
of Travel
BUMPING DENTS
The body repair hammer is designed to strike the
sheet metal and rebound off the surface. It is not
designed to be driven down, as in driving a nail. A
driving action would create additional damage in the
sheet metal.
The secret of metal straightening is to hit the
right spot at the right time with the right amount of
force. When using a body hammer, swing in a circu-
lar motion at your wrist. Do not swing the hammer
with your whole arm and shoulder. Hit the part
squarely and let the hammer rebound off the metal.
Space each blow" to "2 inch (9.5 to 13 mm) apart
until the damaged metal is level. The hammer should
be held as shown in Figure 8-29.
The face of the hammer must fit the contour of
the panel. Use a flat face on flat or low-crown pan-
els. Use a convex-shaped or high-crown face when
bumping inside curves.
Heavy body hammers should be used for rough-
ing out the damage. Finishing, or dinging, hammers
Disc
Ratation
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 8-27 Two grinding actions: (A) buffing method

and (B) crosscutting method.
SHOP
TALK
Before bumping any sheet metal,
make sure that both sides of the
panel are clean of road tars, mud,
undercoating, and so on. This will
ensure that the tools came in di-
rect contact with the metal.
1282
FIGURE 6 28 Plcuna discs can be cut into star disc
shenee for better cutting action.
BESID AULU JI IUUUU
the disc into points, comme
the disc into points, commonly called a star disc
(Figure 8-28).
When using the grinder, only the top 1/2 to 2
inches (38 to 51 mm) should contact the surface. Do
not use excessive pressure. The weight of the grinder
should just about be enough.
On vertical surfaces, use pressure equal to the
weight of the grinder. The grinder should be held
so the back of the disc is raised 10 to 20 degrees off
the metal. It is sometimes difficult to use the round
sanding disc in a sharp reverse crown area. The edge
of the disc will cause a deep groove to be cut in the
metal. This can be avoided by cutting the edge of
8.4 METALWORKING
TECHNIQUES
Buffing
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Scratch Pattern
The buckles and creases in a dented panel can be
unlocked in a variety of ways. On panels where the
backside is accessible, hainmers and dollies or spoons
are used for the initial roughing out. On areas where
the backside of the panel is difficult to reach, slide
hammers, picks, and welded studs can be used to
reverse the damage.
Damage in an exterior panel can be locked in
by indirect darnage to structural panels or inner re-
inforcements. Before metalworking techniques are
used, structural damage must be repaired by push-
ing or pulling the damaged understructure into align-
ment. Usually when this is necessary, it is best to
maintain the hydraulic push or pull until the exte-
rior panels have been straightened using one of the
techniques described here.
Direction_(litat de
of Travel
CAMIC
w
a
WW
Crosscut
Scratch
Pattern
-
Direction
of Travel
Direction
of Travel
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

BUMPING DENTS
The body repair hammer is designed to strike the
sheet metal and rebound off the surface. It is not
designed to be driven down, as in driving a nail. A
driving action would create additional damage in the
sheet metal.
The secret of metal straightening is to hit the
right spot at the right time with the right amount of
force. When using a body hammer, swing in a circu-
lar motion at your wrist. Do not swing the hammer
with your whole arm and shoulder. Hit the part
squarely and let the hammer rebound off the metal.
Space each blow" to "2 inch (9.5 to 13 mm) apart
until the damaged metal is level. The hammer should
be held as shown in Figure 8-29.
The face of the hammer must fit the contour of
the panel. Use a flat face on flat or low-crown pan-
els. Use a convex-shaped or high-crown face when
bumping inside curves.
Heavy body hammers should be used for rough-
ing out the damage. Finishing, or dinging, hammers
Disc
Ratation
FIGURE 8-27 Two grinding actions: (A) buffing method
and (B) crosscutting method.
SHOP
TALK
Before bumping any sheet metal,
make sure that both sides of the
panel are clean of road tars, mud,
undercoating, and so on. This will
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ensure that the tools came in di-

rect contact with the metal.
1282
FIGURE 6 28 Plcuna discs can be cut into star disc
shenee for better cutting action.
should be used for final shaping. The secret to finish
hammering is light, rapid taps. It is also important
to hit squarely. Hitting with the edge of the hammer
will put additional nicks in the metal.
SHOP
TALK
(BUMPING DENTS WITH SPOONS
The effect of hammering is in
creased when pressure is kept on
the underside of the panel. This can
be done with a dolly, spoon, or hv-
draulic jack.
ADRIEJ
Spoons can be used in a number of ways. Spoons
can be used to pry out dents. Certain kinds can be
struck with a hammer to drive out dents. In hard-to-
reach areas, a spoon can be used as a dolly. Some are
even designed to be used in place of a hammer.
Spring hammering is commonly done with a
hammer and a dinging Spoon. The dinging spoon is
lightweight and has a low crown. When used, it is
held firmly against the high ridge or crease. The spoon
is then struck with a ball peen or bumping hammer
(Figure 8-30). The force of the blow is distributed by
the spoon over a large area of the crease or ridge. This
reduces the likelihood of stretching the metal.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Always keep firm pressure on the spoon when

spring hammering. It must never be allowed to
bounce. Part of the corrective force is the pressure of
the spoon. Begin at the ends of a ridge (hinge buckle)
and work toward the high point on the ridge, alter-
nating from side to side.
Slapping spoons are sometimes used instead of
hammers. They can be driven down harder and more
often without damaging the panel. They can be used
with a dolly.
Remember that hammer blows on top of a panel
can be a corrective force only when they are placed
on pressure (high) areas of the damage. A bumping
file can also be used to "slap" down ridges. It has a
serrated surface that shrinks the stretched metal.
Spoons can be used to back up the hammer or
in combination with a slapping spoon. With a long
body spoon, you can often reach into places inac-
cessible to a hammer or dolly. Pressure can be ap-
plied to tension areas with the spoon while high areas
are bumped down (Figure 8-31A).
Spoons can also be used to pry metal up in the
rough-out stage or to drive deep dents out. Figure
8-31B shows a spoon being used to pry out a dent in
a door panel. The door is supported on blocks of wood
to provide clearance for the door panel to move.
Care must be taken not to stretch the metal by
prying it beyond the original contour.
Once a dent is roughed out by prying with a
spoon or dolly, a body hammer can be used to finish
the area.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Hold tightly here.

BUMPING DENTS WITH DOLLIES
The dolly block is also used throughout the sheet
metal repair process (Figure 8-32). In the rough-out
phase, it is used as an impact tool. The underside of
FIGURE B-29 Hold the hammer with the third and
fourth fingers and Swing with a circular motion.
Highest Point of Ridge
C
Surlacing
Spoon
Surfacing
Spoon
Slightly
Scanner with Lowest Point
Overlapping
of Ridge
FIMAE E-30 Note the method for spring hammering a ridge
Lowest Point
of Ridge
Pull spoon in this direction.
Spoon Used as Dolly
to Stralghlen a Door
Pleces of Wood (2" x 4")
FIGURE 8-31 (A) Using a spoon as a dolly (1) Use a hammer to work metal from the
front (2) while holding a spoon at the
rear of the panel (6) Using a spoon to pry out a dent in a door panel.
the metal can be hit with the dolly to raise low areas
and to unroll buckles. The dolly is also used as a back-
ing block for the hammer. When it is used this way,
there are two techniques:
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Hammer-on-dolly
Hammer-off-dolly
Hammer-On-Dolly Method
Hammer-on-dolly repairs are used to smooth
small, shallow dents and budges and to stretch metal
so that it can return to its original shape. This occurs
usually on crowns and occasionally on flat panels.
To flatten a bulge, place a dolly against the backside
of the panel directly behind the bulge. Use a ham-
mer from the front side to strike the damaged panel
over the dolly.
There will be a slight rebound as the hammer
hits the dolly. By increasing how hard you press on
the heavy dolly, you will increase the flattening ac-
tion on the panel (Figure 8-33).
Carefully monitor or watch how much the panel
stretches as it is hammered. If not checked, the panel
FIGURE 8-32 (A) Select a dolly the correct shape to fit
the rear of the panel. (8) While holding the dolly behind the
na nel, use careful hammer blows to straighten.
FIGURE 8-33 Rebound of the dolly forces the metal up
CamScanner
Note that improper hammer blows placed on a
crown will shrink rather than stretch it. All blows that
are designed to stretch should be hard and accurate,
An inaccurate hard blow can also cause damage to
the panel, Light hammer blows are for straightening.
not stretching. In other words, when using the on
dolly technique, hit hard and do not miss!
Be sure to choose the properly shaped dolly. Fig.
ure 8-36 shows what will happen when the contour
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of the dolly is larger than the contour of the panel.

Additional dents will inevitably result.
FIGURE 8-34 Hammeron-dolly repairing is done by
hitting the panel right over the dolly. (Courtesy of American
Honda Motor Co.)
can overstretch and elongate too much. This could
cause large warps in it. Since a great deal of body
repair experience is needed to accurately judge how
much a panel will stretch when hammered, an inex-
perienced technician should proceed slowly. Work
the panel a little; then step back and inspect the area
around and in the repair area.
You want to work out low spots so that they are
almost level with the rest of the undamaged panel
(Figure 8-34). You do not want to form bumps on
the panel. A slightly concave (sunken) area should
remain around the dent for applying a thin layer of
plastic filler,
In the hammer-on-dolly action, there are two
actions:
Hammer-Off-Dolly Method
Hammer-off-dolly is used to straighten metal just
before the final stage of straightening. In this proce-
dure, hold the dolly under the lowest area, and hit
the high area with your hammer (l'igure 8-37). The
dolly, like the hammer, is designed to correct dam-
age, and must strike only in tension areas to be ef-
fective as an impact tool (when used under the panel
in the normal way).
The hammer-off-dolly method is used mostly on
flat or low-crown panels. These panels are soft in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CUTAWAY
END VIEW
CUTAWAY
SIDE VIEW
A = Metal Below Normal Level
B - Normal Level
FIGURE 8-35 The shrunken area must be stretched
with the hammer-on-dolly method.
When the hammer strikes the metal
• When the dolly rebounds upward and strikes the
underside of the metal.
Any shrunken metal on a crown can be
stretched up to its normal level faster and easier by
the hammer-on-dolly than by any other method.
The technique of on-dollying is used, provided that
there is access to the underside of the panel. If not,
a sliding hammer might be needed. Figure 8-35
shows a drawing of a typical low area (in this case a
collapsed rolled buckle).
This panel was damaged and has been roughed
out but is still low in the area of the collapsed rolled
buckle (circled). Because this panel shows no evidence
of a pressure area adjacent to the buckle, the panel is
shrunken at A as shown in the drawing. The only
way A can be raised to the original level B is by stretch-
ing. The stretching has to be along the line of the
rolled buckle. Picking up the low area will not cor-
rect the condition. The hammer-on-dolly method
should be used here on line A.
Tension is kept on the dolly at all times. The
greater the tension, the greater the rebound action
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and the faster it returns. When hammering fast, the

tension is increased on the dolly to ensure a quick
rebound. When low metal is being raised, each re-
lound action should be deliberately driven up by
the hand action.canner
Dents
or
Nicks
1 Original Contour
FIGURE 8-36 Using a dolly whose contour does not fit
the contour of the panel will result in additional damage to the
panel.
FIGURE 8-37 The hammer-off-dolly position is done by
hitting the metal to one side of the dolly.
usually deepest next to the POI, decreasing in size
toward the outward end of the channel.
At the same time as the channels are being
pushed in, ridges (simple rolled buckles) are being
formed around the outer area of the dent. They also
have the greatest degree of bend in their center,
gradually decreasing in size toward each end. Both
the ridges and channels contain work hardening, the
amount depending on the degree of bend.
To remove the dent, roll out the damage from
the outside, working toward the center in a reverse
order of damage. Hold the dolly tightly under the
channel at the outer end where there is least damage
(Figure 8-39B). A flat-faced dinging hammer might
be used to direct light to medium blows at the outer
ends of the ridge closest to the dolly (off-dolly blows).
The force from the hammer will gradually lower the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ends of the ridges. Your hand or arm pressure on the

heavy dolly will force the end of the channel up-
ward. The same procedure is then repeated on the
other end of the channel and the adjacent ridges.
The off-dolly method is gradually worked toward
the center or the greatest degree of bend in the
ridges and channels. As the pressure is released in
the ridges and channels, the surrounding elastic
metal tends to move back to its original position.
The dolly can also be used as a driving tool to work
the channel upward (Figure 8-39C). However, if the
Ridges
Channel:
Point 01
Impact)
Elastic
Metal
Ridges
FIGURE B-38 Study the basic steps for forming a bent
panel. (A) Use blows from the dolly to remove a large dent. (B)
Use the off-dolly method to further work the dent. (C) Blows
from the dolly might shape a large area. (D) The on-dolly
method will work smaller areas to the original contour.
(Courtesy of American Honda Motor Co.)
comparison with crowned panels. Sometimes the
dolly is directly under the hammer but does not ac-
tually strike it, as shown in Figure 8-38.
UNLOCKING DENTS WITH A
HAMMER AND DOLLY
A minor dent (Figure 8-39A) is often straightened
by using hammer and dolly to "roll out" the metal
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

in the reverse order it happened. For example, the

point of impact (POI) was the first area touched by
the impact. As the metal is pushed in, a channel is
gradualiy formed on either side of the point of
impact. This channel (a collapsed rolled buckle) is
CamScanner
FIGURE 8-39 Study the steps in repairing a dented
panel with a hammer and dolly.
dolly does not move when the channel is hit up-
ward, there is still too much pressure on either or
both the ridges and/or the channel. More dollying
must be done to relieve the tension (Figure 8-39D).
Once the area has been brought back to its basic
shape, use the light on-dolly method to smooth and
level the area (Figure 8-39E). It is then ready for ci-
ther the metal finishing or filling procedure.
with the original point of contact or the lowest point
Slowly pry the crease up. On larger dents, use a flat
blade pick rather than a pointed one. Tap down pres.
sure areas, while prying up low tension areas.
PICKING DENTS
There are several methods of picking up metal with
the use of a pointed (not necessarily sharp) tool.
Pick hammers, long picking tools, the edge of a
dolly, and even a scratch awl can be used. When
picking up a small dent with a striking tool, it is
better to use several light blows rather than one or
two hard blows. After an area has been picked up, a
file or grinder can be used to level the damaged area
if needed. Figure 8–40 shows a low spot being raised
with a pick.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Long picking tools can also be used to pry up

metal in areas that cannot be reached with a dolly or
spoon. A car door is a good example (Figure 8-41). A
pick can sometimes be inserted through a drainage
hole or a hole drilled behind the door gasket, which
eliminates the need to remove the inside door trim
or to drill holes in the outer panel for pulling the
dent. Picks are used during paintless dent removal
(removing small body dings or dents without paint-
ing the panel).
When prying with a pick, be careful not to
stretch the metal by exerting too much pressure. Start
PULLING DENTS
Dents can be pulled out with a number of tools: suc.
tion cups, pull rods, dent pullers, nail guns, and even
a sheet metal screw and vise grips. The purpose of a
dent puller is to lift out simple dents that cannot be
reached easily or lifted out by other means.
The dent puller is probably one of the body
technician's most used tools. One reason is the grow-
ing complexity of automobile body construction and
corrosion protection. Access to the inside of many
panels is blocked by welded-in inner panels and win-
dow mechanisms. Using a dent puller and welded-on
nail or suction cup, you can often repair a simple dent
in less time than would be required to make the disas-
sembly necessary to start the repair from the inside.
A suction cup can be used to pull out large, shal-
low dents. Wet the area and install the cup. If hand
held, pull straight out on the cup's handle. If
mounted on a slide hammer, use a quick blow to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

pop the dent out.

A vacuum suction cup uses a remote power source
(separate vacuum pump or air compressor airflow)
to produce negative pressure (vacuum) in the cup.
This increases the pulling power because the cup
will be forced against the panel tightly. Larger,
deeper dents can be pulled with a vacuum suction
cup. Figure 8-42 shows a pneumatic dent puller.
A slide hammer equipped with a sheet metal
screw is sometimes used to remove more stubborn
dents and creases. If a nail gun (stud welder) is not
Correct Level
-----
----
-
-
A. The metal is low and irregular.
Aligning and
Straightening
Panel With
Correct Level
Pick
20
OU
8. The stretched metalls raised above the normal level.
Correcl Level
Raising
Low Spots
With Pick
C. The metal is filed hard and la leveled to the desired
amount.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 8-40 Note how to raise a dent with a pick

I am ng Canneer with
CamScanner
Raising Low
Spots with a
Curved Finishing
Punch
FIGURE 8-41 Paintless dent removal is commonly done
on small door dings. Reach in behind the dent with a long pun
Carefully apply controlled pressure to the dent to push ou
inside of the panel. Low spots can then be filled with
body filler.
Shallow, small dents in enclosed panels can be
pulled out with one or more pull rods. Again, a body
hammer should be used to tap high spots down dur-
ing pulling
available, drill or punch holes one inch (25 mm) apart
along the length of the initial crease. Punching is pre-
ferred to drilling because punching leaves more metal
for the screw tip to grab. The series of holes will weaken
the area in the crease and allow for its removal.
Beginning at the point of initial impact, thread
the screw tip on the dent puller into the first hole.
Hold the handle of the dent puller in one hand and
slide the weight straight back against the handle
(Figure 8-43).
Gradually work the crease out. Pull the first hole
slightly. Then go on to the next hole. Work from the
lowest spot to the crease ends in both directions. After
pulling each hole out slightly, repeat the process.
Work the surface as close to the finished contour as
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

possible without pulling the metal beyond the origi-

nal surface. Tap high spots down with a body ham-
mer to relieve pressure in ridge areas. Weld the holes
closed and restore corrosion protection on the
Avoid making holes in panels dur-
ing straightening. Holes weaken the
SHOP
TALK panel and require welding as well
as restoration of the corrosion pro-
tection. It is senseless to pierce a
large number of holes in the sur-
face of a panel that could have been
straightened by other means. The
result is often an unsatisfactory job.
More time may have been required
to do it wrong than would have been required to
do it right.
Pulling With Studs
The most advanced and common way to pull dents
is with a nail gun and small metal studs welded to
the dent. The stud might be a washer, a pull tab, or a
pin. Regardless of the system used, pulling with spot-
welded studs avoids drilling or punching through the
metal and undercoating, potentially a technique that
will result in corrosion damage.
Figure 8-44 shows a complete set of stud pull-
ing equipment.
A pull pin spot welder or nail gun fuses a
metal pin to the dent area (Figure 8-45A). Fusing the
pin to the panel takes only a fraction of a second.
The pin or pins can then be pulled with either a dent
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

puller (Figure 8-45B) or a power jack (Figure 8-45C).

FIGURE 8-42 To remove a dent with a dent puller, weld
a bracket ur a pull pin to the surface of the panel. Attach the
appropriate tip to the dent puller, insert it in the bracket or
pull pin, and slide back on the hemmer: Use soft blows to
slowly pull out the dent.
FIZURE 8-43 A pneumatic or suction cup dent puller will
pod but large, shallow dents easily. (Courtesy of Atlantic
Preumatic, Inc./Scanner
FIGURE B-44 This is a welded stud dent removal kit.
Courtesy of H&S Manufacturing Co. Ltd.)
Note that improper hammer blows placed on a
crown will shrink rather than stretch it. All blows that
are designed to stretch should be hard and accurate,
An inaccurate hard blow can also cause damage to
the panel, Light hammer blows are for straightening.
not stretching. In other words, when using the on
dolly technique, hit hard and do not miss!
Be sure to choose the properly shaped dolly. Fig.
ure 8-36 shows what will happen when the contour
of the dolly is larger than the contour of the panel.
Additional dents will inevitably result.
FIGURE 8-34 Hammeron-dolly repairing is done by
hitting the panel right over the dolly. (Courtesy of American
Honda Motor Co.)
can overstretch and elongate too much. This could
cause large warps in it. Since a great deal of body
repair experience is needed to accurately judge how
much a panel will stretch when hammered, an inex-
perienced technician should proceed slowly. Work
the panel a little; then step back and inspect the area
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

around and in the repair area.

You want to work out low spots so that they are
almost level with the rest of the undamaged panel
(Figure 8-34). You do not want to form bumps on
the panel. A slightly concave (sunken) area should
remain around the dent for applying a thin layer of
plastic filler,
In the hammer-on-dolly action, there are two
actions:
Hammer-Off-Dolly Method
Hammer-off-dolly is used to straighten metal just
before the final stage of straightening. In this proce-
dure, hold the dolly under the lowest area, and hit
the high area with your hammer (l'igure 8-37). The
dolly, like the hammer, is designed to correct dam-
age, and must strike only in tension areas to be ef-
fective as an impact tool (when used under the panel
in the normal way).
The hammer-off-dolly method is used mostly on
flat or low-crown panels. These panels are soft in
CUTAWAY
END VIEW
CUTAWAY
SIDE VIEW
A = Metal Below Normal Level
B - Normal Level
FIGURE 8-35 The shrunken area must be stretched
with the hammer-on-dolly method.
When the hammer strikes the metal
• When the dolly rebounds upward and strikes the
underside of the metal.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Any shrunken metal on a crown can be

stretched up to its normal level faster and easier by
the hammer-on-dolly than by any other method.
The technique of on-dollying is used, provided that
there is access to the underside of the panel. If not,
a sliding hammer might be needed. Figure 8-35
shows a drawing of a typical low area (in this case a
collapsed rolled buckle).
This panel was damaged and has been roughed
out but is still low in the area of the collapsed rolled
buckle (circled). Because this panel shows no evidence
of a pressure area adjacent to the buckle, the panel is
shrunken at A as shown in the drawing. The only
way A can be raised to the original level B is by stretch-
ing. The stretching has to be along the line of the
rolled buckle. Picking up the low area will not cor-
rect the condition. The hammer-on-dolly method
should be used here on line A.
Tension is kept on the dolly at all times. The
greater the tension, the greater the rebound action
and the faster it returns. When hammering fast, the
tension is increased on the dolly to ensure a quick
rebound. When low metal is being raised, each re-
lound action should be deliberately driven up by
the hand action.canner
Dents
or
Nicks
1 Original Contour
FIGURE 8-36 Using a dolly whose contour does not fit
the contour of the panel will result in additional damage to the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

panel.
FIGURE 8-45 (A) A pull stud is being welded to a dented panel (8) A slide hammer can
then be attached to the welded on
stud for pulling the dent. (C) Power equipment can also be attached to several studs
simultaneously for pulling tougher dents (0)
Grind off the welded studs after pulling. (Courtesy of H&S Manufacturing Co Ltd )
quarter panel, fender, and other panel dents where
the backside of the part is inaccessible.
Grind off the area to be pulled to expose the
bare metal. Place a pin in the spot welder. Press the
tool and pin against the bare metal and trigger the
gun. This will spot weld the pin to the panel. One or
more pins may be needed depending upon the se-
verity of the dent.
A dent puller is handy if only one or two pins
are needed to straighten the panel. Tighten the slide
hammer tip around the pin. Use moderate hammer
blows to force the pin and panel outward.
With larger dents requiring several welded-on
pins, use a power jack or frame straightening equip-
ment to pull the pins. You can grasp several pins at
once with a large clamp, and use hydraulic power to
pull on the pins to remove the larger dent.
When the dent is corrected, snip the pins off
with cutters and grind them flush with the panel
(Figure 8-45D). The whole process is very quick with
no damage to the panel and its corrosion protec-
Hon. It is especially useful in pulling out small door,
SHRINKING DENTS
Shrinking metal is needed to remove strain or ten.
sion on a damaged, stretched sheet metal area Dur
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ing impact, the metal can be stretched. When pulled

or hammered straight, the area can still have en
sion or strain on it because the stretched metal no
longer fits in the same area. The metal will tend to
pop in and out when you try to final straighten it
If a strained area is filled with plastic filler, road
vibrations can cause the panel to make a popping of
flapping noise. After prolonged movement of the
strained area, the filler can crack or fall oft. Eventu
ally, you will be required to spend extra time coffee
ing the work that should have been done properly
in the first place.
Contour of Metal After Stretching
Original Contour
FIGURE B-46 Suretched metal must be shrunk to relieve
pressure.
FIGURE 8-47 (A) Heat causes metal to expand. (B)
Cooling causes metal to contract.
STRETCHED METAL
Stretched metal has been forced thinner in thick-
ness and larger in surface area by impact. When metal
is severely damaged in a collision, it is often stretched
in the badly buckled areas. These same areas are also
sometimes stretched slightly during the straighten-
ing process. Most of the stretched metal will be found
along ridges, channels, and buckles in the direct dam-
age area. When there are stretched areas of metal, it
is impossible to correctly straighten the area back to
its original contour. The stretched areas can be com-
pared to a bulge on a tire. There is no place for the
area to fit within the correct panel contour.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

When an area is stretched, the grains of metal

are moved farther away from each other. The metal
is thinned and work hardened. Shrinking is needed
to bring the molecules back to their original posi-
tion and to restore the metal to its proper contour
and thickness.
Before shrinking, dolly the damaged area back
as close to its original shape as possible. Then you
can accurately determine whether or not there is
stretched metal in the damaged area. It will usually
pop in and out if stretched. If it is stretched, you
must shrink the metal (Figure 8-46).
FIGURE 8-4B (A) Shrinkage occurs when expansion
forces are restricted by panel rigidity. (B) This causes heat-
softened metal to expand and thicken. (C) When metal cools.
the panel contracts and, due to an increased area of hot spot,
shrinks to an area smaller than its orginal size.
Principles of Shrinking
Figure 8-47 shows that a steel bar, with both ends
free to expand or contract, will expand when heated
and contract to its original length when cooled.
If the same steel bar is heated while it is blocked
or restricted at both ends, then cooled, its size will
decrease. This is accomplished by the following:
When heated, the steel bar tries to expand
(Figure 8-48A), but since it is prevented from
expanding at both ends, a strong compression
load is generated inside the bar.
When the temperature is increased even more,
and the steel becomes red hot and soft, the com-
pression load concentrates in the red-hot area
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and is relieved as the diameter of the red-hot

area increases (Figure 8-48B).
• If the steel bar is suddenly cooled down, the steel
contracts and the length of the bar is shortened
(Figure 8-48C).
The above-stated principle of shrinking steel also
applies to the shrinking of a warped area in a piece of
sheet metal. A small spot in the center of the warped
area is heated to a dull red. When the temperature
rises, the heated area of the steel panel swells and at-
tempts to expand outward toward the edges of the
heated circle (circumference). Since the surrounding
Figure 8 Scanner
area is cool and hard, the panel cannot expand, so a
strong compression load is generated.
If heating continues, the stretching of the metal
is centered in the soft, red-hot portion, pressing it
out. This causes it to thicken, thus relieving the
compression load.
If the red-hot area is suddenly cooled while in
this state, the steel will contract and the surface area
will shrink to less than its area before heating.
A variety of pieces of welding equipment can be
used to heat metal for shrinking. Attachments are
available for spot and MIG welding equipment to
transform them into shrinking equipment. Nail guns
can also be used. The most commonly used tool, how-
ever, is the oxyacetylene torch with a #1or #2 tip.
An average-sized shrink is usually about the size
quarter. Small shrinks should always be used on
panels because panels tend to warp easily.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

A very small hot spot would be used to take

oil can size bulge out of a flat panel. The term
can" is used to describe an area of a panel that
stretched very slightly. It can be pushed in; hower
as soon as the pressure is released, the area will
back out again, just as the bottom of an oil can do
A neutral flame and a #1 or #2 tip are often us
to heat the hot spots. The point of the cone is brouph
straight down to within "A inch (3.2 mm) of the metal
and held steady until the metal starts to turn red
The torch is then slowly moved outward in a circu-
lar motion until the complete hot spot is cherry red
(Figure 8-50).
As the heat from the torch enters the small spot
in the panel, the heated melal expands. The cooler
metal surrounding the hot spot resists the expansion
forces. As the temperature increases, the heated metal
becomes softer. This soft metal piles up and forms a
bulge in the hot spot (Figure 8-51).
'Shrinking Operation with a
Gas Torch
To shrink an area with a torch, a small spot of the
stretched area or bulge is heated to a cherry red. The
"shrink" is placed in the highest spot of the stretched
area, then in the next highest spot, and so on. This
is repeated until the area has been shrunk back to its
proper position (Figure 8-49).
The size of the shrink or hot spot is determined
by the amount of excess metal in the area to be
shrunk. The shrinks can be anywhere in size from a
silver dollar down to the head of a thumbtack. The
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

larger the hot spot, the harder the heat is to control.

(SHOP
TALK
Do not heat the metal past a cherry
red. It will start to melt, and a hole
might be burned through the metal.
Shrinkage #1
Stretched Contour of Metal
SER==
Original Contour
Villalue
Shrinkage #2
WI
www
Shrinkage #3
FIGURE B-50 keep the flame cone a inch (3 2 mil
from the metal and move the torch in a circular motion
the center out
WWW
Stretched Contour of Metal
Shrinkage #4
Original Contour
Expansion Forces of Heated Metal
Original Contour of Metal
*** Heated Metal
Cooler Surrounding Metal
FIGURE 8-61 Heat softened metal will usually bulge
FIGURE 8-49 Shrinking stretched metal usually requires
more than one hot spot. Always heat the highest spot.
CamScanner
SHOP
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TALK
Never use hard on-dolly blows to
level the area. It will result in
restretching the area of metal.
The metal usually bulges up instead of down
because the top of the metal is heated first. When it
starts to bulge, the rest of the metal in the hot spot
follows.
After the spot has been heated, the first hammer
blow should be directed on the center of the heated
spot. This will compress the excess metal into the "soft"
spot created by heating the metal. The subsequent ham-
mer blows should be directed around the perimeter of
the hot spot while supporting the back side of the metal
with the dolly (Figure 8-52). This is done to smooth
the metal to control its movement caused by the con-
tracting forces. One must be careful not to strike the
metal too hard, as it can cause additional excess metal.
This entire procedure must be accomplished within 30
seconds or the effect will be lost.
Once the redness has disappeared and the area
has been dollied smooth, the shrink can be cooled
with a wet rag or sponge. When this is done, a greater
degree of contraction occurs, and a slight amount of
distortion could result. Any warpage should be
straightened before the next shrink is attempted.
The technician must be cautious not to quench
the metal prematurely as it can cause some serious
damage, such as overshrinking and hardening the
metal. The metal may simulate a tempered effect if it
is quenched prematurely, inaking it difficult to work
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

smooth. This condition becomes more severe if a

series of shrink spots are made in a small area. It
should be understood that quenching is not neces-
sary to accomplish the shrinking of metal. The open
hammer blow on the hot spot and the contracting
forces of the heat are responsible for reducing the ex-
cess metal. The amount of shrinking that occurs can
be controlled much more readily by not quenching.
It is very hard to determine accurately the
amount that each hot spot will shrink. One shrink
can remove far more excess metal in one area than
the same size would in another. It is not uncommon
to find that an area has been overshrunk when it has
completely cooled. When the area has been
overshrunk, the metal in the area of the last shrink
is usually collapsed or pulled flat. Sometimes the
metal surrounding the shrink area can even be pulled
out of the proper contour.
Overshrinking is corrected by using hard ham-
mer-on-dolly blows to stretch the last shrink. The
last shrunken arca is usually the direct cause of
overshrinkiny.
Shrinkage
umW
Hammer
Blows
LOCATION OF BLOWS
FIGURE 8-52 Hammer around the hot bulge to shrink it.
KINKING
Kinking involves using a hammer and dolly to cre-
ate pleats, or kinks, in the stretched area to shrink
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the area's surface area. Instead of using heat to shrink

the metal, kinking is another way to deal with
stretched metal (Figure 8-53). Kinking the metal will
lower the area slightly below the rest of the panel
The low spot should be filled with plastic body filler
and filed and sanded level with the panel.
Dolly Edge
Direction
of Travel
SHRINKING A GOUGE
A gouge is caused by a focused impact that forces a
sharp dent or crease into a panel. A gouge causes the
metal to be stretched. Gouges must be shrunk to their
original size to properly repair the damage. Simply
picking up the low area would distort the panel. Fill-
ing the gouge with filler without restoring the panel's
FIGURE 8-63 Shrinking metal by kinking the high spot
can be done only when heat shrinking is not practical.
Camscanner
PTER
CHAPTER 9
Minor Auto Body Repairs
INTRODUCTION
A summary of minor metalworking procedures
is given in Table 9-1.
9.1 BODY FILLERS
The metalworking techniques, discussed in Chap-
ter 8, are fundamental to any repair job. Damaged
metal must be restored to its original contour be-
fore filling with plastic. This is done by unfolding
buckles, relieving stresses in work-hardened ridges,
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

shrinking stretched metal, and stretching shrunken

arcas. Repair quality depends on sound metalwork-
ing techniques!
Plastic body filler is the finishing touch for most
sheet metal repairs. Restoring bent and stretched
metal to its exact original shape and dimension can
be very time-consuming and almost impossible in
many instances (Figure 9-1). Remaining surface ir-
regularities can be quickly and easily filled and
smoothed with a thin coat of plastic filler. It is criti-
cal that you prepare the surface and apply fillers prop-
erly. If not, the filler could crack or pop off or the
topcoat of paint may be adversely affected.
Plastic body filler is also used to fill scratches,
dings, and pitted areas. The filler is then filed and
sanded level with the panel. Spot putty and/or
primer-surfacer is applied to fill any remaining sur-
face imperfections.
Body filler or plastic filler is a heavy-bodied plastic
material that cures very hard for filling small dents
in metal. It is a compound of resin and plastic used
to fill dents on car bodies.
Only after the damaged panel has been bumped,
pulled, pried, and dinged to within at least 18 inch
(3.1 mm) of the original contour can filler be applied.
Then you can fill, shape, and smooth the repair area
with a thin layer of plastic body filler (Figure 9-2).
Most auto body repairs require some application
of plastic body filler (Figure 9-3), which is a fast, in-
expensive way to restore the final contour of a dam-
aged panel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Unfortunately, some body shops fail to properly

do sheet metal repairs and simply hide the damage
under a thick layer of filler. Body fillers were never
meant to replace proper metalworking techniques.
Before any filler is applied, all holes, cracks, and
joint gaps must be welded. Some body fillers are
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
v List the different types of body fillers and glazes.
✓ Choase the correct plastic body filler for a
particular repair job.
v Identify the correct way to mix filler and hardener.
✓ Describe how to use special sanding aids.
✓ Explain how to repair scratches, nicks, dings,
and surface rust with plastic filler and glazing
putty, anned with
Repair rustou dangage properly.
. . nien of load filling.
KEY TERMS
featheredging
fiberglass body filler
hardener
hardener kneading
light body filler
long-strand fiberglass
filler
metal conditioner
mixing board
one part glazing putty
plastic filler
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

polyester glazing
putty
rustout
short-strand
fiberglass filler
spoiled hardener
surface rust
PTER
CHAPTER 9
Minor Auto Body Repairs
INTRODUCTION
A summary of minor metalworking procedures
is given in Table 9-1.
9.1 BODY FILLERS
The metalworking techniques, discussed in Chap-
ter 8, are fundamental to any repair job. Damaged
metal must be restored to its original contour be-
fore filling with plastic. This is done by unfolding
buckles, relieving stresses in work-hardened ridges,
shrinking stretched metal, and stretching shrunken
arcas. Repair quality depends on sound metalwork-
ing techniques!
Plastic body filler is the finishing touch for most
sheet metal repairs. Restoring bent and stretched
metal to its exact original shape and dimension can
be very time-consuming and almost impossible in
many instances (Figure 9-1). Remaining surface ir-
regularities can be quickly and easily filled and
smoothed with a thin coat of plastic filler. It is criti-
cal that you prepare the surface and apply fillers prop-
erly. If not, the filler could crack or pop off or the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

topcoat of paint may be adversely affected.

Plastic body filler is also used to fill scratches,
dings, and pitted areas. The filler is then filed and
sanded level with the panel. Spot putty and/or
primer-surfacer is applied to fill any remaining sur-
face imperfections.
Body filler or plastic filler is a heavy-bodied plastic
material that cures very hard for filling small dents
in metal. It is a compound of resin and plastic used
to fill dents on car bodies.
Only after the damaged panel has been bumped,
pulled, pried, and dinged to within at least 18 inch
(3.1 mm) of the original contour can filler be applied.
Then you can fill, shape, and smooth the repair area
with a thin layer of plastic body filler (Figure 9-2).
Most auto body repairs require some application
of plastic body filler (Figure 9-3), which is a fast, in-
expensive way to restore the final contour of a dam-
aged panel.
Unfortunately, some body shops fail to properly
do sheet metal repairs and simply hide the damage
under a thick layer of filler. Body fillers were never
meant to replace proper metalworking techniques.
Before any filler is applied, all holes, cracks, and
joint gaps must be welded. Some body fillers are
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
v List the different types of body fillers and glazes.
✓ Choase the correct plastic body filler for a
particular repair job.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

v Identify the correct way to mix filler and hardener.

✓ Describe how to use special sanding aids.
✓ Explain how to repair scratches, nicks, dings,
and surface rust with plastic filler and glazing
putty, anned with
Repair rustou dangage properly.
. . nien of load filling.
KEY TERMS
featheredging
fiberglass body filler
hardener
hardener kneading
light body filler
long-strand fiberglass
filler
metal conditioner
mixing board
one part glazing putty
plastic filler
polyester glazing
putty
rustout
short-strand
fiberglass filler
spoiled hardener
surface rust
ASE
ASE TASK LIST
Job Skills covered in this chapter include:
D. Solving Paint Application Problems
1. Identify blistering (raising of the paint surface:
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

determine the cause(s), and correct the

condition.
6. Identify lifting (surface distortion or shrivelina)
while the topcoat is being applied; determine the
cause(s), and correct the condition.
PAINTING AND REFINISHING TEST (B2)
TASK LIST
A. Surface Preparation
4. Remove paint finish.
6. Featheredge areas to be refinished.
9. Mix primer, primer-surfacer, or primer-sealer:
spray onto surface of repaired area.
10. Apply two-component putty to minor surface
imperfections
11. Dry or wet sand area to which primer-surfacer
and/or two-component putty have been
applied.
12. Remove dust from area to be refinished,
including cracks or moldings of adjacent areas.
13. Clean area to be refinished using a proper
cleaning solution.
14. Remove, with a tack rag, any dust or lint
particles from the area to be refinished.
15. Apply suitable paint sealer to the area being
refinished when sealing is needed or desirable.
16. Remove imperfections from sealer.
E. Finish Defects, Causes, and Cures
1. Identify poor adhesion; determine the causes).
and correct the condition.
4. Identify blistering in the paint surface; determine
the cause(s), and correct the condition.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

NONSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE

REPAIR TEST TASK LIST
B. Outer Body Panel Repairs, Replacements,
and Adjustments
2. Remove and replace bolted, bonded, and welded
panels or panel assemblies.
C. Paint Mixing, Matching, and Applying
2. Shake, stir, reduce, catalyze, and strain paint
according to manufacturer's recommendations.
6. Apply basecoat/clearcoat for spot and panel
blending, and overall refinishing.
8. Sand, buff, and polish finishes where necessary.
C. Metal Finishing and Body Filling
2. Pick and file the damaged area of a body panel
to eliminate surface irregularities.
6. Mix plastic filler.
7. Apply plastic body filler; rough shape during
curing.
8. Sand cured plastic body filler to contour.
CLQURE 9-1 You must determine if panel repairs are major or minor (A) How would
you repair damage on the door and
or panel? (B) The door required replacement of the whole skin. The quarter panel was
repaired with metal straightening and
Filler with plastic
hydroscopic, which means they absorb moisture
when exposed to humid conditions. Unless filled with
a waterproof pigment, these fillers will absorb mois-
ture through holes or cracks in the metal.
CamScanner
Body fillers and putties can also be used to re-
pair minor surface defects, such as dings, stone chip
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

surface rust, and rustouts. Be aware, though, that play

tic body fillers have limitations. Large panels, such
TABLE 9-1: MINOR DAMAGE REPAIR PROCEDURE
Damaged Panel
Determining the Extent of the Damage
Removal of Molding, F.mblems, or Sound Deadening Materials from Behind Panels
Roughing Out Dents with Hammer, Puller, or PNG Bar
Metal Finishing with Hammer and Dolly and Body File
Panel Shrinking
Removal of Small Dents and Bulges
Filling with Plastic Filler or Body Solder
Filing, Sanding, and Priming the Fill Area
Rustproofing the Backside of Panels
Completion of Repairs
as hoods, deck lids, and door panels, tend to vibrate
violently under normal road conditions. Vibrations
can crack and dislodge filler that is applied over an
area that is too large or applied too thickly.
Care must also be taken when applying filler to
semistructural panels in unibody frames. Panels, such
as quarter panels and roofs, absorb road shocks and
torque flexing. Excessive fillers applied in these
areas can be popped off by stresses in the panels. Plas-
tic filler should also be used sparingly on rocker pan-
els, lower rear wheel openings, and other areas subject
to flying stones and rock chips.
together in a tough, durable film. The basic pigment
or filler in conventional fillers is talc.
Talc, also used in baby powders, absorbs mois-
ture. That is good for the baby but bad for the car if
proper steps are not taken to shield the filler from
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

moisture. If holes in the metal or cracks in the paint

expose the filler to the atmosphere, the talc in the
filler absorbs moisture, which attacks the metal sub-
strate and forms rust. The rust destroys the filler-to-
metal bond, causing the filler to fall off. Waterproof
fillers are available. Fiberglass strands or metal par-
ticles are used instead of talc as pigments.
Like some paints, plastic fillers harden by chemi-
cal action. Hardening, or curing, produces a molecu-
lar structure that will not shrink or soften. The
chemical reaction is set off by oxygen. If the con-
tainer of plastic filler is open and left exposed to the
oxygen in the atmosphere, it will slowly harden.
To speed up the drying process, a chemical cata-
lyst is provided by the manufacturer. The catalyst, in
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Plastic body filler is very similar to paint in composi-
tion. Both are made of resins, pigments, and solvents.
Most plastic body fillers have a polyester resin that
acts as a binder. When the filler is applied and the
Solvents evaporate, the binders hold the pigments
CamScanner
2
FIGURE 9-2 Always use proper metalworking techniques before fing with plast Apling
() burong and C sectang
(Photo C courtesy of Nicator Inc)
TOPCOAT
ERKEP SURFACER**
MS
X
SUBSTRATE
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

TABLE 9-2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE

ON WORKING TIME
Temperature Working Times
100F
310 4 minutes
85F
4 to 5 minutes
77°F
6 to 7 minutes
70°F
8109 minutes
PUTTY
BODY FILLER
FIGURE 9-3 Study the basic sequence of a minor repair
Plastic filer goes over the metal first Then the prmer or
pnmer-Surtacer followed by the spot putty before spraying on
the paint or topcoat (Courtesy of DuPont Automotive
Products)
shows, the filler will become too stiff to work in just
a few minutes after adding hardener, depending on
the ambient air temperature.
Curing fillers may also produce a waxy couture
or paraffins on the surface. The purpose of the pars
fins in the filler is to form a film that prevents Oy
gen absorption from the atinosphere. The para
are suspended in the filler solvent and are carried
liquid or cream form, is called hardener (Figure
9-4). Hardener is basically a chemical compound
called peroxide. The oxygen in the peroxide drasti.
colly speeds up the curing process. As Table 9-2
CamScanner
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Minor Auto Body Hepairs

Ebo
CAUTION
As the filler cures and hardens, the
chemical reaction produces a lie
mendous amount of heat. For this
reason, unused filler should not be
discarded in trash cans containing
solvent-wet paper or cloths. A se-
rious shop fire could result!
Ετττττ.
In the middle 1950s, the first polyester resin-based
body fillers were developed. These fillers were made
from the same resin used to make fiberglass boats and
required mixing with a liquid bardener and accelera-
tor, Since the fiberglass resin is very brittle when cured
and depends on cloth or matte for flexibility, the early
polyester body fillers were also very brittle and hard.
The first successful filler was named "Bondo,"
and many body technicians still refer to plastic body
fillers as Bondo. The early fillers were composed of
approximately 40 percent polyester resin and 60 per.
cent talc (by weight).
When the filler and hardener were properly
mixed together, the filler dried very hard. Early fill-
ers were difficult to file and had to be leveled with a
grinder, resulting in choking clouds of dust that blan-
keted the shop. Low-dust, straight-line air fillers had
not been developed yet.
As the technology developed, body Allers be-
came softer, easier to apply, and easier to shape, Fill-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

crs soon appeared in black, red, gray, white, and

yellow. Cream hardeners in contrasting colors--red,
white, green, and blue-were also developed to pro-
vide a mixing reference for the various colored poly-
ester fillers. The softer fillers could also be grated while
still semicured, thus reducing the amount of sand-
ing required. Note that the addition of color does
not affect the working characteristics of the filler.
Conventional body fillers have over thirty years
of development backing them today. The premium
fillers use very fine grain talc to provide superior
workability, sandability, and featheredging. High-
quality resins ensure excellent adhesion and quick
curing properties. Most plastic fillers can be grated
in 10 to 15 minutes.
FIGURE 9-4 A chemical catalyst called hordener causes
plastic filler to harden very quickly.
the surface when the solvents evaporate. The paraf-
fins must be either removed with a wax and grease
remover before being sanded or else filed off with a
surform cheese grater.
TYPES OF BODY FILLERS
During the first fifty years of auto body repair, blem-
ishes in sheet metal panels were corrected by apply-
ing lead filler. Lead filler or solder is an alloy of lead
and tin. A welding torch was used to soften the sol-
der and bond it to the body sheet metal.
Before World War II, automobiles were made
with heavy gauge steel panels that were unaffected
by the heat used in the "tinning" operation. But
changes began to take place in automotive construc-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tion in the late 1940s and early 1950s. In the eco-

nomic boom following World War II, Americans
began demanding larger and fancier cars. Manufac-
turers responded with vehicles made with thinner,
larger, and more complex body panels. The thinner
metals, however, made the old lead repair methods
almost obsolete. The heat required for the lead filler
Warped the thin panels, and hammer-and-dolly work
stretched metals too thin for filing. There was a real
need for an inexpensive, time-saving substitute.
In the early 1950s, epoxy-based fillers were de-
veloped. Usually mixed with aluminum powder, ep-
Oxy fillers cured sery slowly and did not harden at
ali if applied too thickly.
Lascanner
Fiberglass Fillers
Fiberglass body filler has fiberglass material added
to the plastic filler. It is used for rust repair or where
strength is important. It can be used on both metal
and fiberglass substrates. Because fiberglass-reinforced
filler is very difficult to sand, it is usually used under
a conventional, lightweight plastic filler,
As thinner-gauge sheet metal replaced the heavy
gauge steel, rust became a problem, especially in
areas of the country where road salts are used in win-
ter. A product was needed to repair rustouts. Because
talc-filled body fillers absorb moisture readily, the
available fillers did not provide long-lasting protec-
tion when used to repair rustouts.
To meet this demand for a waterproof filler,
fiberglass-reinforced fillers were developed. Fiberglass
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

fillers use fiberglass strands rather than tak as a bulk-

ing agent. These fillers are more flexible and stron-
ger than conventional fillers. Because they are also
waterproof, they can be used to bridge holes, tears,
and rustouts.
210
Chapter 9
stronger patch. The long-strand filler might also be
used with fiberglass cloths or mattes to bridge even
larger rustouts. The long-strand fillers, however, are
used only as a base. Smoother fillers, either short
strand fiberglass fillers or conventional fillers, must
be used for the final fill. Chopped fiberglass fibers
are also available to be added to fillers to increase
their strength.
Fiberglass fillers are available in two basic forms.
One is formulated with short strands of fiberglass,
the other is made with long strands.
Short-strand fiberglass filler has tiny par-
ticles of fiberglass in it. It works and sands like a con-
ventional filler, but is much stronger. Long-strand
fiberglass filler has long strands of fiberglass for
even more strength. It is commonly used to repair
larger holes in metal or fiberglass bodies.
Short strand fiberglass fillers are generally used
to repair small holes, approximately 1 to /2 inches
(25 to 38 mm) in diameter. Whien used to repair larger
holes, a fiberglass cloth or screen should be used as a
back support. The short strand fillers can be sanded
and finished as any conventional filler.
Long-strand fiberglass products are designed to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

fill holes larger than 1/2 inches (38 mm) in size.

The longer strands interlock and provide a much
Aluminum Fillers
Aluminum fillers actually contain metal particles of
aluminum. The first premixed, 100 percent aluminum
auto body fillers were introduced in 1965. These prod-
ucts are waterproof, use a red-tinted liquid hardener,
and have a fairly good shelf life. Due to their very
high relative cost, the 100 percent aluminum-filled
body fillers are used sparingly on special applications,
197
VASTICA
ITAKU
CHURE -6 Plastic fiers come in different packaging (A) Gellon ca
Plastic fillers come in different packaging (A) Gallon can. (8) Plastic bag (C) Dispenser
for plastic and her
Courtney of Dynatron/Bondo Corp. and Bond-Tice Division of US Chemical and
Plastics, Inc.)
Pnguratic 5-gallon con (Courtesy of Dynatron/Bondo Com
cam scanner
such as restoring antique cars. Today there are several
milar 100 percent aluminum products available.
Metal fillers are nonshrinking, waterproof, and very
mooth. Metal fillers have the look of lead but are
casier to work. When cured, they are harder than talo
or fiberglass-filled plastic fillers.
Lightwalght Fillers
Light body filler is formulated for easy sanding
and fast repairs (Figure 9-5). It is used as a very thin
topcoat of filler for final leveling. It can be spread
thinly over large surfaces for block or air tool sand-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ing. Lightweight fillers were formulated by replac-

ing about 50 percent of the talc in the filler with tiny
glass spheres. The resulting higher resin content dra-
matically improved the filing and sanding charac-
teristics of the filler as well as improved the filler's
adhesion and water resistance.
Most lightweight fillers are homogenous. The
glass bubbles remain suspended in the resin and do
not settle to the bottom of the can. This homogenous
composition allows lightweight fillers to be packaged
in plastic bags or cans and dispensed with rollers or
compressed air or squeezed out with a plastic
spreader. The plastic bags keep filler fresh and elimi-
nate much of the wasted filler sometimes associated
with canned fillers.
Lightweight fillers represent more than 80 per-
cent of the total filler used in body shops across the
nation.
solvents and multicoats required for these "trick" paint
jobs caused the pigment to "bleed" and stain the finish
on light colors, usually after several days of exposure to
sunlight. The widespread use of basecoat/clearcoat prod-
ucts and other multicoat systems has made this stain-
ing problem a more frequent occurrence.
Glazing putties should be used only to fill very
shallow sand scratches and pinholes (Figure 9-6).
Maximum filling depth of most putties is only '/s2
inch (.794 mm).
Although glazing putties featheredge very nicely,
they do not develop the hardness of a body filler.
When coated with primer or paint, putties absorb
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

paint solvents and swell. Sufficient time must be al-

lowed for the putty to fully cure again before finish
sanding of the finish coats. If sanded too soon, sand
scratches will appear in the finish as the putty dries
completely and shrinks below the sanded surface.
Conventional one-part glazing putty does not
dry below its surface very quickly (Figure 9-7). It takes
several hours, sometimes days, for one-part putty to
dry all the way through. Even though the putty may
sand normally, it still may not be completely dry at
the bottom of the scratch or pit. If paint is applied
over the partially cured putty, the surface may sink
or shrink, as well as bleed, and cause a flaw in the
paint or topcoat.
Pinholes
Pinholes
Melal
Premium Fillers
Filler manufacturers in the mid-1980s have taken
advantage of new technology to produce premium-
quality fillers. Premium fillers have superior perfor-
mance qualities that go beyond the capabilities of con-
ventional lightweight fillers. Premium fillers are moist
and creamy. They spread easily yet will not sag on
vertical surfaces and dry tack-free without pinholing.
Glazing Putty (Before Sanding)
Metal
After Sanding,
Pinholes Filled
With Putty
Spot and Glazing Puttles
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Because body fillers usually have tiny pinholes and

sand scratches, spot putty is used as a quick way of
fixing them.
One-part glazing putties are applied directly
out of a tube and cure slowly. They were developed
to fill minor surface imperfections and produce a
smoother surface. They are being phased out for
quicker curing two-part putties.
We doen
Polyester Glazing Putty
style one-part putties caused problems with the new
Scoat/clearcoat paint systems. The rich
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Metal
FIGURE 9-8 Glazing putty fills pinholes in primer and
filler (A) Pinholes can remain after sanding and priming
(B) Apply thin layer of putty over pinholes (C) Sand off putty
until flush with primer. Putty will remain and fill small holes
or pits.
To solve the these problems, body filler manu-
facturers have developed a fine-grained, catalyzed
polyester glazing putty or two-part spot putty. Like
plastic filler, a hardener or catalyst must be inixed
with the putty to initiate and speed curing.
Polyester glazing putty does not shrink, has ex.
cellent dimensional stability, and resists solvent pen-
etration (the cause of bleed-through). When applied
over traditional body fillers, polyester glazing put-
ties effectively solve the bleed-through problem.
Bleed-through problems can also be avoided by
using a sprayable polyester filler (Figure 9-8). This type
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of primer-surfacer has polyester resins and talc fillers

and must be catalyzed with a liquid hardener. Sprayed
from a conventional or gravity feed gun (Figure 9-9),
polyester primers fill minor imperfections and seal
both fillers and old paint finishes.
FIGURE 9-7 Polyester putty is gaining in popularity over
one-part. putty because it dries much more quickly reducing
the chance of bleeding and shrinking.
9.2 APPLYING PLASTIC
BODY FILLER
POLY
PRIME
POLY
PRIME
rable Parete Primer Surface
Sea
Body fillers are designed to cover up the minor de-
pressions that cannot be removed by metal straight-
ening alone. As discussed, there are several types of
filler for specific tasks. Table 9-3 summarizes the in-
gredients, characteristics, and applications of the cur-
rently available body fillers and putties. Study it
carefully so you can use the product best suited for
the job.
Taking shortcuts when mixing and applying fill-
ers might save time at first, but it affects the quality
of the repair. Fillers that are improperly used will
eventually crack, lose adhesion, permit rust to form,
and fall off the panel. Sooner or later, the repair will
have to be redone. The loss in time, money, and repu-
tation is hard to calculate.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 9-8 Sprayable polyester primer-filler. (Courtesy

of Marson Corporation)
PREPARING THE SURFACE
FOR FILLING
One of the most important steps in applying plastic
body fillers is surface preparation. Begin by washing
the repair area to remove dirt and grime. Then clean
the area with wax and grease remover to eliminate
wax, road tar, and grease. Be sure to use a remover
that will take away the silicones often present in car
waxes. Also, wash brazed or soldered joints with soda
water to neutralize the acids in the flux. Do not grind
these areas before neutralizing the acids. Grinding
simply drives the acids deeper into the metal.
Grind the area to remove the old paint (Figure
9-10). Remove the paint for 3 or 4 inches (76 to 101
mm) around the area to be filled. If filler overlaps
any of the existing finish, the paint film will absorb
solvents from the new primer and paint, destroying
the adhesion of the filler. The filler will lift, cracking
FIGURE 9-9 Sprayable polyester primer-filler is good for
large surface areas with minor flaws. (Courtesy of America
Sklens, Incanned with
CamScanner
air and wipe the surface with a tack rag to remove
any remaining dust particles.
Use metal straightening methods to straighten
the metal as much as possible to match its original
contour. If the panel is flat, use a long straightedge
to gauge the panel straightness. Hold it over the re-
pair area and look for high and low spots. You must
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

return the panel to within 's inch (3.1 mm) of its

original shape
After grinding away the finish from the repair
area, blow away the sanding dust with compressed
MIXING THE FILLER
Body fillers come in cans and in plastic bags. When
in a plastic bag, hand pressure or a dispenser can be
used to force the filler onto your mixing board. This
keeps the filler perfectly clean. A mixing board is
the flat surface imetal, glass, or plastic) that is used
for mixing the filler and its hardener.
Mix the can of filler to a uniform and smooth
consistency free of lumps (Figure 9-12). Using a paint
shaker will save time if the filler has been on the
shelf for a while.
If the body filler is not stirred up thoroughly to
a smooth and uniform consistency before use, the
filler in the upper portion of the can will be too thin
and that in the lower portion of the can will be too
thick and very coarse and grainy.
Improper and inadequate plastic filler mixing
can result in:
• runs and sags during application
• slow and poor curing
• a gumumny condition when sanded
• poor featheredge
• a very tacky surface
• blistering and lifting
• poor adhesion
• rampant pinholing
• poor color holdout
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 9-10 Removing old paint finish around repair

area. You cannot apply plastic filler to paint.
KNEADING THE HARDENER
Loosen the cap of the crearn hardener tube to pre-
vent the hardener from being air bound. Hardener
Additional Fill Area
FIGUAE 9-11 Beating weld bead down excessively will
increase fill area and may cause strain in the panel. Grind it
flush with the panel surface
CAUTION
U
Wear eye protection and a respi
rator when blowing off dust. It is
very easy from something to fly into
your eye. The dust can also con-
tain materials that are harmful if
inhaled.
STIC FUE
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FIGURE 9-12 Mix filer thoroughly before using Thick
components can settle on bottom. If not mixed, drying and
finish problems can result
CAUTION
When working with plastic filler, it
is advisable to wear gloves (neo-
prene or surgical) to keep the ma-
terial from contacting your skin.
9.7 REPAIRING RUST DAMAGE
FIGURE 9-40 Apply a skim coat of filler. Do not apply
filler over paint or problems will result.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

In addition to minor collision damage, the body re-

pair technician must recognize and repair corrosion
damage created by rusting sheet metal.
Rust is produced by a chemical reaction known
as oxidation. Oxidation occurs when metal is exposed
to moisture and air. The oxygen in the air, water, or
other chemicals combines with the steel molecules
to form iron oxide.
Iron oxide is the reddish brown compound com-
monly referred to as rust. By turning the metal into
flaky or powdery iron oxide, rust will eat completely
through a sheet metal panel if not treated.
If a crack in the car's finish allows moisture and
air to seep under the paint film, the sheet metal be-
neath will begin to rust (Figure 9-43). The same is
true if a chip or nick exposes sheet metal to the air
and no immediate action is taken to repair it. Left
alone to do its work, rust will soon form on the metal
surface and begin to eat pits into the sheet metal. These
pits harbor rust and prevent sanding the surface rust
away. If simply painted over, rust in the pits will even-
tually bubble up and break through the new paint.
Corrosion damage on a vehicle panel takes two
forms: surface rust and rustouts. Surface rust in its
early stage can simply leave a reddish coating on the
metal surface. Given time, the rust will eat pits into
the surface. Eventually the pitting will develop into
rust holes, or rustouts.
FIGURE 9-41 Block sand the filler until it is smooth. Go
slowly and check your work. It is easy to oversand and sink the
repair area too low in the panel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Original
Contour
High Area
Tap Down with Body Hammer
L
-2-
A
Moisture and Air
Low Area
(More Fiver Required)
FIGURE 9 42 Feel for high and low spots carefully
Move your hand or a clean rag over the surface quickly in
different directions. This will let you detect bumps and dips in
the surface.
Metal
Surface
Pits
for high and low spots. High metal areas might need
to be tapped down. Low spots will need another ap-
plication of plastic (Figure 9-42).
Once the ding has been properly filled and lev.
eled, the surrounding paint edges must be feather-
edged. A dual-action sander or a block sander can be
used to featheredge the area, depending on the size
of the repair. canner
Cracked
Paint Film
Surface Rust
FIGURE 9-43 Note the structure of surface rust.
Both types of rust damage require different re-
pair procedures. These are outlined in Table 9-4 and
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

are explained in the rest of this chapter.

CAUTION
Use extreme care when using
power tools for grinding. Grind so
that the sparks and dust fly down
and away from your face and eyes.
Always wear safety goggles or a
face shield when grinding. Also
wear an air filtering mask to avoid
breathing paint dust.
PREPARING SURFACE RUST
Repairing an area affected by light surface rust can
be as simple as grinding the rust film away and chemi-
cally neutralizing the area with metal conditioner.
However, if the metal is pitted, additional steps are
required. The surface rust shown in Figure 9-44 re-
quires minor metalworking and filling.
Prepare the defective area for sanding by first
washing with a mild detergent. Then clean with a
wax and grease remover solvent. Apply masking tape
to nearby trim before grinding away paint and rust.
The tape will protect the trim from sparks, chips, and
accidental contact with the sanding disc.
The lightweight air grinder shown in Figure 9-45
is ideal for doing minor metalwork. Used with a rigid
backing plate and a #24 grit sanding disc, this high-
speed grinder will quickly cut through paint and rust.
With the disc spinning, hold the grinder against
the work surface at a 10-degree angle (Figure 9-46).
Do not hold the disc flat on the surface because this
will make the grinder skip and bounce uncontrolla-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

bly. Do not hold the disc on edge or unwanted

grooves will be cut into the metal.
Use a back and forth crosscutting action to re-
inove the rust. When moving the grinder to the right
press the upper left corner of the disc against the
metal. When moving to the left, press the upper right
corner of the disc against the work surface.
Surface
Rust
SHOP
VALK
Remember! Sandblasting or plas-
tic media blasting can be used in
place of disc and die grinding. Blast-
ing will not remove and thin the
metal like grinding.
FIGURE 9-44 A surface rust formation usually shows up
first as bubbles in the old paint.
TABLE 9-4: RUST REPAIR PROCEDURES
Surface Rust
Rustouts
Removal of the Rusted Metal
Removal of Rust
Weld Patch
Neutralizing Remaining Surface Rust
Filling Patch With Fiberglass Filler
Applying Filler
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Completion of Operation
FIGURE 9-47 Grind or blast rust from the pits.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 9-45 A lightweight air grinder is ideal for

removing paint without damage to the panel.
FIGURE 9-48 Clean bare metal with metal conditioner
FIGURE 9-46 Hold the grinder at a 10 degree angle to
the surface.
gloves and safety glasses when handling condition-
ers. Follow the manufacturer's instructions carefully
when diluting the conditioners.
After removing surface rust with the grinder,
use a die grinder attachment to remove rust from
the pits, panel edges, and other hard-to-reach places
(Figure 9-47).
Clean the bare metal with metal conditioner
(Figure 9-48). Metal conditioner is an acid com-
pound that neutralizes microscopic rust particles. The
acid also etches the metal surface to improve the bond
between the metal and the primer-surfacer. Metal
conditioner is bottled in concentrated form and must
be diluted with water before use. Always wear rubber
APPLYING FILLER TO
SURFACE RUST
Even though it is not advisable to metal condition a
bare steel surface over which plastic is to be applied,
there are times when an exception is advised. When
a surface has become pitted with rust, the following
alternative repair may be made. Grind the paint from
the surface until the pitted area and approximately a
two-inch area around it are free of paint and surface
coatings. Apply metal conditioner to the pitted area
and scrub with Scotch-BriteTM Dry it and neutralize
it as normal. Use a sander with #80 grit sandpaper to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

abrade the bare surface where the metal conditioner

was applied. This will neutralize the rust in the metal
pores, which would otherwise remain active and be-
gin to spread under the plastic filler in a short time.
Mix waterproof plastic filler and hardener to-
gether. Remember not to stir the plastic. Stirring
results in air bubbles in the hardened filler. Use a
back-and-forth wiping action.
WARNING
Never apply plastic filler directly to
a conditioned metal surface. The
plastic will not adhere to the metal
and could crack when in service.
ERESSEF
c
Wanned with
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putty to any pits. Allow the filler or putty to dry
before sanding and priming. Follow the sanding and
priming (Figure 9-49C) procedures already described
in this chapter.
9.8 REPAIRING SMALL
RUSTOUTS
Rust can form on either side of the metal panel.
Rust that is present on the backside of a panel might
go unnoticed until the paint begins to bubble and
lift. By this time, the rust has eaten completely
through the panel. Spots of surface rust, as shown
on the fender in Figure 9-50, might be a sign that
FIGURE 9-49 Cover the pitted area with filler, sand and
prime before finishing.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Scoop up some filler onto the edge of the

spreader and smear a thin skim coat over the pitted
area. Apply moderate pressure to force the plastic filler
into the pits (Figure 949A). Allow the filler to harden.
Block sand with #80 grit sandpaper (Figure 9-49B)
until the filler is level with the panel surface.
Use compressed air to blow filler dust from any
still visible pits and pinholes. If necessary, apply spot
FIGURE 9-50 Small spots or bumps on the paint
surface often indicate rustout from the inside out.
Paint Layer
CAUTION
Metal Surface
Always wear a dust mask while
working body fillers. Inhaling filler
dust can be harmful.
TES
Rustout Formation
FIGURE 9-51 Study rustout formation.
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CAUTION
Applying excessive pressure with
the grinder against weak, rusted
sheet metal can burn a hole right
through the metal. The grinder
could then catch on the sharp
metal and kick back dangerously at
you. Use light pressure when grind
ing and hold the tool securely.
S
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

UVE VELEPRONIO
APPLYING FILLER TO RUSTOUT
After welding a metal patch around the rust hole,
cover the metal patch with a waterproof, fiberglass
reinforced filler (Figure 9-53). Use the plastic spreader
to force the filler into the weld and patch area.
Remember! Regular plastic fillers with a talc bulk-
ing agent absorb moisture and are not suitable for
filling rustouts.
After the waterproof filler hardens, sand the filler
smooth and wipe the dust away with a clean cloth.
Cover the rustout patch with a layer of regular
plastic filler. After the plastic turns rubbery, but be-
fore it hardens, knock off the high spots with a cheese
grater (Figure 9-54). Hold the cheese grater at a 10-
to 20 degree angle and pull it across the repair area.
If the repaired area is small, it might not be neces-
sary to use a cheese grater.
After the plastic completely hardens, sand it
down level with the panel surface (Figure 9-5SA and
B). Featheredge the repair area into the surrounding
panel. The sanded repair is now ready to be primed
and puttied.
9.9 REPAIRING LARGE
RUSTOUTS
FIGURE 9-57 Light hammering will show thin rusted
areas that should be cut out.
Usually rust on the underside of a panel is not no-
ticed until it has attacked a large area of sheet metal.
What might appear as a small spot of surface rust is
actually a large area of damaged metal. If left unal-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tended, the rust will continue converting solid steel

into flaky ferric oxide and will eat a gaping hole in
the metal (Figure 9-56).
Not only is the rustout unattractive, but rustouts
also affect the structural integrity of the vehicle. Struc
tural members with this kind of damage should ei-
ther be replaced or the rusted area cut away and new
metal welded in place.
REMOVING RUST
Before sanding away paint and rust from the repair
area, cover nearby trim pieces with masking tape.
Masking protects the trim from grinding sparks,
chips, and accidental bumps of the disc.
Use #24 or #36 grit disc and a lightweight air
grinder to remove paint and rust from the rustout.
Exercise extremne care when grinding paint and rust
from a rustout area. Rust has often deteriorated a
panel until it is very thin and weak. If possible,
best to blast the rust off the panel to avoid thinning
the metal.
Remove as much rust as possible. Cut away rust
softened metal around the rustout. Then make
repair panel to fit the rustout and weld in place
(Figure 9-57).
APPLYING RUST DEACTIVATOR
After cleaning and sanding the repair area, ap!
metal conditioner or a rust deactivator to neutra
FIGURE S-65 This is a large rustout in the bottom of a
Teor quarter panel. anner
WARNING
A rustout in a structural panel
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

should be repaired by replacing the

part or repairing it by welding in a
metal patch. The repair of the
structural part is critical to the in-
tegrity of the vehicle. If you try to
repair a large rustout hole with only
fiberglass, the part will be weaker
than when new.
rust remaining in pitted areas and around the edges
of the rustout. Always wear rubber gloves when han-
dling rust deactivator and metal conditioners. Shake
the container well before using and follow instruc-
tions carefully.
Apply the rust deactivator to the backside of the
panel, too. With a wire brush or scraper, first clean
dirt and undercoating from the backside of the re-
pair area. Then apply a rust deactivator. Be sure to
carefully follow the manufacturer's instructions. A
black coating will soon develop over the rust. For
maximum protection, this coating should have a
solid black color. Wait 1 to 2 hours between coats. If
the color is splotchy and uneven, apply additional
coats. Two or three thin coats neutralize the rust bet-
ter than one thick coat. If excess rust deactivator runs
over the finish paint, wipe it off immediately. Use a
cloth dampened with mineral spirits.
You may also want to blast the area to remove
rust from pits. This may eliminate the need to use a
rust converter.
area can then be filled with waterproof fiberglass-
reinforced filler. Use filler with long fiberglass strands
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

to give maximum strength to the repair. Make sure

that the filler is mixed thoroughly before applying.
PATCHING THE RUSTOUT
Apply a waterproof filler over the welded repair patch.
Do not use conventional filler because it is not wa-
terproof. Even the best welds can have tiny flaws that
allow moisture entry through the weld. For this rea-
son, always use waterproof filler as the first coat over
a repair area (Figure 9-59).
PATCHING AND FILLING
THE RUSTOUT
After the repair area is clean, a metal patch should
be made of the same metal as the original panel
(Figure 9-58). It should be welded well above or be-
yond the rusted area being repaired. The heat gener-
ated by welding could cause the weld area to weaken
and rust out prematurely. Another alternative is to
use adhesives to bond the repair patch. This may be
advisable particularly if the repair area is on a non-
structural part. The bond surface should be reinforced
with a few resistance spot welds. The rustout patch
COMPLETING THE
RUSTOUT REPAIR
With one coat of waterproof filler over the metal
patch, mix enough conventional filler to fill the
Existing Panal
Lap Weld
Repair Panel
Behind Old Panel
FIGURE 9-59 Apply a fiberglass patch over the repair
panel to seal out the moisture Fiberglass cloth and fiberglass
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

reinforced plastic filler are now used in most situations. They

are less messy and easier to apply than fiberglass resin.
SICUAS 58 it out all thinned rusted areas. Then
woln in repair panel
Canscanner
Changed
Force
Input
Direction
Force
Original
Force
M
11
.
FIGURE 11-2 Sudy basic pulling direction to correct damage (Al Input was in the
direction of the back arrow causing
damago in directions Y and Z. (O) opply force in the direction opposite to the input force,
and (C) f a difference in the degree of
ropar between Y and Z occurs, change the pulling direction accordingly (Courtesy of
Toyota Motor Corp
11.1 BODY ALIGNMENT BASICS
Use the method that works best for the given
situation. Since applying force in only one place will
not always work, you often have to exert pulling force
on many places at the same time. For convenience,
the term "direction opposite to Input" will be used
to describe the effective pulling direction
Pulling Relerence Point
-
-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

-
-
Point
-
-
-
-
ALIGNMENT BABICS
The term pulling refers to using alignment equip-
ment to stretch the damaged metal back to its origi-
nal shape. The vehicle is secured and held stationary
by the equipment. Clamps and chains are then at-
tached to the damaged area. When the hydraulic
system is activated, the chains slowly pull out the
damage. Measurements are made at body/frame ref-
erence points while pulling to return the vehicle to
its original dimensions (Figure 11-2).
When realigning a vehicle, a pull force or trac-
tion should be applied in the opposite direction of
the force of the impact. When determining the di-
rection of a pull, basically you must set the equip-
ment to pull perpendicular to the damage.
The single pall method only uses one pull-
ing chain. This method works well with minor dam-
age on one part. A small bend in a part can often be
straightened with a single pull.
With major damage to several panels, a mul.
tiple pall method with several pulling directions
and steps is needed. With major damage, body pan-
els are often deformed into complex shapes with al-
tered strengths in the damaged areas. To pull only in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the opposite direction would not work because of

the differences in the strength and recovery rates of
each panel. With multiple pulls, force is applied to
all pulling chains at one time. This helps to prevent
metal from tearing and to more uniformly move
da viage back into position.
CamScanner
FIGURE 11-3 (A and B) Think of the conduon wanted
after repairs are completed Set a reference pont along an
maginary ine extending along the desired axis from which to
exert force, and pull from that point (C) When forces appled
and the bend is repared the part will be suaughtened
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp
-
-
-
X+Y-Z
X+Y-Z
X + Y = Z"
-
-
-
-
-
-
FIGURE 11-4 If the pulling force is divided between two
directions (X, Y), the composite force direction (Z) will change
froely with adjustments to the force in the two directions.
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp.)
To alter the direction while pulling, divide the
pulling force into two or more directions. This will
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

allow you to change the direction of the compos-

ite force (force of all pulls combined).
With push-pull force, the straightening equip-
ment is used to pull out damage while a portable
ram pushes out damage at the same time. This re-
duces the total force needed and restores the parts
with less effort and repair time.
The pulling and straightening process must re-
move both direct and indirect damage. It must re-
turn all of the damaged metal back to preaccident
dimensions. To do this, the equipment must reverse
the direction and sequence in which the damage
occurred. The damage that occurred last during the
collision should be pulled out first (Figure 11-3).
Use the method that works the best for the given
situation (Figure 11-4). Since applying force in only
one place will usually not result in proper repairs, it
is recommended to exert pulling force on many
places at the same time.
objective of the anchoring system is to hold the ve-
hicle solidly in place while pulling forces are applied.
It must also distribute pulling forces throughout
the vehicle.
The pulling equipment uses hydraulic power
to force the body structure or frame back into posi-
tion. There are many different types of pulling equip-
ment available. Regardless of their design or operating
features, each system uses the same basic pulling
theory and is used in a similar manner.
Hydraulic rams use oil pressure from a pump
to produce a powerful linear motion. When you elec-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

trically activate the system, oil is forced into the ram

cylinder. The ram is then pushed outward with tre-
mendous force. This pulls on the chain attached to
the vehicle to remove the damage. The rams can be
mounted in or on the pulling towers or posts, or be-
tween the vehicle and anchoring system.
Pulling posts or towers are strong steel mem-
bers used to hold the pulling chains and hydraulic
rams. Depending upon equipment design, they can
be positioned at whatever location is needed to make
the pull. They push against the rack or bench as the
pull is made. This eliminates the need for separate
anchoring to keep the pulling equipment from slid-
ing under the rack or bench as the pull is made.
Pins or hardened bolts lock the tower to the rack.
The tower can be rotated sideways for different pull-
ing angles. Some will also tilt into an angle for even
more pulling flexibility. Make sure all lock pins are
securely in their holes before applying pulling power.
You should be familiar with a variety of anchor-
ing and pulling systems and their general operation.
On a partial or full frame type vehicle, if the
lower structure (frame) is restored to its proper align-
ment, generally the suspension and power train will
be in proper alignment. However, with a unibody
vehicle, the frame is the entire unibody structure.
For this reason, pulling on the underbody structure
will not straighten the upper structure. In addition,
body-on-frame structures are tolerant of the trial-and-
error pulling procedure. Because of the unibody's
7.2 STRAIGHTENING
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

EQUIPMENT
Straightening equipment is used to apply tremendous
force to move the frame or body structure back into
alignment. Straightening equipment includes an-
choring equipment, pulling equipment, and other
WARNING
The amount of pulling pressure
required to remove damage should
not be too high. If the pulling equip
ment is straining during the pull-
ing process, something is wrong.
If this happens, stop pulling! Re-
lease tension, and reevaluate the
setup to find the problem. If too
much pressure is applied, parts
or equipment can be damaged and serious inju-
ries could result.
accessories.
The anchoring equipment holds the vehicle
Stationary while pulling and measuring. Anchoring
can be done by fastening the frame or unibody of
the vehicle to anchors in the shop floor or to the
Straightening equipment rack, frame, or bench. The
CamScanner
thin-gauge structure, improper pulling can badly
damage the vehicle. For unibody repair, the align-
ment equipment must also show the amount of mis-
alignment at each reference point and the direction
of the misalignment.
You may have to make some general measure-
ments with a tape measure or tram gauge. These would
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

include diagonal measurements to check for diamond

and length measurements to check for mash. Try to
get as good an idea as possible of where the damage
begins and ends. Use all the dimension data available,
including body/frame dimensions books, the vehicle
manufacturer's manuals, or by checking against an
undamaged car. Remember that these are general
measurements and do not have to be made as accu-
rately as when straightening the vehicle.
It is necessary to have at least THREE REFERENCE
POINTS on the undamaged part of the vehicle that
can be used to set the car up properly. These three
locations will then form the datum plane on which
all of the other measurements will be based. If there
are more than three locations that are undamaged,
they can also be used for setup.
In a situation where there are not three undam-
aged reference points, such as a severe side impact, it
might be necessary to do some rough straightening
of the underbody until three points can be secured.
There are several different types of frame straight-
ening equipment on the market that are suitable for
both body-on-frame and unibody collision repair
work. The most popular systems are discussed below.
FIGUAE 11-5 These are typical in-floor systems: (A) the
anchor pot system and (B) the modular rail frame. (Courtesy of
Blackhawk Automotive Inc.)
IN-FLOOR SYSTEMS
Two types of in-floor systems available are the an-
chor-pot system (Figure 11-5A) and the modular rail
frame system (Figure 11-5B).
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

In-floor straightening systems have anchor

pots or rails cemented or mounted in the shop floor.
Some use anchor pots or small steel cups in vari-
ous locations in the shop floor. Others use a system
of steel anchor rails in the floor so that an infinite
number of pulling and holding locations can be used.
Both systems must be balanced in both direction and
force of the pull (Figure 11-6).
To provide the pulling force for straightening,
the anchor-pot system can use hydraulic rams and
pulling posts or towers. The floor grid system gener-
ally uses hydraulic rams to provide thc pulling force.
An in-floor system is ideal for a small body shop.
After the rams and the other power accessories have
been neatly stored away, the area can be used for
other body shop purposes. In-floor systems also pro-
vide single or multiple pulls, and positive anchoring
without sacrificing shop space.
CamScanner
FIGURE 11-6 The anchoring setup must balance in
direction and force of the pull. If not, the vehicle could be
pulled sideways by the pulling force.
Anchor clamps are bolted to specific points
on the vehicle (unibody pinchwelds, for exam
to allow the attachment of anchor chains."
distribute pulling force to prevent metal tears
(Figure 11-7).
FIGURE 11-7 Anchonng clamps often belt around a
thick metal flange (rocker pinch weld) on the bottom of the
body structure. (Courtesy of Blackhawk Automotive Inc.)
FIQUAS 11-9 A power tower allowe you to pull out
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

domago once the vehicle is anchored securely. (Courtesy of

Kansos Jack, Inc.)
an air hose to the pump. Engage the pump to take up
slack in the chain, and pulling can be started.
It is possible with most in-floor systems to use a
power tower or post to provide extra pulling force
(Figure 11-9). A power tower or post is frequently
used to supply pulling energy when straightening
minor frame or unibody damage.
The vehicle is usually supported using cross
tube anchor clamps which link both sides of the
vehicle. The cross tube anchor clamps are placed
over the cross tube and tightened securely. Chains
are then attached to the cross tube anchor clamps.
Anchor chains are attached from the floor an-
chors to the clamps attached to the vehicle. The an-
chor chains and clamps must hold the vehicle securely
while straightening. Chain tighteners or shorten-
ers are used to take slack out of the anchor chains.
The vehicle is usually supported on a car/truck
stand using the cross tube anchor clamps. The cross
tube anchor clamps are placed over the cross tube
and tightened securely. Chains are attached to the
cross tube anchor clamps and to the anchor pots or
rails. Pull the chains tight for secure anchoring. Chain
shorteners should be used to remove slack from the
anchor chains (Figure 11-8).
To make further preparations for the pull, posi-
tion the ram in the ram foot so it will exert force in
the desired direction. Build the ram up to the desired
height. Pull the chain tight and lock it in the chain
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

head with the cross pin. Hook the chain onto the an-
chor. The anchor, ram foot, and attachment point on
the vehicle should be in a straight line in the direc-
tion of pull. Hook the pump to the ram and connect
Anchor Clamp
Rocker Panel
Rocker Pinch
Weld
CHAINLESS ANCHORING
BYSTEMS
A chainless anchoring system has a low profile to
keep it close enough to the floor to load a vehicle
quickly, yet high enough to allow easy access to the
vehicle's underbody. The unit's adjustable length and
width allows the body technician to set it easily to
all vehicle sizes.
The following steps are required to set up a ve-
hicle for pulling with a chainless anchoring system:
1. Raise and secure the vehicle and attach the un-
derbody clamps (Figure 11-10A).
2. Insert the support tube through the underbody
clamp and the basc (Figure 11-10B). Lower the
car onto the base.
3. Secure the system to the in-floor anchors by po-
sitioning the lock arm. Hammer the wedges in
place to lock the vehicle to the system (Figure
11-10C).
4. Repeat the operation on the opposite end of the
vehicle (Figure 11-10D).
To clamp a box or full perimeter frame, spacers
may be available for the pinch weld clamps. They
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

allow the clamps to have a wider jaw opening for

clamping around a thick steel box frame.
Once the vehicle is secured, it is locked to stay.
It is possible to pull from any angle, 360 degrees
around the vehicle. A power tower or post is often
used as a pulling force (Figure 11-11).
Bocco
Chain Tightener
Car Stand
FAGUAS 11-Anchor chains extend from body clamps
w floor pots with this setuer
CAR-O-UHER
FIGURE 11-19 Set-up procedures for alignment on a typical portable bench (A) Raise
the car and mount it on anchor
mechanism. (B) Move the car to the repair area. (C) Anchor it on stationary stands. (D)
Pull out the damage. (Courtesy of Nicator.
Inc. and Car-O-Liner)
A hand-held controller is often provided for oper-
ating the lift. When activated, a large hydraulic ram
operates the scissor arms to raise or lower the vehicle.
the other end of the vehicle. Place the remaining
bolts in position and tighten them.
4. When making a pull, the aligners or rams are
mounted on an aligning beam with wheels.
Then they can be rolled into the desired posi-
tion and bolted in place. The direction of the
beam determines the direction of the pull. If,
for example, pulling sideways, position the align-
ing beam at right angles to the main frame
(Figure 11-19D).
With a scissor lift system or with four small air
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

jacks, the four anchor clamps can be installed simul-

taneously. This reduces repair time because you do
hot have to iin one end of the car at a time, as with
BTRAIGHTENING ACCESSORIES
Mentioned briefly, straightening system acces-
sories include the various chains, clamps, hooks,
adapters, straps, and stands needed to mount vari-
ous makes and models of vehicles (Figure 11-20).
Various adapters are often supplied with frame
straightening equipment. Some are holding devices
to clamp parts in place so that they do not move
while pulling other parts (Figure 11-21). For example,
large diameter stationary adapters bolt to the side of
some older systems, ner
Sena
FIGURE 11-20 Various accessories are provided
with modern frame straightening equipment. Since they vary
in design and purpose, refer to the owner's manual for
specific directions before use. (Courtesy of Chief Automotive
Systems, Inc.)
Direction
of pull
Collar
Strut
plate
and
pulley
the rack for making down pulls os changing the di-
rection of pulls. Also, adapters are available for wid.
ening pinch weld clamps so that they can be
mounted on a conventional frame.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Refer to the equipment owner's manual to learn

about adapter installation and use. Procedures vary
(Figure 11-22).
Two popular accessories that are often used with
most alignment systems are the engine stand or
holder and a portable pulling or pushing arm.
A restraint bar can be used to hold or maintain
a dimension in an opening during pulling (Figure
11-234). It an adjustable steel bar that can be slid
out and locked into position. Many times when
pulling, you need to retain the movement of one
area while straightening another (Figure 11-23B).
A door aligner is a special bar designed to flex a
door and its hinges for correcting alignment (Fig.
ure 11-23C). It is a special bar that snaps onto the
door lock and striker. By pulling up or down on the
handle, you can adjust minor door misalignment
quickly.
When it is necessary to remove the engine or
transmission mounts, the engine holder can be used
to support the engine. It rests on the inner fenders
and is adjustable in width. An adjustable chain hook
is used to hold the chain attached to the engine. This
allows you to remove engine and transmission
mounts or the cradle for repairs.
With a pulling/pushing arm, the unit can pivot
completely around the end of the bench from the
center position on a special flange. In the other posi-
tions, it can reach the end and one side of the bench.
The unit can also be used anywhere along the side of
the beach by hooking the inner clamp on the outer
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

flange on the opposite side.

mscanner
22
FIGURE 11-21 Study examples of frame rack
accessories. (A) the device is being used to push inward om
the apron while pulling to help remove buckle (B) A SU
adapter is being used to pull MacPherson strut tower
sideways. Note how the collar and pulley on the tower are
to the same height for this pull. (C) Nylon pull straps an
when it is difficult to install pulling clamps (Courtesy of
Liner, Chief Automotive, Bee Line Industries)
courtesy of Card
HAPTER
CHAPTER 12
Panel Replacement
and Adjustment
INTRODUCTION
Bent structural panels may have to be pulled and
realigned using hydraulic equipment. Some panels,
however, might be so badly damaged that replace-
ment is the only practical and effective procedure
for cost effective repair.
Table 12-1 outlines the general procedure for
replacing both bolted and welded panels.
12.1 PANEL REMOVAL
Panel replacement involves removing and install-
ing a new panel or body part. You might have to
unbolt and replace a fender, door, or spoiler. With
quarter panels and other welded body sections, you
will have to cut off the damaged panel with power
tools and then use a welder to install the new panel.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

This takes considerable skill.

A collision-damaged vehicle can require a vari-
ety of repair operations. Repair steps will depend
on the nature and location of the damage. Panels
with minor damage can often be straightened and
filled with plastic. However, quite often the dam-
age is too great and part replacement is the only
logical answer.
When starting work, refer to the estimate to get guid-
ance on how to begin. The estimator will have deter-
mined which parts need to be repaired and which
should be replaced. You would use this information
and shop manuals to remove and replace parts effi-
ciently (Figure 12-1).
OBJECTIVES
KEY TERMS
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
List parts of the vehicle that are considered
structural.
✓ List the steps necessary for replacing a part
along factory seams.
✓ Describe how spot welds are separated.
✓ Explain how new body panels can be positioned
on a vehicle body.
✓ List the steps for welding new body panels in
place.
✓ Describe how to install foam panel fillers.
✓ Section rails, rocker panels, A- and B-pillars,
floor pans, and trunk floors.
Identify the principal methods of corrosion
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

protection.
Answer ASE test questions pertaining to panel
replacement.
Camscanner
A-pillars
B-pillars
closed section
door skin
foam fillers
full body sectioning
inserts
open hat channel
panel replacement
part R&R
recycled assemblies
replacement panels
sectioning partial
spot weld cutter
structural adhesives
structural panels
test weld
three-way tailgate
weld-bond adhesives
weld through primer
window regulator
ASS
ASE TASK LIST
Job Skills covered in this chapter include:
PAINTING AND REFINISHING TEST (B2)
TASK LIST
A. Surface Preparation
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

15. Apply suitable paint sealer to the area being

refinished when sealing is needed or desirable.
16. Remove imperfections from sealer.
19. Restore corrosion resistant coatings, caulking.
and seam sealers to repaired areas.
14. Repair or replace door skins in accordance
vehicle manufacturers' specifications, insper
intrusion beams.
15. Replace or repair plastic panels in accordane
with manufacturers/industry specifications
16. Restore sealers, mastic, sound deadeners, and
foam fillers.
E. Finish Defects, Causas, and Cures
3. Check for rust spots (corrosion); determine the
cause(s), and correct the condition,
D. Moveable Glass and Hardware
1. Inspect, adjust, repair, or replace window
regulators, run channels, glass (including
electrically-heated glass). power mechanisms.
and related controls.
NONSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE
REPAIR TEST (B3) TASK LIST
A. Preparation
9. Remove corrosion protection, undercoatings,
sealers, and other protective coatings as
necessary to perform repairs.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE
REPAIR TEST (B4) TASK LIST
A. Frame Inspection and Repair
8. Remove and replace damaged frame horns, side
rails, cross members, and front or rear
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sections.
10. Repair or replace weakened or cracked frame
members in accordance with vehicle
manufacturers'/industry standards
B. Outar Body Panel Repairs, Replacements,
and Adjustments
2. Remove and replace bolted, bonded, and welded
panels ar panel assemblies.
4. Remove, replace, and align hood, hood hinges,
and hood latch/lock.
5. Remove, replace, and align deck lid, lid hinges,
and lid latch/lock.
6. Aemove and replace doors, tailgates, hatches,
lift gates, latch/lock assemblies, and hinges.
B. Check and adjust clearances of front fenders,
header, and other panels.
9. Check door hinge condition; check door frames
for proper fit; check and adjust door clearances.
12. Apply protective coatings and sealants to restore
corrosion protection.
13. Remove damaged sections of steel body panels:
weld in replacements in accordance with
manufacturers'/industry specifications.
B. Unibody Inspection, Measurement, and
Repair
16. Remove damaged sections of structural steel
body panels, and weld in replacements in
accordance with vehicle manufacturers
specificabons
17. Restore corrosion protection to repaired or
replaced unibody structural areas
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

C. Stationary Glass
1. Remove and replace front and rear stationary
glass (heated and nonheated) in accordance with
manufacturers' recommendations
WHERE TO START REPAIRS
The estimate is an important reference tool for
doing repairs. It must be followed. The insurance
company and estimator have both determined
which parts must be repaired. If you fail to follow
the estimate, the insurance company may not pay
for your work.
The estimate is also used to order new parts. You
might want to make sure all ordered parts have ar-
rived. Compare new parts on hand with the parts
list. If anything is missing, have the parts person or-
der them. This will save time and prevent your work
arca from being tied up while waiting for parts.
CamScanner
Generally, start rernoving large, external badly damu
aged parts first. For example, if the front end was hit
hard, you might remove the hood first. This will give
you more room to access rear fender bolts. It
also allow more light into the front for finding an
Temoving hidden bolts in the frontal area. User
kind of logic to remove parts efficiently
If in doubt about how to remove a part.
the vehicle's service manual. Factory service!
ally have a body repair section. The body
emove a part, refer to
TABLE 12-1: TYPICAL PANEL REPLACEMENT PROCEDURE
Removal of Auxillary Parts
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Body Aligning
Removal of Damaged Panel
Unbolting
Sectioning and/or Separation at Welds
Preparations for New Parts Installation
Positioning of New Parts
Welding or Bolting
Finishing of Welded Areas
Palnting Process
Installation of Auxiliary Parts
(Including Fitting Adjustments)
Finish Inspection
repair section of the manual explains and illustrates
how parts are serviced. The manual will give step-
by-step instructions for the specific make and model
vehicle. It will give bolt locations, torque values, re.
moval sequences, and other important information.
To give you an idea of the types of things to
consider when starting a repair, refer to Figure 12-2.
Now refer to Figure 12-3. It shows a collision-
damaged door and quarter panel. The collision cre-
ated a buckle that work hardened in the flange and
body line areas of the quarter panel. How should it
be repaired?
Although the quarter panel could have been re-
paired, the customer and insurance company recom-
mended replacement. The door panel was so badly
damaged that it could not be repaired. A new door
skin was installed on the door frame. To replace the
FIGURE 12-1
statural panel or
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ventorn duon scating

HE 1R-1 When starting work on a vehicle with
panel or part damage, refer to the estimate. It will
Orion stating what should be done to fix the car or
e
d
. (Courtesy of Tech-Carr
JUHU
L
Adjustment
307
FIGURE 12-7 Occasionally, you may have to fabricate
repair pieces out of sheets of metal. Make sure the type and
thickness of metal sheet is the same as the original part.
FIGURE 12-6 (A) Rocker panel on oldor car is badly
rusted and in need of replacement (B) Replacement rocker
panel has been installed.
(Figure 12-7). Usually the fabricated part is made
Darger than the cut out section so a lap joint can be
formed. This produces a strong joint for welding in
the repaired section of metal.
Panel replacement is often the only perma-
nent remedy for corrosion damage. Figure 12-6A
shows a rusted out rocker panel and cab corner on a
truck. The repair was made by cutting the rusty metal
away and welding new partial panels in place
(Figure 12-6B).
Sectioning involves cutting the part in a loca-
tion other than a factory seam. This may or may not
be a factory-recoinmended practice. Special care must
be taken when sectioning a part to make sure it will
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

not jeopardize structural integrity.

Some manufacturers do not allow resectioning
of structural panels. Others approve of sectioning
only if proper procedures established by the manu-
facturer are followed. All manufacturers stress: Do
not section areas that might reduce passenger pro-
tection, drivability of the car, or where critical di-
mensions can be affected.
Partial replacement panels are often de-
signed to replace only a section or area of a large
panel. They are ideal for body areas commonly sub-
Ject to rustout and are available from a number of
aftermarket parts manufacturers, local salvage yards,
or the original equipment manufacturer.
Fabricated panels are hand-made repair parts to
Small problems (gouge or rusted holes for ex-
e) in panels when a new or partial panel is not
able or practical. When making a fabricated
use the same metal type and thickness found
e vehicle. Cut out the damaged section of the
Ther, use it as a template to make the new part
CamScanner
HOW PARTS ARE FASTENED
Fastener variations can make repair more challeng-
ing. Parts can be held by screws, bolts, nuts, metal or
plastic clips, adhesives, and other methods. To effi-
ciently replace parts, you must carefully study part
construction. Inspect parts closely to find out how
they are held on the vehicle. This allows you to make
logical decisions on the order in which parts should
be removed and the methods needed.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The methods of fastening parts to cars and trucks

has changed in the past few years. Many parts that
were held with bolts and screws in the past now snap
fit into place. Plastic retainers now hold these parts
onto the vehicle. This was done to save time during
vehicle manufacturing. The part is simply pressed or
popped into position on the assembly line.
Keep in mind that on-the-job experience is the
only way to become competent and fast at body part
R&R (part removal and replacement). Sometimes
you must remove one part at a time. In other in-
stances, it is better to remove several parts as an as-
sembly. This chapter will give you the background
information to make this learning process easier.
Figure 12-8 shows the mechanical fasteners used
to attach the front fender and splash shield on a Ford
Mustang.
STRUCTURAL PANELS
In modern unitized construction, all the structural
panels, from the radiator support to the rear end panel,
are welded together to make a one-piece structure
FIGURE 12-84 If done property, a section car or truck
will be as good as new This same principle is used to make
stretch limousines (Courtesy of Tech-Cor)
6. Using centerline gauges and a tram gauge,
double-check vehicle dimensions and section
alignment before welding the sections together.
7. Weld sections together using techniques already
described in this chapter for joining rocker pan-
els, A-pillars, and the floor pan (Figure 12-84).
Remember to check the OEM Repair Manuals for
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

specifications.
12.4 ANTIRUST TREATMENTS
FIGURE 12-83 (A) After accurate section cuts, two
halves can be married" or fit together (B) Jigs may have to be
fabricated to hold the sections when measuring and welding
The application of antirust agents is necessary not
only before welding, but also before and after the
painting process. Welded panel joints are treated with
weld-through primer before they are joined together.
The weld joints must also be sealed with body sealer
before finishing undercoating or an antirust treat.
ment must be applied to the joints after finishing to
seal out moisture and prevent rust formation.
JOINING THE FULL
BODY SECTIONS
After the front and rear sections have been trimmed
to fit, drilled for plug welds, and prepared with weld-
through primer, follow these steps to join the sections.
1. Install the rocker and pillar inserts. Clamp them
in place with sheet metal screws.
2. Place the A-pillar inserts in the upper or lower
portion of the windshield pillar, depending on
the angle and contour of the windshield.
3. Fit the two halves together by first joining the
rocker panels and then the A-pillars. Clamp the
rocker and pillar flanges to prevent the sections
from pulling apart.
4. Check the windshield and door openings for
proper dimension, using a tram gauge or a steel
rule. If possible, install the doors and windshield
to verify proper alignment.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

3. When proper alignment is achieved, secure over-

lapping areas with sheet metal screws to pull the
seam areas together and hold the sections to-
Sgether during welding.
CamScanner
FIGURE 12-85 A floor jack and a block of wood
covered with shop rog can be used to support the door while
removing the hinge bolts. (Courtesy of Mitchell International)
FIGURE 12-86 When loosening door hinge balts, make
sure the door is held so it does not fall off the jack.
FIGURE 12-Be Measure the location of the old door
panel on its frame. Write down the horizontal and vertical
positions. Here a piece of tape has been placed on the frame
for measurement reference. (Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp. 1
FIGURE 12-87 Door panel trim can be removed before
or after door removal. (Courtesy of 3M Automotive Trades Div)
Rustproofing and corrosion protection techniques are
discussed fully in Chapter 15.
2. Observe how the door skin is fastened to the
door so you can tell how much interior hard-
ware must be removed.
3. Remove the trim panel and disconnect the bat-
tery to isolate all door power accessories.
4. To prevent loss, place parts inside the vehicle.
This also applies to the door glass.
5. To remove some of the damage and possibly
straighten or align the inner door frame, use a
hydraulic or body jack (Figure 12-85).
6. Remove the door glass to prevent breakage. Now
remove the door from the vehicle and move it
to a suitable work area (Figure 12-86).
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

7. Remove all hardware from the door (Figure

12-87).
8. Using an oxyacetylene gas torch and wire brush,
remove paint from the spot welds in the panel
hem. Using a drill and spot cutter or grinder,
remove the spot welds.
9. As a reference, apply tape to the door frame.
Measure the distance between the lower line of
the tape and the outer panel edge. Also mea-
sure the distance between the front or rear edge
of the outer panel and the door frame (Figure
12-88).
10. Use a plasma cutter or cut-off grinder to remove
the brazed portion from the outer panel door
frame connections (Figure 12-89).
The quickest way to remove an exterior door
panel is to grind off the edge of the hem flange
(Figure 12-90). Only grind off enough metal so
that the panel can be separated from the inner
flange. Do not grind into the inner panel. D
not use a welding torch or power chisel to sepa
rate the panels. The inner panel can becomes
torted or be accidentally cut.
Separate the reinforcing strip on the top of
panel (if installed or used).
2.5 DOOR PANEL
REPLACEMENT
Like other damaged panels, a door can be bumped
or pulled into shape, or replaced. The decision is de-
termined by the amount of time required to repair
the door versus the cost of a replacement door.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

The outer panel or door skin wraps around the

door frame and is clinched to the pinch weld flange.
The skin is secured to the frame either with plug or
spot welds or with adhesives.
REPLACING WELDED DOOR
SKINS
1. Before removing the door, check to see if the
CS hinges are sprung Check the alignment of the
door with respect to its opening.
Outer Panel
Spot
Weld
FIGURE 12-89 Cu
CE 12-89 Cut off the old door panel without
ing the frame. (Courtesy of 3M Automotive Trades Div.)
FIGURE 12-91 Cut around spot welds as needed.
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp.)
FIGURE 12.92 Make sure you wear proper safety gear
when grinding and using other power tools. (Courtesy of 3M
Automotive Trades Div)
Disc Grinder
Hemming Location
FIGURE 12-90 (A) Grind off door hemming flange; (D)
Note the hero flange cross section before and after grinding.
(Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp.)
13. Using a hammer and chisel, loosen the two pan-
els. Use a pair of tin snips to cut around any
spot welds that could not be drilled or ground
off (Figure 12-91). When the exterios panel
moves freely, remove the panel. Use vise grips
or pliers to remove what remains of the inner
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

hem flange. Any remaining spot welds or braz-

ing should be ground off using a disc grinder.
14. With the exterior panel removed, examine care-
fully the inner panel and frame construction for
damage. If necessary, straighten or repair any re-
maining inner door damage at this time (Figure
12-92). Remove dents on the inner flange with a
hammer and dolly. Media blast away any rust.
Apply weld-through primer to any areas to be
spot welded. Cover other bare metal areas with
a rust resistant primer or other manufacturer
recommended rust treatment.
16. Prepare the new panel for installation. Drill holes
for any plug welds. Using a sander, remove the
paint from the weld and braze locations. Apply
weld-through primer to the bare metal seam
areas and prime any other bare metal areas.
17. Some outer door panels are accompanied by a
silencer pad that must be glued to the outer
panel. To do this, clean the outer panel with al-
cohol or suggested solvent. Heat the outer panel
and silencer pad with a heat lamp. Then, glue
the silencer pad to the outer panel.
18. Before installing the new panel, apply body
sealer to the backside of the new panel. Apply
the sealer evenly 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) from the
flange in a 'a-inch (3.2 mm) thick bead.
19. Using vise grips, attach the new outer panel to
the door. Align it properly, using the dimensions
determined in Step 2. Braze the outer panel
where required.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

20. Use a hammer and dolly to bend the outer panel

flange (Figure 12-93). Cover the dolly face with
cloth tape to avoid scarring the panel. Bend the
hem gradually in three steps. Be careful not to
tap the panel edge; that would throw the panel
out of alignment. Do not create bulges or creases
in the body lines of the outer panel.
Cloth Tape
FIGURE 12-95 Measure the final weld door panel in
place. Then reinstall the window and other parts. (Courtesy of
3M Automotive Trades DM)
FIGURE 18-93 Carefully straighten the door frame
flange atter old panel removal. (Al Dollying panel flange and
(B) cross section (Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp.)
CAUTION
TELLITE
Wear leather gloves when working
with door skins and other sharp
sheet metal panels. Serious cuts
can result from the jayged metal
edges.
Hemming Tool
FIGURE 12-94 (A) Special tools are used when forming
the panel hem and (B) cross section. (Courtesy of Toyota
Motor Corp.)
27. Install the door glass before refinishing the door.
This will prevent overspray from getting on the
interior of the door and avoid paint darnage.
28. Align the door with all adjacent panels and check
for proper closure or latching and panel gaps.
21. After working the flange within 30 degrees of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the inner panel, use a hemming tool to finish

the hem (Figure 12-94). Again, finish the hem
in three steps, being careful not to deform the
panel.
22. Test fit the door in the body opening. Look for
correct gaps and make sure the door is flush.
23. Weld the plug or spot weld locations of the glass
opening and tack weld the hemming edge of the
outer panel flange (Figure 12-95).
24. Apply body sealer to the hemming edge of the
flange. Apply antirust agents on the inside of
the spot welds, plug welds, and brazed areas.
25. Drill holes into the new panel for moldings, trim,
and so forth.
26. At this point, you have two possible methods to
choose from: 1) continue to prepare the panel
for refinishing, or 2) place the door on the ve-
hicle to check its alignment prior to final weld-
cing, prepare the door for refinishing, and then
reinstall the door.
CamScanner
REPLACING PANELS WITH
ADHESIVES
Some vehicle manufacturers use structural adhesives
along certain weld seams. These two-part epoxy ad.
hesives are sometimes called weld-bond adhesives
because spot welds are placed through the adhesive.
Weld-bond adhesives are used to add strength
and rigidity to the vehicle body. They also improve
corrosion protection in weld seams and help control
noise and vibrations.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Parts most commonly weld-bonded are

1. A- and B-pillars
2. Rocker panels
3. Roof panels
4. Rear quarter panels
5. SMC door panels
If adhesives are disturbed by repairs, they
be replaced. Follow recommendations in the Do
repair manual
Some manufacturers use structural adhesives
in place of welds. One example is around the
S around the wheel
CHAPTER 15
Other Body Shop Repairs
INTRODUCTION
also be removed from areas of major damage before
the damage can be straightened
15.2 TYPES OF GLASS
This chapter summarizes how to service the many
parts not covered in the other chapters of this text.
book. The replacement of windshields, molding, trim,
bumpers, and similar parts is described Many of these
operations are done in the body shop. Therefore, this
information will be very useful to you when on the
job in the future.
There are a wide variety of methods used to ser-
vice the parts discussed in this chapter. Always refer
to a manufacturer's service manual when in doubt.
It will give the details needed to do quality work.
16.1 REPLACING GLASS
There are two types of glass used in today's vehicles
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

laminated and tempered. Both are considered safety

glass. They may or may not be tinted.
Laminated plate glass consists of two thin
sheets of glass with a thin layer of clear plastic ivi.
nyl) between them. It is used to make all windshields.
Some glass manufacturers have increased the thick-
ness of the plastic material for greater strength. When
this type of glass is broken, the plastic material will
tend to hold the shattered glass in place and prevent
it from causing injury (Figure 15-2). The plastic or
vinyl material is usually clear to provide an unob-
structed view from all angles.
Tempered glass is used for side and rear win-
dows but rarely for windshields. It is a single piece
of heat-treated glass, which has more resistance to
impact than regular glass of the same thickness. The
strength of tempered glass results from the high
Today's vehicles are built with a lot of glass for greater
visibility (Figure 15-1). Frequently this glass is bro-
ken out or cracked as a result of a collision, flying
gravel, or vandalism. Glass is sometimes considered
a structural component. It is important for the body
shop technician to be familiar with the various tech-
niques to remove and install vehicle glass. Glass must
OBJECTIVES
KEY TERMS
active restraint
air bag
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
✓ Describe windshield glass replacement
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

procedures.
✓ Describe how to replace a bumper.
✓ Locate and correct wind and water leaks.
✓ Install body accessories such as moldings.
✓ Explain the types of restraint systems.
✓ Explain how to replace and repair vinyl roofs.
✓ Remove and install moldings.
Answer ASE test questions relating to glass,
trim and other service operations.
air bag controller
air bag igniter
air bag module
air leaks
antilacerative glass
arming sensor
clock spring
dash assembly
electronic
stethoscope
full cutout method
garnish moldings
grain mold die
headliner
impact sensors
inertia sensors
instrument cluster
laminated plate glass
partial cutout method
passive restraint
propellant charge
reveal moldings
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sensor arrow
tempered glass
water leaks
Other Body Shop Repairs
577
58
ASE TASK LIST
Job Skills covered in this chapter include:
PAINTING AND REFINISHING TEST (B2)
TASK LIST
A. Surface Preparation
Remove, assess, and store trim and moldings
accordance with manufacturers
recommendations
2. Inspect restraint system mounting areas for
damage, repair in accordance with
manufacturers' recommendations
3. Verify proper operation of seatbelt in accordance
with manufacturers' recommendations
NONSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE
REPAIR TEST (B3) TASK LIST
A. Preparation
3. Remove outside trin and moldings as
necessary: store reusable parts.
4. Remove damaged or undamaged inside trim and
moldings as necessary: store reusable parts.
B. Outer Body Panel Repairs, Replacements,
and Adjustments
7. Remove, replace, and align bumpers,
reinforcements, guards, isolators, and mounting
hardware.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

17. Diagnose and repair water leaks, dust leaks,

wind noise, squeaks, and rattles.
18. Install interior and exterior trim and moldings.
2. Passive Restraint Systoms
1. Remove and replace seatbelt and shoulder
harness assembly and components in
accordance with manufacturers'
recominendations.
Inspect restraint system mounting areas for
damage, repair as necessary.
3. Verify proper operation of seatbelt in accordance
with manufacturers' recommendations.
4. Remove, inspect, and replace track and drive
assembly, lap retractor, torso retractor, inboard
bucklelap retractor, and knee bolster (blocker) in
accordance with manufacturers
recommendations.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE REPAIR
TEST (B4) TASK LIST
C. Stationary Glass
2. Remove and replace side modular glass in
accordance with manufacturers'
recommendations.
3. Determine when and how to use the partial
cutout or the full cutout method of repair when
replacing a windshield.
3. Supplemental Restraint Systems (SRS)
1. Disarm airbag system in accordance with
manufacturers' procedures.
2. Inspect and replace sensors and wiring in
accordance with manufacturers' procedures;
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ensure proper sensor orientation.

3. Inspect, replace, and dispose of deployed airbag
modules in accordance with manufacturers
procedures.
4. Verify that system is armed and operational in
accordance with manufacturers' procedures.
5. Inspect, remove, replace, and dispose of non-
deployed airbag in accordance with
manufacturers' procedures.
6. Use fault codes to diagnose and repair airbag
system.
MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
TEST (B5) TASK LIST
A. Restraint Systems
1. Active Restraint Systems
1. Inspect, remove, and replace seatbelt and
shoulder harness assembly and components in
compression of its surfaces. This high compression
is induced by rapidly heating the glass. The high
temperature softens the glass. The glass is then
cooled rapidly by blowing air on both flat surfaces.
The resulting rapid contraction adds compressive
stress to the surface, which strengthens it. Because
of this compression, tempered glass cannot be cut,
drilled, or ground after the tempering process.
When tempered glass is broken, the pieces are
small and have a granular texture. The shattered glass
has an interlocked suructure to it that obstructs vis-
Thility. This is one reason tempered glass is not used
in windshields. Another reason is that this type of
glass does not give readily and can cause more se-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

vere head injuries in a collision. Tempered glass will

also shatter if previously damaged or stressed. For
example, a chipped edge or a stone striking it can
weaken the glass so that it suddenly shatters some
time after the initial defect is incurred.
Zone-tempered glass is a better choice for wind-
shields. Zone-tempered glass has a lesser degree of
tempering in the area directly in front of the driver;
this prevents small cracks from developing in the
event of breakage.
Chapter 15
of channel away
Rubber stops and spacers separate the glass from
the metal. Reveal moldings, which are trim pieces be-
tween the glass and body, are held in place by adhe-
sive grooves in the body or by clips. This type is more
advantageous than the gasket installation because the
pinch welds do not have to be as exact since no pres-
sure is exerted on the glass outside of the reveal mold-
ings. The adhesive can be extruded from a cartridge
or it can be applied in strip or tape form. Typical
adhesives in use include polysulfide, urethane, and
butyl rubber.
The partial cutout method takes advantage
of the fact that most of the adhesive in good condi-
tion and of sufficient thickness is allowed to remain
and be utilized as a base for the application of new
adhesive. When the original adhesive is defective or
requires complete removal, the full cutout method
is used.
4. Locate the locking strip on the outside of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

gasket. Pry up the tab and pull the tab to

the gasket all the way around the windsh
glass.
5. Use a putty knife to pry the rubber channel a
from the pinch weld inside and outside the
hicle.
6. With an assistant, push out the windshield el
and gasket.
7. Clean the windshield body opening with anae
ceptable solvent to clear the area of dirt or te.
sidual sealant.
8. If the glass was not cracked and is to be reused
do not exert uneven pressure to the glass or strike
it with tools. The technician should always wear
safety goggles and gloves when replacing wind-
shield glass or rear window glass-broken or not.
9. Place the removed glass on a suitable bench or
table that is covered to protect the glass. If the
glass was removed to accommodate body repairs,
leave the gasket and moldings intact. If the glass
was removed because it was broken, be sure to
also remove the associated moldings and gas.
kets from the glass.
10. Cracks that develop in the outer edge of the glass
are sometimes caused by low or high spots or
poor spot welds in the pinch weld flange. Ex-
amine the pinch weld and correct the problem
if applicable.
11. Apply a double layer of masking tape around
the outside edge of the glass with a 1/4-inch (6.4
mm) overlap onto the inside of the glass. This
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

will prevent chipping or breaking the glass.

12. Install stop blocks and spacers. If the original
blocks are not available, cut pieces of used gas-
ket for blocks.
13. Carefully install the glass on the blocks. Center
the glass and then check the gap between the
REMOVAL OF MOLDING
Before removal of the windshield glass or rear win-
dow, the interior and exterior moldings must be re-
moved. In most cases, the garnish moldings are used
on the interior face of the windshield or rear window.
They consist of several pieces or strips that are secured
in place by screws or retaining clips (Figure 15-8). All
of the garnish moldings, as well as the rear view mir-
ror (if possible), should be removed first with a special
tool. If unavailable, a suitable remover can be made
from banding strap steel as shown in Figure 15-9.
On the exterior of the vehicle, remove the re-
veal moldings and other trim or hardware (such as
windshield wiper arms) if needed. Reveal molding
can be secured in place by clips that are attached to
the body opening by welded-on studs, bolts, or screws
(Figure 15-10). A projection on the clip engages the
flange on the reveal molding, thereby retaining the
molding between the clip and body metal.
To disengage or remove the molding from the
retaining clips, a special tool (Figure 15-11) must be
used. Reveal moldings can also be anchored in the
adhesive material. Exercise care when removing the
reveal moldings so that they are not bent or damaged.
Reveal Molding
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Roof
Molding
Removal Tool
Butyl
Seal
Gasket Method of Glass Installation
To replace windshield glass using gasket material,
perform the following procedures:
1. Place protective covers on the areas where the
glass is to be removed.
2. Be sure all moldings, trim, and hardware are re-
moved.
3. If the glass has a built-in radio antenna, discon-
nect the antenna lead at the lower center of the
windshield and tape the lead to the glass.
CamScanner
Glass
FIGURE 15-11 A clip removal tool will reach bei
molding to engage the clip.
will reach behind the
Chapter 15
of channel away
Rubber stops and spacers separate the glass from
the metal. Reveal moldings, which are trim pieces be-
tween the glass and body, are held in place by adhe-
sive grooves in the body or by clips. This type is more
advantageous than the gasket installation because the
pinch welds do not have to be as exact since no pres-
sure is exerted on the glass outside of the reveal mold-
ings. The adhesive can be extruded from a cartridge
or it can be applied in strip or tape form. Typical
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

adhesives in use include polysulfide, urethane, and

butyl rubber.
The partial cutout method takes advantage
of the fact that most of the adhesive in good condi-
tion and of sufficient thickness is allowed to remain
and be utilized as a base for the application of new
adhesive. When the original adhesive is defective or
requires complete removal, the full cutout method
is used.
4. Locate the locking strip on the outside of
gasket. Pry up the tab and pull the tab to
the gasket all the way around the windsh
glass.
5. Use a putty knife to pry the rubber channel a
from the pinch weld inside and outside the
hicle.
6. With an assistant, push out the windshield el
and gasket.
7. Clean the windshield body opening with anae
ceptable solvent to clear the area of dirt or te.
sidual sealant.
8. If the glass was not cracked and is to be reused
do not exert uneven pressure to the glass or strike
it with tools. The technician should always wear
safety goggles and gloves when replacing wind-
shield glass or rear window glass-broken or not.
9. Place the removed glass on a suitable bench or
table that is covered to protect the glass. If the
glass was removed to accommodate body repairs,
leave the gasket and moldings intact. If the glass
was removed because it was broken, be sure to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

also remove the associated moldings and gas.

kets from the glass.
10. Cracks that develop in the outer edge of the glass
are sometimes caused by low or high spots or
poor spot welds in the pinch weld flange. Ex-
amine the pinch weld and correct the problem
if applicable.
11. Apply a double layer of masking tape around
the outside edge of the glass with a 1/4-inch (6.4
mm) overlap onto the inside of the glass. This
will prevent chipping or breaking the glass.
12. Install stop blocks and spacers. If the original
blocks are not available, cut pieces of used gas-
ket for blocks.
13. Carefully install the glass on the blocks. Center
the glass and then check the gap between the
REMOVAL OF MOLDING
Before removal of the windshield glass or rear win-
dow, the interior and exterior moldings must be re-
moved. In most cases, the garnish moldings are used
on the interior face of the windshield or rear window.
They consist of several pieces or strips that are secured
in place by screws or retaining clips (Figure 15-8). All
of the garnish moldings, as well as the rear view mir-
ror (if possible), should be removed first with a special
tool. If unavailable, a suitable remover can be made
from banding strap steel as shown in Figure 15-9.
On the exterior of the vehicle, remove the re-
veal moldings and other trim or hardware (such as
windshield wiper arms) if needed. Reveal molding
can be secured in place by clips that are attached to
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the body opening by welded-on studs, bolts, or screws

(Figure 15-10). A projection on the clip engages the
flange on the reveal molding, thereby retaining the
molding between the clip and body metal.
To disengage or remove the molding from the
retaining clips, a special tool (Figure 15-11) must be
used. Reveal moldings can also be anchored in the
adhesive material. Exercise care when removing the
reveal moldings so that they are not bent or damaged.
Reveal Molding
Roof
Molding
Removal Tool
Butyl
Seal
Gasket Method of Glass Installation
To replace windshield glass using gasket material,
perform the following procedures:
1. Place protective covers on the areas where the
glass is to be removed.
2. Be sure all moldings, trim, and hardware are re-
moved.
3. If the glass has a built-in radio antenna, discon-
nect the antenna lead at the lower center of the
windshield and tape the lead to the glass.
CamScanner
Glass
FIGURE 15-11 A clip removal tool will reach bei
molding to engage the clip.
will reach behind the
glass and the pi
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

around the enti

14. Apply a beado
15. Insert a cord
and the pinch weld. The gap should be even
ind the entire pinch weld. Remove the mask-
tape around the edges of the glass.
va bead of approved sealer in the glass chan-
and install the gasket on the glass.
ert a cord (vinyl or nylon) in the pinch weld
pove of the gasket. Start at the top of the glass.
e cord ends should meet in the lower center
of the glass. Tape the ends of the cord to the
inside surface of the glass (Figure 15-12). Squirt
soapy solution in the pinch weld groove to
ease installation.
16. Apply factory recommended sealer to the base
of the gasket.
With the aid of an assistant, install the glass and
gasket assembly in the body opening and cen-
ter it. Slip the bottom groove over the pinch
weld.
18. Very slowly pull the cord ends so that the gasket
slips over the pinch weld flange (Figure 15-13).
Work the bottom section of the glass in first, then
do the sides, and finally the top section (Figure
15-14). Be sure to work the sections evenly
because the glass might crack if the cord end is
pulled from one side only.
19. Extrude a small bead of sealer around the body
side of the gasket.
20. Remove excess sealer with a suitable solvent that
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

will not harm the paint.

21. Install the reveal and garnish moldings.
22. Check the windshield for water leaks using a low
pressure stream of water. Start at the bottom and
work your way up each side slowly. Do the top
last to help isolate the location of the leak.
23. Place a soapy solution in the locking strip groove
and, with a tool designed for the job, replace
the locking strip. The wedge-shaped tool shown
in Figure 15-15 spreads the groove and feeds the
strip into the opening. The soapy solution lu-
bricates the groove and makes it easier to slide
the tool through the rubber groove.
It is critical that the sheer strength and tensile
strength of the adhesive is within specs. For this rea-
son, most technicians use the windshield adhesive
-
FIGURE 15-14 A hooked tool can be used to work any
stuck lip of rubber gasket over the lip for complete installation.
(Courtesy of Mustang Monthly Magazine)
FIGURE 15-12 Cord in pinch weld opening can be used
to work rubber gasket and windshield in position during
installation
FIGURE 15-15 (A) Windshield locking strip tool and
(8) installing a locking strip (Courtesy of Lisle Corp)
FIGURE 15-13 Pull the cord to slip the gasket lip over
IC The pinch wek farge. With
CamScanner
recommended by the manufacturer. Then there is
no doubt that the adhesive is strong enough to se.
cure the windshield properly.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ilable) is the safest

e hot or cold knife
Full Cut-out Method of
Installing Glass
This method involves the complete removal of all
the old adhesive sealer. To remove the glass, the ad-
hesive must be cut first. Several devices are available
to do this: a steel wire (piano wire), a hot knife, a
pneumatic knife, an electric knife, or a cold, fine
sharp knife. Fach device has its own advantages and
disadvantages. The pneumatic knife with a thin steel
blade is preferred by many technicians.
A 3-foot (914 mm) length of single strands
music wire (sinallest diameter available) is the
to use to prevent glass breakage. The hot or cold
can crack the glass in the areas where the reveal
ing clips are very close to the glass.
Prior to removing the glass, check that you ha
the correct replacement glass. Be sure to remove
the reveal and garnish moldings and other ac
ries such as wiper arms, rear view mirrors, and so
Also place protective covers inside as well as out
the vehicle in the general area of the glass to be te
placed. If a window defogger or windshield antenna
is installed, be sure to disconnect the appropriate elec
trical leads. Tape the defogger leads to the inside of
the glass. Tape the windshield antenna leads to the
outside of the glass.
The following procedure for replacing an
adhesive-bonded windshield uses both butyl rubber
tape and a urethane sealant.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1. If a steel wire is used to remove the glass, soften

the adhesive by using a heat gun. Cut excessive
adhesive from the glass edge to the pinch weld
with a sharp knife. Attach one end of the wire
to a wooden handle. Force the other end of the
wire through the adhesive and under the bot.
tom of the glass. Attach this end to a wooden
handle also. With one technician inside the ve-
hicle, work the wire back and forth to cut
through the sealant (Figure 15-16). Cut out the
bottom, the sides, and finally the top.
2. If a hot knife, such as the one shown in Figure
15-17, is used to remove the glass, cut excessive
adhesive from the edge of the glass to the pinch
weld. Insert a hot knife in the adhesive and keep
it as close to the glass as possible. Cut around
the entire perimeter of the glass (Figure 15-18).
To cut the adhesive at the corners of the glass,
move the handle of the tool as close to the cor-
ner as possible. Then rotate the tool to cus the
adhesive seal. Be careful not to twist the blade
of the knife because it will break. Use wedges
(wooden, plastic, and so on) if the adhesive tends
to reseal itself after being cut.
3. If a cold knife, as shown in Figure 15-19, is used
to remove the glass, cut excessive adhesive from
FIGURE 15-16 You can cut through windshield adhesive
with a piano wire. Be extremely careful not to cut your hand!
Glass Holding
Tool
Glass Remover
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Hot Knife
CAUTION
Remember to use caution and for
low all safety rules when working
with automotive glass. Wear eye
protection to guard against flying
bits of glass. Wear leather gloves
to prevent cuts. Plastic gloves
should be worn to keep adhesives
off your skin.
FIGURE 16-17 Windshield adhesive can also be cut
ha hot inte.ed with
CamScanner
Other Body Shop Repairs
585
Protective
Tape
Excess
Adhesive
Utility
nife
FIGURE 15-18 The
15-18 This technician is using a power knite to
ut a windshield for replacement. (Courtesy of Equalizer
Industries, Inc.)
Utility
Knife
MAIS
Cut
FIGURE 15-20 Cut the excess adhesive from the pinch
weld Flange.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 15-19 A cold knife is more difficult to use than

a hot knife. The stationary handle is for guiding the knife. The
pivoting handle is for pulling the knife in the desired direction
SHOP
TALK
A 3/16-inch (4.76 mm) maximum
OD aluminum rod with a notch cut
in one end can be used to thread
the wire through the seal.
Figure 15-22 shows a cold knife designed
to be driven with an air hammer. This knife even
cuts through tough urethane sealants with ease.
4. When the adhesive has been cut, remove the
glass and place it in a safe area if it is to be re-
used. If the glass has been damaged, remove as
required and discard. Be sure to wear safety
goggles and gloves when handling glass.
5. Position replacement windshield into opening.
Align for uniform fit and adjust setting blocks
(spacers) as needed. To allow for sufficient bond-
ing of urethane, make sure there is a minimum
of '/4 inch (6.4 mm) of glass, in addition to the
space that will be taken up by the butyl tape
around the entire perimeter of the glass. Mark
the position with a crayon or by applying mask-
ing tape to the windshield and car body (Figure
15-23). Slit the tape at the edge of the glass. Re-
move windshield.
6. Remove the remaining adhesive from the body
opening using a putty knife or scraper.
7. Inspect all reveal molding clips. Replace all bro-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

ken or rusted clips; if bent, straighten them.

8. Check the pinch weld flange for rust. Remove
any with a wire wheel or #50 grit sanding disc.
Treat the bare metal with a metal conditioner,
and prime the areas with a urethane primer
the edge of the glass to the pinch weld (Figure
15-20). Soften the adhesive by using a heat gun.
Insert the knife and pull it carefully through
the sealant (Figure 15-21). Tip the knife slightly
so that the forward edge of the blade scrapes
along the glass surface. Cut around the entire
perimeter of the glass. Sharpen the knife blade
as required.canner
Lasca
Move along glass.
Aligning Mark
Protective
Tape
Pull
FIGURE 15-23 Mark glass position with masking to
This will simplify installation.
FIGURE 15-21 Pull the cold knife carefully through the
adhesive without binding on the body or windshield.
11 NEW BRUSH
2 PAIMER FOR BODY
KCIJA
1 NEW BRUSH
2 PRIMER FOR GLASS
NCRO-1-1-A
FIGURE 15-22 A cold knife can be driven with an air
hammer if done carefully. This method should only be used
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

when the windshield is ruined and is going to be replaced.

The chances of breakage are too great otherwise. (Courtesy
of Lisle Corp.)
FIGURE 15-24 Primers are often recommended to
increase adhesion. (A) Body priner is being applied to inner
(B) Glass primer should be applied to area that accepts
adhesive. (Courtesy of General Motors Corp.!
SHOP
TALK
9. Clean the inside surface of the glass thoroughly
with a recommended glass cleaner and wipe dry
with a clean, lint-free cloth or towel. Note that
glass cleaners containing ammonia could con-
taminate surfaces to be painted. Use a recom-
mended product line so that all materials are
compatible.
Apply a uniform /2-inch (12.7 mm) wide
coat of urethane primer to the inside edge of
the glass (Figure 15-24). Allow primer to dry 1
CamScanner
If too much sealant is applied, ex-
cessive squeeze-out will occur. Tako
ing time to do the job correctly now
will minimize cleanup time later
(Figure 15-28).
10. Ensure the
(Figure 15-25).
10 minutes (see manufacturer's instructions
for suggested drying time).
ure the glass supports or spacers are in place
ure 15-25). Install new ones if necessary.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

nent the flat rubber spacers in place using

enough cement to attach them. The spacers
hould provide equal support around the perim-
er of the glass and those on the sides will keep
the glass from shifting left or right.
Windshield
11. If replacing butyl ribbon adhesive, apply the ap
propriate size of rectangular adhesive ribbon
sealer to the inside edge of the pinch weld
(Figure 15-261. Start in the center bottom of the
window opening to help avoid leakage. Do not
stretch the strip of sealer Cut the ends at a 45.
degree angle and butt together.
Apply a bead of urethane sealant around the
glass or the perimeter of the pinch weld flange
as shown in Figure 15-27. Cut the cartridge
nozzle at a 45-degree angle with an opening to
achieve a bead size slightly larger than the rib-
bon sealer. Apply the sealant directly behind the
ribbon sealer dam on the pinch weld. (Do not
apply sealant on antenna lead wires.)
13. With the help of an assistant and suction cups,
carefully position the glass in the body opening
using the masking tape as a guide. Be careful
not to smear the adhesive when positioning the
glass. Lay the glass in the body opening and press
firmly to properly seal the installation.
14. Paddle squeeze-out around the edge of the glass
and remove any excess urethane. If necessary,
paddle additional sealant between the glass and
the car body to fill voids. Remove masking tape
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and protective coverings.

15. If the glass has an imbedded antenna that uses a
butyi strip, put additional adhesive at the ends
of the strip to get a watertight seal.
16. Water check the installation with a soft water
spray. Do not use a direct water spray on the
Spacer
Windshield
Spacer
Screw
Spacer
SECTION A-A
SECTION B-B
FIGURE 15-25 When used, these are typical spacer
positions for a windshield.
2
Starting Point -
Preferred
Cut
New Urethane
45°
Flush 1/16"
Optional
Cut 45°
Ribbon Sealer
cs
SECTION - with
VIEW A
IGURE 18-26 Applying ribbon sealer as directed by
anufacturer
- Pinch Weld
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 15-27 Applying urethane adhesive following

service manual directions. (Courtesy of I-CAR)
CI
LIIBULIJ
he vehicle to pre-
fresh adhesive. Let water flow over the edges of
the glass. If a leak is found, apply additional seal-
ant at the leak point.
17. Install all necessary trim parts and attach the
antenna lead and/or defogger lead.
18. Allow the adhesive to cure the manufacturer's
recommended time, typically 6 to 8 hours or
more at room temperature, before the vehicle is
returned to its owner. However, since the rib-
bon sealer will hold the windshield in place
while the urethane is curing, the car can be
moved immediately.
ter of the glass.
into the exist-
the entire perim-
vite, cut out the
Partial Cut-out Method of
Installing Glass
If the partial cut-out method is to be used to install
the glass, thoroughly inspect the remaining adhe-
sive first before attempting the procedure. There must
be sufficient adhesive remaining in the pinch weld
to give adequate clearance between the body and the
glass. This remaining adhesive must be tightly
bonded to the pinch weld so that a good base exists
for the new adhesive to be added.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Also check for rust under the adhesive. If it ex-

ists, the adhesive must be removed and the pinch
weld ground down and refinished. Extensive rusting
will require the technician to resort to the full cut-
out method of installing glass.
If the original glass is to be reinstalled, remove
all traces of adhesive from the glass and clean the
areas with either denatured alcohol or approved sol-
vent to clean any residual adhesive from the edge of
the glass.
To replace a windshield using the partial
out method, do the following:
1. Place protective coverings on the vehicle to
vent damage to the paint or interior.
Remove windshield wiper arms, trim, antenna ar
so on to expose the entire perimeter of the
3. Using a utility knife, make a cut into the
ing urethane sealant around the entire
eter of glass. Cut as close to the edge of the ol
as possible.
4. Using a cut-out knife or piano wire, cut ou
glass, keeping your tool as close to the
possible. Remove the windshield. Trim any
spots on the urethane bed to assure a flat sur
face. The remaining adhesive should be approxi.
mately /32 inch (2.38 mm) thick.
5. Inspect the reveal molding clips for damage
Replace any clips if necessary.
6. Select the proper type of adhesive that will be
compatible with the adhesive used on the body
pinch welds. Refer to manufacturer recommen-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

dations on the type and amount of adhesive

to use.
7. Replace lower glass supports or spacers where
applicable.
8. With the help of an assistant, position the glass
in the body opening. Ensure that the gap is equal
on both sides and that there is ample clearance
on the top. Lower or raise the lower supports or
spacers as required to get the correct placement
of the glass.
9. Apply two pieces of masking tape from the bot-
tom portion of the glass to the body about 6 to
8 inches (152 to 203 mm) in from the corner
16-17 mm
(0.63-0.69 In.)
10-11 mm
(0.39-0.43 in.)
UPPER & RHLH
SIDE
0
I 11 mm
(0.43 In.)
10-12 mm
(0.39-
0.47 in.)
TITATII,
LOWER SIDE
11 mm
24-25 mm
(0.94-0.98 in.)
(0.43 in.)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

William
WIE
FIGURE 15-2B Here is a typical service manu
OR Here is a typical service manual illustration giving specifics for applving alass
adhesive. (Courtesy
mere
Motors Corp.)
CamScanner
(Courtesy of General
FIGURE 15-29 Slowly lower the windshield into place without smearing and breaking
the bead of adhesive.
15. With the help of an assistant, install the glass
into the body opening. Place the glass on the
lower supports or spacers with the masking tape
strips properly aligned. (See Steps 5 and 6 above.)
16. Open the vehicle front doors. Place one hand
Inside the opening and gently set the glass in
position. Use suction cups to control glass move-
ment. An alternate method is to rest the glass
on the lower supports or spacers. Then one tech-
nician can go inside the vehicle and help posi-
tion the glass.
17. Firmly press the glass in place to set the adhe-
sive material (Figure 15-29).
Repeat this procedure at the top of the glass. Use
a razor blade or knife to cut the masking tape
strips and remove the glass. The tape strips will
help align the glass when reinstalling it.
10. Using a clean, dry, lint-free cloth, clean the sur-
face of the urethane sealer remaining on the
pinch weld. Replace the butyl tape strip in the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

antenna area with a new piece of butyl tape.

11. Clean the inside surface of the windshield thor-
oughly with an ammonia-frec, noncontami-
nating glass cleaner. Wipe dry with a clean,
lint-free cloth or towel. Apply a uniform /2-inch
(12.7 mm) wide coat of urethane primer to the
inside edge of the glass. Allow primer to dry 3 to
5 minutes. Also apply adhesive primer to the ex-
isting or remaining adhesive.
12. If the windshield contains an antenna, place a
piece of butyl tape about 8 inches (203 mm) from
the antenna pigtail. Do not use urethane or
primer near the pigtail because it will interfere
with radio reception.
13. Apply the manufacturer-recommended, new
adhesive directly over the existing adhesive.
14. Apply masking tape about 4 inch (6.4 mm) from
the outer edge of the inside of the glass on the
top and both sides. This will aid the cleanup
process when the glass is installed. Apply a
srnooth bead of the adhesive around the outer
end of the glass or to the pinch weld.
Sealant
Spacer
FIGURE 15-30 Smooth the glass adhesive with a putty
knife
18. If adhesive was placed in the pinch weld, a dark
line in the glass will indicate a sealed area. The
dark line should go completely around the glass.
Any light spots that appear will indicate im-
proper sealing.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

19. If cartridge-type adhesive was used, the adhe-

sive can be smoothed out along the edge of the
glass (Figure 15-30).
20. Water test the installation using a fine water
spray. Do not use a direct flow of water on the
fresh adhesive. Correct leaks by adding addi-
tional adhesive in the applicable areas.
21. Install necessary trim and moldings and connect
the antenna and/or defogger pigtails as applicable.
22. Clean excess adhesive from the glass area or
body.
23. Allow the adhesive to cure for 6 to 8 hours be-
fore moving the vehicle.
20 mm (0.79 in)
Blade stay
Projection
FIGURE 15-31 (A) When installing windshield wiper
arms, make sure they are adjusted properly. (B) Most wiper
refills are installed by compressing the small spring on the end
of the arm. (Courtesy of Isuzu Motor Corp.)
WINDSHIELD WIPER SERVICE
The windshield wipers must often be serviced. The
wiper arms may be held in place by spring clips or
nuts. With spring clips, you must normally lift up
on the end of the spring under the arm. This will
free the arm for removal. A special tool is also avail-
able for spring tension mounted wiper arm removal.
If a nut is used, a cover over the nut must be pivoted
upward or popped off. Then you can remove the re-
taining nut and wiper arm.
When installing windshield wiper arms, make
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sure they are adjusted properly. Specs are usually given

for the arms in the down position (Figure 15-31A). By
cngaging the arm into different teeth on the drive
shaft, you can change the adjustment. Operate the
wipers to make sure they are adjusted correctly and
do not sweep too far one way or the other.
If the wiper blades must be replaced, disengage
them from the wiper arm (Figure 15-31B). A small
spring on the end of the blade must often be en-
gaged into the arm.
1 MASKING TAPE
2 BROKEN WIRE
3 WOOD SPATULA
4 REPAIR AGENT
KWINTAS
FIGURE 15-32 Some glass defrost elements can
nt Masking
repaired using a special agent that conducts current. More
tape is used as a guide for applying the agent. (Courtesy
General Motors Corp.)
REMOVING AND REPLACING
REAR WINDOWS
The removal and replacement procedures for rear
windows and many stationary side windows follow
the same methods rather closely. Methods can vary
slightly for different vehicle makes. However, many
of the operations that are applied to one make of
vehicle can readily be applied to others.
On some vehicles, the rear windows are removed
toward the inside of the vehicle rather than to the
outside. This procedure requires the removal of cer-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tain interior trim parts and accessories and the use

of a special knife. For this type of glass removal, con-
sult the manufacturer's service manual for specific
procedures.mScanner
Some heating elements built onto rear glass cal
be repaired when damaged. A special electrica
ductive adhesive is used to bridge the gap
breaks in the heating element (Figure 15-5
You can reattach broken antenna and
element wires by soldering. Refer to the
manual for details.
he gap in an
gure 15-32).
nerna and heatin
Refer to the servic
Instrument
Panel
Warning Light
Diagnostic and
Energy Reserve
Module
Discriminating
and Arming
Sensor
Forward Sensor
Inflator
Module
Fuse Block
Knee Diverter
Steering Column Assembly
FIGURE 15-62 Study air bag system components.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

WARNING)
SORR
Aftermarket child seats may not be
suitable for use in the front seat
with an air bag system. Some seats
locate the child too close to the air
bag. Also, NEVER place a child seat
in the front seat facing rearward in
a vehicle equipped with airbags.
Injury or death to the child could
result from bag deployment. Warn
your customers of this danger!
AIR BAG SYSTEMS
An air bag system automatically deploys a large ny-
lon bag during frontal collisions (Figure 15-62). One
or more air bags can be used. The driver's side air bag
deploys from the steering wheel center pad. The pas-
senger side air bag deploys from behind a small door
in the right side of the dash. Side impact air bags may
be used in the door panels or seats to protect against
side impact injury.
While the location and design of the air bag sys-
tem varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, all
air bag systems have similar parts. These include the
following:
1. Air bag module (inflator mechanism and nylon
bag that expands to protect driver or passenger
during collision)
2. Air bag system sensors (inertia sensors that signal
computer of collision)
3. Air bag control unit (computer that operates sys-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

tem and detect faults)

4, Air bag harness (wiring and connectors that link
system parts)
5. Air bag warning lamp (dash bulb that warns of
system problem)
components are packaged in a single container
mounted in the center of the steering wheel pad or
dash. This entire assembly must be serviced as one
unit when repair of the air bag systern is required.
The air bag is a strong nylon bag attached to
the metal frame of the module. Vent holes or a po-
rous fabric in the bag allow for rapid deflation after
deployment.
Inflation of the air bag is caused by an explosive
release of gas. In osder for the rapid expansion to
occur, a chemical reaction must be started. This is
done by the air bag igniter. The igniter is a two-
pin bridge device that is activated when it receives a
signal from the air bag monitor in the form of an
electrical current. When the electrical current is
The air bag module is composed of the ny-
con bag and an igniter-inflator mechanism enclosed
In a metal or plastic housing. All air bag module
Camscanner
BEFORE DEPLOYMENT /
Air Bag
Module
Knee
Restraint
applied, it arcs across the two pins, creating a spark
that ignites a propellant charge. Once ignited, the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

propellant charge generates a large amount of gas

extremely rapidly. This gas is what fills the air bag
(Figure 15-63).
Almost as soon as the bag is filled, the gas is cooled
and vented, thus deflating the assembly as the colli-
sion energy is absorbed (Figure 15-64). The driver is
cradled in the envelope of the supplemental restraint
bag instead of being propelled forward to strike the
steering wheel or be otherwise injured by follow-up
inertia energy from seat belts. In addition, there is
some facial protection against flying objects.
It is important to remember that the tandem
action of at least one main sensor and a safing sen-
sor will activate the system. The microcontroller also
provides failure data and trouble codes for use in ser-
vicing various aspects of most systems.
AFTER DEPLOYMENT
DURING RESTRAINT
END OF CRASH
Air Bag Sensors
Two or more sensors are used in air bag systeins:
impact sensors and arming sensors.
Impact sensors are the first sensors to detect
a collision because they are mounted at the front of
the vehicle. Impact sensors are usually located in the
engine compartment, while the safing sensor is usu-
ally located in the passenger compartment.
The safing or arming sensor ensures that the
particular collision is severe enough to require that
the air bag be deployed.
Both impact and arming sensors are inertia sen-
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sors. Inertia sensors detect a rapid deceleration to

produce an electrical signal. Some air bag sensors have
a small metal ball held in place by a permanent mag-
net. The sensor ball is thrown forward by the inertia
of the collision. It then touches two electrical termi-
nals that close the sensor circuit to the computer.
Another air bag sensor design uses a weight at-
tached to a coil spring. During impact, the weight is
thrown forward. This overconnes spring tension and
FIGURE 15-63 Note the crash sequence of a typical bir
bag system.
closes the sensor contact. It also closes the circuit to
signal the computer of a possible collision
Both the impact sensor and a safing sensor must
close at the same time for air bag inflation. They work
together to provide a fail-safe system to prevent ac.
cidental air bag deployment. When both an impact
sensor and a safing sensor close, the diagnostic con.
trol module sends a signal to the igniter, which starts
a chemical reaction to inflate the bag.
Passenger side air bags are very
SHOP
similar in design to the driver's unit.
TALK The actual amount of gas required
to inflate the bag is much greater
because the bag must span the
extra distance between the occu-
pant and the dashboard at the
passenger seating location. The
steering wheel and column make
up this difference on the driver's
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

I side. Side air bags are smaller and require less

Inropellant. Scanner
1 RT-E-DEC-233
CAUTION
Even with the battery disconnected.
the reserve module can fire the air
bag. If you are working near the
bag, serious injury could result.
HAPTER
Resto
Corrosion Protection
INTRODUCTION
Corrosion protection involves using various ma-
terials to protect steel body parts from rusting. When
doing repairs, you must always use recommended
methods of protecting repair areas from rust dam-
age. Rustproofing is often a joint task or effort of both
the collision repair and paint technicians.
With the recent developments in the automo-
tive industry, the words "corrosion prevention" have
taken on new meaning to body shop personnel:
• Corrosion prevention differs from rust-
proofing, undercoating, and sound deadening.
Corrosion prevention implies a vehicle lifetime
maintenance responsibility to the consumer.
Rustproofing, undercoating, and sound deaden-
ing suggest a one-time application to the new
vehicle by car dealerships and rustproofing
franchises.
• Car manufacturers are including in their owne
manual instructions and recommendations for
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sheet metal repair or replacement. They suggest

that the body shop should apply an anticorto-
sive material to the part repaired or replaced so
that corrosion protection is restored.
• In affiliation with the Inter Industry Conference
on Auto Collision Repair (I-CAR), the insurance
companies are promoting corrosion prevention
repair to the body shops.
• The increased usage of replacement panels in the
body shops requires widespread corrosion pre-
vention treatment.
Possibly the major reason, however, is the ad-
vent of the unibody car. In unibody construction,
the car's body panels are no longer cosmetic sheet
metal. They now constitute the structural integrity
of the vehicle. This means that rust is not just an
"eyesore." The unibody car has more welded joints
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
✓ Define corrosion and describe the common
factors involved in rust formation.
✓ Describe the anticorrosive materials used to
prevent and retard rust formation.
✓ Explain the conditions and events that lead to
corrosion on a vehicle body.
✓ Choose the correct anticorrosive application
equipment for specific applications.
✓ Outline the correct corrosion treatment proce
dures for each of the four general corrosion
treatment areas.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

✓ List the four types of seam sealers and explain

where each should be used.
✓ Answer ASE test questions about corrosion
protection materials and methods.
CamScanner
KEY TERMS
acid rain
anticorrosion
compound
anticorrosion
compounds
antirust agents
body sealer
brushable seam
sealers
corrosion prevention
corrosion protection
epoxy primers
galvanic corrosion
galvanizing
heavy bodied sealers
industrial fallout
metal treating
rust
rust converters
solid seam sealers
thin-bodied sealers
undercoating
weld-through primer
OUR
633
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Restoring Corrosion Protection

A53
ASE TASK LIST
Job Skills covered in this chapter include:
OAINTING AND REFINISHING TEST (B2)
TASK LIST
A. Surface Preparation
4. Remove paint finish.
13. Clean area to be refinished using a proper
cleaning solution.
19. Restore corrosion resistant coatings, caulking.
and seam sealers to repaired areas.
NONSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE
REPAIR TEST (B3) TASK LIST
A. Preparation
9. Remove corrosion protection, undercoatings.
sealers, and other protective coatings as
necessary to perform repairs.
B. Spray Gun Operation and Related Equipment
1. Inspect, clean, and determine condition and
adequacy of spray guns and related equipment
(air hoses, regulator, air lines, air source, and
spray environment).
3. Adjust spray gun using fluid and pattern control
valves.
B. Outer Body Panel Repairs, Replacements,
and Adjustments
1. Determine the extent of the direct and indirect
damage and the direction of impact: plan the
methods and order of repair.
12. Apply protective coatings and sealants to restore
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

corrosion protection.
16. Restore sealers, mastic, sound deadeners, and
foam fillers.
C. Paint Mixing, Matching, and Applying
8. Sand, buff, and polish finishes where necessary.
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND DAMAGE REPAIR
TEST (B4) TASK LIST
A. Frame Inspection and Repair
9. Restore corrosion protection to repaired or
replaced frame areas.
D. Solving Paint Application Problems
3. Identify contaminants in the painted surface:
determine the source(s), and correct the
condition.
9. Identify an overspray condition; determine the
causes), and correct the condition.
B. Unibody Inspection, Measurement, and
Repair
17. Restore corrosion protection to repaired or
replaced unibody structural areas.
E. Finish Defects, Causes, and Cures
1. Identify poor adhesion; determine the cause(s).
and correct the condition.
16.1 WHAT IS CORROSION?
in critical structural areas where corrosion can do
serious damage. It is an ever present danger to the
unibody vehicle since rusting of structural panels and
rails can affect the drivability of the car and the safety
of its passengers.
If you fail to restore proper corro-
sion protection, it can endanger the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CAUTION driver and passengers of the ve-

hicle. After prolonged service, rust
could weaken the body structure.
This could cause failure of the body
where it supports the suspension
components. The vehicle could
become unstable and dangerous to
Stannarive because of this rust.
CamScanner
Corrosion or rust is the oxidation and chemical
change of metal. When it occurs on steel, it is the
product of a complex chemical reaction with serious
and costly consequences (Figure 16-1). In other
words, the formula for rust in a car body is:
Iron + Oxygen + Electrolyte = Rust (Iron Oxide)
Chemical corrosion requires three elements
(Figure 16-2):
• Exposed metal
• Oxygen
• Moisture (electrolyte)
There are three basic types of corrosion protec-
tion used on today's automobiles:
. Galvanizing or zinc coating
• Paint
• Anticorrosion compounds
LOJLERI
Rus!
Moisture
Protective
Coating
Steel
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 16-2 Breakdown in protective paint coat

causes rapid rust corrosion formation
fold protective process.
FIGURE 16-1 This close-up shows a car's number one
enemy ust.
Galvanizing is a process of coating steel with
zinc (Figure 16-3). It is one of the principal methods
of corrosion protection applied during the manufac-
turing process. On galvanized steel, the zinc forms a
natural barrier between the steel and the atmosphere.
As the zinc corrodes, a layer of zinc oxide will form
on the surface. Unlike iron oxide, or rust, the zinc
oxide adheres to the zinc coating tightly, forming a
barrier between the zinc and the atmosphere.
When the surface of the vehicle's finish is dam-
aged by a scratch or nick, the zinc coating undergoes
corrosion, sacrificing itself to protect the iron under
it. The resulting zinc oxide actually forms a pro
tive coating and repairs the exposed area of these
Thus, zinc performs a two-fold protective D
First, it provides chemical, galvanic protection.a
second, it forms a repair over the exposed steel with
a layer of zinc oxide.
A paint system, such as those described in later
chapters of this book, also provides a barrier between
the atmosphere and the steel surface. When this bar
rier is in place (Figure 16-4), the moisture and impu.
rities in the air cannot interact with the steel surface
and the steel is protected from corrosion.
If the paint surface or barrier is broken by a stone
chip or scratch, the steel in this area is no longer
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

isolated from the moisture and impurities in the air

Corrosion will then take place in this region. Corto-
sion will spread between the paint and steel surface.
If the adhesion of the paint to the steel is poor, large
sections of the paint can be separated from the steel.
BODY
PRODUCTION
PLANT
A
‫بیا رلیا‬
B. Hol-
D. Shower
E. Shower
D
C. Degreasing
A. Hot-Water
Wash
Wash
F Surface
Adjustment
Dryer
L. Drying
K. Final J. Shower
H. Shower
Rinse
I Shower
G. Zinc
Phosphate
Treatment
FIGURE 16-3 Zinc cortosion treatment utilizing the full dip method as done by a vehicle
manufacturer's body production
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

technician: (A) and (B) Metal chips, dirt, and other foreign particles are washed off with
hot water at 100 to 125 degrees
Fahrenheit (36 to 52 Celsius): (C) Press oil and anticorrosion oil are removed with a
weak alkah degreasing agent. (D] and Ele
sinn agent is washed off with water in two stages; IF The nucleus of the zinc phosphate
film is adhered to the panel
surfaces: (G) The body is dipped into a tank of zinc phosphate for crystallization: IHL
and
th, Uand (J) The zinc phosphate liquids washed
of by water in three stages (K] The body is given a nnal hinse to prevent blistering: (L)
The body is dried at 212 300 degrees
Palvenheit (100 to 149 degrees Celsius). Courtesy of Toyota Motor Corp
This will result
unprotected. s.
follow. It im
and the steel,
paint, reacting wi
form rust. In the
the steel surface
will result in a large area of the steel being left
cted. Severe rust in this region will quickly
It impurities are present between the paint
steel, owgen in the air can pass through the
acting with the impurities and the steel to
st. In this case, corrosion will take place on
el surface and the protective paint barrier will
FIGURE 16-4 Paint is the first and most important
barrier against comosion on the vehicle. (Courtesy of Tech-Cor)
be destroyed. Paint, by itself, is only effective as long
as the paint film remains intact.
Anticorrosion compounds are additional
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

coatings applied over and under the paint film. Pro-

tective coatings can be applied either by the manu-
facturer or as an aftermarket process. The two most
popular types of anticorrosion coatings are
• Petroleum-based compounds
• Wax-based compounds
Anticorrosion compounds are primarily used in
enclosed body sections (Figure 16-5) and other rust-
prone areas.
The auto manufacturers are increasing their cor-
rosion protection measures all the time. New pro-
cesses and methods, including the use of coated
steels, zinc-rich primers, and more durable base coat-
ings, have made it possible for modern cars to sur-
vive corrosive forces for longer periods than before.
The following is a typical new car finish-
ing sequence (Figure 16-6) used by major auto
manufacturers:
1. Use coated or galvanized steel (Figure 16-7).
2. Chemically clean and rinse.
3. Apply conversion coating.
4. Apply epoxy primer.
5. Bake primer.
6. Seam seal process.
7. Apply primer-surfacer.
8. Apply colorcoats.
9. Bake colorcoats.
10. Apply anticorrosion materials.
Because of these better procedures, corrosion
protection warranties (Figure 16-8) of several years
are common. With these dramatic improvements in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

the performance of OEM products, the repair indus-

try must rise to the challenge of producing corro-
sion resistance in repaired areas that matches or
exceeds the durability of the original product. Re-
pair work that does not stand up will draw attention
to itself next to the outstanding durability of any
original finishes. It can also draw liability challenges
where issues of vehicle safety are involved.
FIGURE 18-5 Anticorrosion material is being applied by
auto body technician. (Courtesy of Tech-Cor)
Finish Coat
System
Epoxy
Primer
Conversion
Coating
GE
Lan
SHOP
TALK
Primer-
Surfacer
Remember that you, the body shop
technician, are responsible for the
quality and durability of the com-
pleted repairs. Remember that the
customer is entitled to a car re-
stored to the way it was before the
damage occurred.
Galvanizing
Base
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

canned wit Metal

CIGURE 16-6 Note typical makeup of corrosion
pinevention material used by car manufacturers.
primers work best on lightly sanded surfaces
where a slight-to-moderate amount of filling is
required. They must be applied as directed by the
manufacturer
• Two-part epoxy primers. Two-part epoxy
primers provide very strong base coating with
good adhesion to bare metal. They are mixed
together and cure very quickly, which helps pre-
vent corrosion by more tightly bonding the coat-
ing over the metal.
• Rust Converters change ferrous (red) iron
oxide to ferric (black/blue) iron oxide. Rust con-
verters also contain some type of latex emulsion
which seals the surface after the conversion is
complete. These products offer an interesting
alternative for areas that cannot be completely
cleaned. However, some manufacturers do not
recommend the use of rust converters.
GURE 16-18 Applying a typical body sealer or sealant
often done with a cartridge-type dispenser
SHOP
TALK
Be sure to carefully read the
manufacturer's instructions on the
container (Figure 16-20) and fol-
low them. Failure to follow direc-
tions can lead to failure of your
repair!
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 16-19 When applying a typical antirust agent,

wear eye protection and a respirator mask.
New and better anticorrosion materials are con-
stantly appearing on the automotive market. For
example, a new line of anticorrosives is available that
is effective for coating over existing rusted areas and
retarding any further corrosion. This type of prod-
uct can be helpful on repairs of older vehicles or re-
pairs involving salvaged parts.
Be sure to check trade publications, I-CAR
bulletins, manufacturer's representatives, and auto-
motive suppliers for updated information on anti-
corrosion materials.
FIGURE 16-20 Always read the manufacturer's
instructions and literature before using any chemical product.
applied to clean surfaces. Most weld-through
primers have poor adhesion qualities. Do not
overuse them, and always follow directions
closely. Weld-through primer can be applied to
galvanic mating surfaces where the coating was
removed during repair. After welding, remove
the excess primer.
Self-etching primers. Self-etching primers etch the
bare metal to improve paint adhesion and corro-
sion resistance, while providing the priming and
Wlling properties of primer-surfacers. Self-etching
CORROSION
PROTECTION SAFETY
As with other materials used in collision repair, the
use of corrosion protection materials requires that
you follow safety rules. The most basic rules are the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

following:
1. Wear gloves and avoid skin contact. Epoxy sys-
tems can create skin irritation.
2. If skin contact has occurred, wash hands with
soap and hot water. Then apply a skin cream.
3. If adhesive accidentally contacts the eyes, wash
immediately with clean water for 15 minutes.
Then consult a physician.
4. Be sure to work in a well-ventilated area and wear
a respirator. Spot welding in weld-bond joints
can generate gases that can be harmful if inhaled.
16.4 BASIC SURFACE
PREPARATION
Surface preparation is one of the most important steps
in assuring long-term corrosion resistance of body
panels and other metal parts. Without the proper
surface (especially bare metal), the rest of the repair
procedure and refinishing efforts will be futile. A
common system generally consists of the following
three-step process called metal treating.
• Cleaning to remove contaminants. Use a wax and
grease remover to dissolve and float off oily, greasy
film as well as other contaminants from the sur-
face. Apply the remover with a clean, white cloth
(Figure 16-21). Work small arcas of no more than
2 to 3 square feet (0.6 to 0.9 square meters). Wet
the surface liberally and keeping it wet, use a
second cloth to wipe the surface to remove the
contaminants. Turn the cloth frequently while
drying the surface (Figure 16-22).
• Cleaning with metal conditioner. A metal conditioner
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

is a phosphoric acid used to etch bare sheet metal

before priming. It is a chemical cleaner that re-
moves rust and corrosion from bare metal and
helps prevent further rusting.
Remeniber the following about metal
conditioners:
1. Acid cleans the metal.
2. It dissolves light surface rust.
3. Y etches metal, improving adhesion.
4. It needs to be completely neutralized with
water after applying.
5. It may have to be diluted, following prod.
uct directions.
6. It is always followed by conversion coating.
7. Wear rubber gloves and eye protection.
Dilute the conditioner with water in a
plastic bucket according to label instructions
(Figure 16-23) and apply it to the metal. A spray
bottle is often recommended (Figure 16-24).
Then rinse with clear water and wipe dry with a
clean cloth.
• Applying conversion coatings. The conversion coat-
ing forms a zinc phosphate coating that is chemi-
cally bonded to the metal. This layer makes an
ideal surface for the primer and prevents rust
from creeping under the paint. Use conversion
coatings on galvanized and uncoated steels and
aluminum. Be sure to use the correct product
for each type of surface. Pour the appropriate
conversion coating into a plastic bucket and mix
with water according to the instructions on the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

container (Figure 16-25). Using a spray bottle,

apply the coating to the metal surface. Then
FIGURE 16-21 Saturate a clean, white cloth with wax
and grease remover.
FIGURE 16-22 Use the saturated cloth to remove wax
and grease to assure good adhesion of anticorrosion materials.
CamScanner
FIGURE 16-23 You must sometimes dilute a melal
conditioner with clean water. Follow the label directions!
OLUN
21.1 PAINTING PROBLEMS
from atmospheric contamination in the presence of
moisture. This problem is found on older finishes
that have been exposed to industrial pollution.
Acid and Alkali Spotting
Prevention
1. Keep finish away from contaminated atmo-
sphere.
2. Immediately following contamination, the sur-
face should be vigorously flushed with cool wa-
ter and detergent.
Most refinishing problems can usually be repaired,
but this rework requires time and money. There-
fore, it is wise to prevent common paint problems
before they occur. Unfortunately, there is a variety
of causes for defects in a paint finish. They usually
originate in the preparation of the base metal, the
painting procedure, the paint ingredients, the envi-
ronment, and external influences.
If you see paint defects while spraying, you must
decide whether to stop work immediately or wait
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

until the painting is finished to correct them. This

depends on the type and extent of the problem. For
example, if there is poor, wavy bodywork, stop right
away. If the problem is a small piece of dust in the
paint, keep spraying. You can normally fix this sur-
face imperfection after the paint cures.
One of the best ways to reduce the likelihood of
defects occurring is to closely follow the proper fun-
damental painting procedures outlined in the paint
manufacturer's instructions.
NOTE: Refer to the color insert in the middle of this
textbook for color examples of paint problems.
Acid and Alkali Spotting Solution
1. Wash with detergent water and follow with a
vinegar bath.
2. Sand and refinish. You might try wet sanding
and compounding if there is only minor
spotting.
3. If contamination has reached the metal or sub-
strate, the spot must be sanded down to the
metal before refinishing.
ACID AND ALKALI SPOTTING
Acid and alkali spotting cause an obvious discol-
oration of the surface. Various paint pigments react
differently when in contact with acids or alkalies
(Figure 21-1).
BLEEDING
Bleeding is the original finish discoloring-or seep-
ing through-the new topcoat color (Figure 21-2).
Acid and Alkali Spotting Causes
The cause of acid and alkali spotting is a chemical
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

change of pigments. This chemical change results

Bleeding Causes
Bleeding is caused by contamination, usually in the
form of soluble dyes or pigments on the older finish
before it was repainted. (This is especially true with
older shades of red.)
CEGURE 21-4 This is a close-up of acid or alkali spotting
of paint. (Courtesy of Ang Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 21-2 This paint has suffered from bleeding.
(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
4. Contamination of compressed air lines. Oil,
water, or dirt in lines.
Bleeding Prevention
Thoroughly clean areas to be painted before sand-
ing, especially when applying lighter colors over
darker colors. (Avoid using lighter colors over older
shades of red without sealing first.)
Blistering Prevention
Bleeding Solution
Apply two medium coats of bleeder sealer. Seal in
accordance with label instructions. Then reapply
colorcoat.
1. Thoroughly clean areas to be painted before
sanding. Be sure surface is completely dry be-
fore applying either undercoats or topcoats. Do
not touch a cleaned area because the oils in the
hands will contaminate the surface.
2. Select the thinner or reducer most suitable for
existing shop conditions.
3. Allow proper drying time for undercoats and
topcoats. Be sure to let each coat flash before
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

applying the next.

Drain and clean air pressure regulator daily to
remove trapped moisture and dirt. Air compres-
sor tank should also be drained daily.
BLISTERING
Blistering shows up as small, swelled areas on the
finish, like water blisters on human skin. There will
be a lack of gloss if the blisters are small. You will
find broken-edged craters if the blisters have burst
(Figure 21-3).
Blistering Solution
If damage is extensive and severe, paint must be re-
moved down to undercoat or metal, depending on
the depth of the blisters. Then refinish. In less severe
cases, blisters can be sanded out, resurfaced, and
retopcoated.
Blistering Causes
1. Improper surface cleaning or preparation. Tiny
specks of dirt left on the surface can act as
sponges and hold moisture. When the finish is
exposed to the sun (or abrupt changes in atmo-
spheric pressure), moisture cxpands and builds
up pressure. If the pressure is great enough, blis-
ters form.
2. Wrong thinner or reducer. Use of a fast-dry thin-
ner or reducer, especially when the material is
sprayed too dry or at an excessive pressure. Air
or moisture can be trapped in the film.
3. Excessive film thickness. Insufficient drying time
between coats or too heavy application of the
undercoats can trap solvents that escape later
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and blister the colorcoat.

BLUSHING
Blushing is a problem that makes the finish turn
"Inilky looking" (Figure 21-4).
Blushing Causes
1. In hot humid weather, moisture droplets be-
come trapped in the wet paint film. Air cur-
rents from the spray gun and the evaporation
FIGURE 21-4 Blushing makes the paint look milky.
(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 1-3 Here is a blistering paint problem
(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
CamScanner
of the thinner or reducer tend to make the sur-
face being sprayed lower in temperature than
the surrounding atmosphere. This causes mois-
ture in the air to condense on the wet paint film.
2. Excessive air pressure.
3. Using too fast a thinner or reducer.
have no control over local road conditions-and thus
cannot prevent such occurrences-they can take steps
to minimize the effects if they know beforehand that
these conditions will exist. (For details on the causes
prevention, and solution for chipping, see Peeling.)
Blushing Prevention
1. In hot humid weather try to schedule painting
early in the morning when temperature and
humidity conditions are more suitable.
2. Use proper gun adjustments and techniques.
3. Select the thinner or reducer that is suitable for
existing shop conditions.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CRACKING
Cracking is a series of deep cracks resembling mud
cracks in a dry pond. Often in the form of three-
legged stars and in no definite pattern, they usually
go through the colorcoat and sometimes the under-
coat as well.
Blushing Solution
Add retarder to the thinned or reduced color and
apply additional coats.
Cracking Causes
1. Excessive film thickness. Excessively thick top-
coats magnify normal stresses and strains that
can result in cracking even under normal
conditions.
2. Materials not uniformly mixed.
3. Insufficient flash time.
4. Incorrect use of additive.
CHALKING
Chalking is a problem that causes a lack of gloss on
the paint surface. Extreme cases will show up as a
powdery surface.
Chalking Causes Other Than
Normal Exposure)
1. Wrong thinner or reducer, which can harm top
coat durability.
2. Materials not uniforinly mixed.
3. Starved paint film.
4. Excessive mist coats when finishing a metallic
color application.
Cracking Prevention
1. Do not pile on topcoats. Allow sufficient flash
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

and dry time between coats. Do not dry by gun

fanning.
2. Stir all pigmented undercoats and topcoats thor-
oughly. Strain and add fisheye eliminator to top-
coats where necessary.
3. Repeat.
4. Road and carefully follow label instructions.
Additives not specifically designed for a colorcoat
can wcaken the final paint film and make it more
susceptible to cracking.
Chalking Prevention
1. Select the thinner or reducer that is best suited
for existing shop conditions.
2. Stir all pigmented undercoats and topcoats thor-
oughly.
3. Meet or slightly exceed minimum fiim thickness.
4. Apply metallic color as evenly as possible so that
misting is not required. When mist coats are
necessary to even out flake, avoid using straight
reducer.
Cracking Solution
The affected areas must be sanded to a smooth fin-
ish or, in extreme cases, removed down to the bare
metal and refinished.
LINE CHECKING
Line checking is similar to cracking, except that
the lines or cracks are more parallel and range from
very short up to about 18 inches (Figure 21-5).
Chalking Solution
Remove surface in affected area by sanding, then
clean and refinish.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

CHIPPING
Chipping is a condition where small chips of a fin-
ish lose adhesion to the substrate, usually caused by
tenpact of stories or hard objects. While refinishers
CamScanner
Line Checking Causes
1. Excessive film thickness.
2. Improper surface preparation. Oftentimes caused
by the application of a new finish over an old
film that had cracked and was not completely
removed.
FIGURE 21-5 Note this line checking problem.
(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 21-6 Crazing looks something like bird tracks.
(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
Line Checking Prevention
1. Do not pile on topcoats. Allow sufficient flash
and dry time. Do not dry by gun fanning.
2. Thoroughly clean areas to be painted before
sanding. Be sure the surface is completely dry
before applying any undercoats or topcoats.
and literally shatters under the softening action
of the solvents being applied.
3. OEM lacquer crazes due to age and temperature
extremes.
Line Checking Solution
Remove the colorcoat down to the primer and apply
a new colorcoat.
Crazing Prevention
1. Select the thinner or reducer that is suitable for
existing shop conditions.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

2. Schedule painting to avoid temperature and

humidity extremes in the shop or between the
temperature of the shop and the job.
3. Bring the vehicle to room temperature before
refinishing
MICROCHECKING
Microchecking appears as severe dulling of the
film, but when exainined with a magnifying glass, it
contains many small, microscopic cracks.
Microchecking Causes
Microchecking is the beginning of film breakdown
and might be an indication that film failures such as
cracking or crazing will develop.
Crazing Solution
1. Continue to apply wet coats of topcoat to melt
the crazing and flow pattern together, using the
wettest/slowest possible solvent that shop con-
ditions will allow.
2. Use a fast-flashing thinner, which will allow a
bridging of subsequent topcoats over the craz-
ing area. (This is one case where bridging is a
cure and not a cause for trouble.)
3. If OEM lacquer, remove the old, crazed finish.
Then repaint the vehicle.
Microchecking Solution
Sand off the colorcoat to remove the cracks; then
recoat as required.
DIRT IN FINISH
Dirt in finish simply means foreign particles dried in
the paint film.
CRAZING
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Crazing results in fine splits or small cracks-often

called crows-feet--that completely checker an area
in an irregular manner (Figure 21-6). This problem
was common with older lacquer finishes.
Dirt in Finlah Causes
1. Improper solvent cleaning, blowing off, and tack
rag wiping of the surface to be painted.
2. Defective air regulator cleaning filter
3. Dirty working area.
4. Defective or dirty air inlet filters.
Crazing Causos
Shop temperature is too cold.
Surface tension of original material is under stress
5. Dirty spray gun.
6. Technician not wearing proper clothing.
2. Use recommended materials.
3. Allow all coatings sufficient drying time.
Dulled Finish Solution
Allow finish to dry hard and rub with a mild rub.
bing compound.
Dirt in Finish Prevention
1. Blow out all cracks and body joints.
2. Solvent clean and tack rag surface thoroughly.
3. Be sure equipment is clean.
4. Work in clean spray area.
5. Replace inlet air filters if dirty or defective.
6. Strain out foreign matter from paint.
7. Keep all containers closed when not in use to
prevent contamination.
8. Wear a paint suit and head/hair covering.
FEATHEREDGE SPLITTING
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

Featheredge splitting appears as stretch marks (or

cracking) along the featheredge. It occurs during or
shortly after the topcoat is applied over lacquer
primer-surfacer.
Dirt in Finish Solution
1. Rub out finish with rubbing compounds.
2. If dirt is deep in finish, sand and compound to
restore gloss. Metallic finishes might show mot-
tling with this treatment and will then require
additional colorcoats.
DULLED FINISH
Dulled finish means the gloss retards as the film
dries.
Featheredge Splitting Causes
1. Piling on the undercoat in heavy, wet coats. The
solvent is trapped in undercoat layers that have
not had sufficient time to set up.
2. Material not uniformly mixed. Because of the
high pigment content of primer-surfacers, it is
possible for settling to occur after it has been
thinned. Delayed use of this material without
restirring results in applying a film with loosely
held pigment containing voids and crevices
throughout, causing the film to act like a sponge.
3. Wrong thinner.
4. Improper surface cleaning or preparation. When
not properly cleaned, primer-surfacer coats can
crawl or draw away from the edge because of
poor wetting and adhesion.
5. Improper drying. Fanning with a spray gun af.
ter the primer-surfacer is applied will result in
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

drying the surface before solvent or air from the

lower layers is released.
6. Excessive use (and film build) of putty.
DULLED FINISH CAU865
1. Compounding before thinner evaporates.
2. Using poorly balanced thinner or reducer.
3. Poorly cleaned surface
4. Topcoats put on wet subcoats.
5. Washing with caustic cleaners.
6. Inferior polishes.
Dulled Finish Prevention
1. Clean work area and surface thoroughly (Figure
21-7).
Featheredge Splitting Prevention
1. Apply properly reduced primer-surfacer in thin
to medium coats with enough time between
coats to allow solvents and air to escape.
2. Stir all pigmented undercoats and topcoats thor.
oughly. Select thinner that is suitable for exist.
ing shop conditions.
Select only thinners that are recommended for
existing shop conditions.
4. Thoroughly clean areas to be painted before
sanding.
Apply primer-surfacer in thin to medium coats
with enough time between coats to allow sol-
vents and air to escape.
6. Spot putty should be limited to filling minor
imperfections. Putty applied too heavily will
eventually shrink, causing featheredge splitting.
FIGURE 21-7 Cleanliness in the paint booth and proper
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

surface preparation are critical to prevention of paint

problems. Courtesy of Sinks Manufacturing Co.)
CamScanner
Featheredge Splitting Solution
Remove finish from the affected areas and refinish.
FIGURE 21-9 With lifting, the paint tends to raise up
and swell (Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 21-8 Fisheyes are small indentations in the
surface film that look something like the eyes of a fish,
Courtesy of Pos Industres Inc.)
recommended amount of fisheye eliminator. In se-
vere cases, affected areas should be sanded down and
refinished,
FISHEYES
Fisheyes are small, craterlike openings that appear
in the finish after it has been applied. Sometimes
the previous finish can be seen in these spots or cra-
ters under the new paint (Figure 21-8).
LIFTING
Lifting is a condition that causes surface distortion
or shriveling, while the topcoat is being applied or is
drying (Figure 21-9).
Lifting Causes
Fisheye Causes
1. Improper surface cleaning or preparation. Many
waxes and polishes contain silicone, the most
common cause of fisheyes. Silicones adhere
firmly to the paint film and require extra effort
for their removal. Even small quantities in sand-
ing dust, rags, or from cars being polished nearby
can cause this failure.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

2. Effects of the old finish or previous repair. Old

finish or previous repair can contain excessive
amounts of silicone from additives used during
their application. Usually, solvent wiping will
not remove embedded silicone.
3. Contamination of air lines.
1. Use of incompatible materials. Solvents in a new
topcoat attack the old surface, which results in
a distorted or wrinkled effect.
2. Insufficient flash time. Lifting will occur when
the paint film is an alkyd enamel and is only
partially cured. The solvents from the coat be-
ing applied cause localized swelling or partial
dissolving that later distorts the final surface.
3. Improper drying. When synthetic enamel-type
undercoats are not thoroughly dry, topcoating
with lacquer can result in lifting.
4. Effect of old finish or previous repair. Lacquer
applied over a fresh air-dry enamel finish will
cause lifting
5. Improper surface cleaning or preparation. Use
of an enamel-type primer or sealer over an origi-
nal lacquer finish, which is to be topcoated with
a lacquer, will result in lifting due to a sandwich
effect.
6. Wrong thinner or reducer. The use of lacquer
thinners in enamel increases the amount of sub-
strate swelling and distortion, which can lead to
lifting, particularly when two-toning or recoating.
Fisheye Prevention
1. Precautions should be taken to remove all traces
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of silicone by thoroughly cleaning with wax and

grease solvent. The use of fisheye eliminator is
in no way a replacement for good surface prepa-
ration.
2. Add fisheye eliminator.
3. Drain and clean air pressure regulator daily to
remove trapped moisture and dirt. Air compres-
sor tank should also be drained daily.
Flahaye Solution
After the affected coat shows a fisheye problem, ap-
ply another double coat of color containing the
CamScanner
Lifting Prevention
1. Avoid incompatible materials, such as thinners
with enamel products or incompatible sealers
and primers.
2. Do not pile on topcoats. Allow sufficient flash
and dry time. The final topcoat should be ap-
plied when the previous coat is still soluble or
after it has completely dried and is impervious
to topcoat solvents.
3. Select the thinner or reducer that is correct for
the finish applied and suitable for existing shop
conditions.
Mottling Solution
Allow colorcoat to set up and apply a drier double
coat or two single coats, depending upon which top-
coat is to be applied.
ORANGE PEEL
Orange peel is an uneven surface formation-much
like that of the skin of an orange. It is caused by poor
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

fusion of atomized paint droplets. Paint droplets dry

out before they can flow and level out smoothly
(Figure 21-11).
Lifting Solution
Remove finish from affected areas and refinish.
MOTTLING
Mottling occurs only in metallics when the flakes
float together to form a spotty or striped appearance
(Figure 21-10).
Mottling Causes
1. Wrong thinner or reducer.
2. Materials not uniformnly mixed.
3. Spraying too wet.
4. Holding spray gun too close to work.
5. Uneven spray pattern.
6. Low shop temperature,
Orange Peel Causes
1. Improper gun adjustment and techniques. Too
little air pressure, wide fan patterns, or spraying
at excessive gun distances cause droplets to be-
come too dry during their travel time to the work
surface, and they remain as formed by the gun
nozzle.
2. Extreme shop temperature. When air tempera-
ture is too high, droplets lose more solvent and
dry out before they can flow and level properly.
3. Improper drying. Gun fanning before paint
droplets have a chance to flow together will
cause orange peel.
4. Improper flash or recoat time between coats. If
first coats of enamel are allowed to become too
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

dry, solvent in the paint droplets of following

coats will be absorbed into the first coat before
proper flow is achieved.
5. Wrong thinner or reducer. Underdiluted paint
or paint thinned with fast evaporating thinners
or reducers causes the atomized droplets to be-
come too dry before reaching the surface.
Mottling Prevention
1. Select the thinner or reducer that is suitable for
existing shop conditions and mix properly. In
cold, damp weather use a faster-drying solvent.
2. Stir all pigmented topcoats—especially metal-
lics—thoroughly.
3. Use proper gun adjustments, techniques, and air
pressure.
Keep your spray gun clean (especially the needle
fluid tip and air cap) and in good working con-
dition.
FILUAS 21-10 Mouling is a streaking problem
common to metallic paints. (Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 21-11 Orange peel is a rough, bumpy paint
film. (Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
solvent is too slow, it is trapped by subsequent
topcoats.
5. Improper drying. Fanning a newly applied fin-
ish can drive air into the surface or cause a dry
skin-both of which result in pinholing when
solvents retained in lower layers come to the
surface.
Plastic Filler Bleed-through
Prevention
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

1. Use correct amount of hardener.

2. Allow adequate cure time before refinishing.
3. Use proper filler (stain free).
Plastic Filler Bleed-through
Solution
1. Remove filler patch.
2. Cure topcoat, sand, and refinish.
Pinholing Prevention
1. Thoroughly clean all areas to be painted. Be sure
the surface is completely dry before applying
undercoats or topcoats.
2. Drain and clean air pressure regulator dally to
remove trapped moisture and dirt. Air compres-
sor tank should also be drained daily.
3. Use proper gun adjustments, techniques, and air
pressure.
4. Select the thinner or reducer that is suitable for
existing shop conditions.
5. Allow sufficient flash and dry time. Do not dry
by fanning.
PLASTIC FILLER NOT DRYING
Plastic filler not drying causes the filler to remain soft
after applying.
Plastic Filler Not Drying Causes
1. Insufficient amount of hardener.
2. Hardener exposed to sunlight.
Pinholing Solution
Sand affected area smooth and refinish.
Plastic Filler Not Drying
Prevention
1. Add recommended amount of hardener.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

2. Be sure hardener is fresh and avoid exposure to

sunlight.
PLASTIC FILLER BLEED-
THROUGH
Plastic filler bleed-through results in discolora-
tion (normally yellowing) of the topcoat color
(Figure 21-13).
Plastic Filler Not Drying Solution
Scrape off plastic filler and reapply.
Plastic Filler Bleed-through
Causes
1. Too much hardener.
2. Applying topcoat before plastic filler is cured.
3. Improper filling.
RUNS OR SAGS
Runs occur when gravity produces a mass slippage
of an overwet, thick paint film. The weight of the
film will cause it to slide or roll down the surface. A
large area of paint will flow down and form large
globules of paint (Figure 21-14).
A sag is a partial slipping down of the paint cre-
ated by a film that is too heavy to support itself. It
appears something like a curtain.
Runs or Sags Causes
1. Too much thinner or reducer.
2. Wrong thinner or reducer.
3. Excessive film thickness without allowing proper
dry time.
4. Low air pressure (causing lack of atomization),
holding gun too close, or making too slow a gun
pass.
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

5. Shop or surface too cold.

FIGURE 21-13 With a bleed-through problem, colors
under the paint are visible. (Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
CamScanner
FIGURE 21-14 Runs and sags are due to too much
wet paint in one place (Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
FIGURE 21-15 Rust under a finish is due to improper
surface preparation (Courtesy of PPG Industnes, Inc.)
metals to come in contact. This contact can
produce electrolysis that might cause a tearing
away or loss of good bond with the film.
3. Wear plastic or rubber gloves.
Runs or Sags Prevention
1. Read and carefully follow the instructions on the
label.
2. Select the proper thinner/reducer.
3. Do not pile on finishes. Allow sufficient flash
and dry time in between coats.
4. Use proper gun adjustment, techniques, and air
pressure.
5. Allow vehicle surface to warm up to at least room
temperature before attempting to refinish. Try
to maintain an appropriate shop temperature for
paint areas.
Rust under Finish Solution
1. Seal entrance of moisture from inner part of
panels.
2. Sand down to bare metal, prepare it, and treat
with phosphate before refinishing.
Runs or Sags Solution
Wash the affected area and let dry until it can be
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

sanded to a smooth surface and refinish. Sand runs

until smooth. Polish to bring back the gloss. If you
sand or burn through, refinish the panel.
SANDSCRATCH SWELLING
Sandscratch swelling is enlarged sand scratches
caused by the swelling action of topcoat solvents.
Sandscratch Swelling Causes
RUST UNDER FINISH
Rust under finish will show up as raised surface spots,
peeling, or blistering (Figure 21-15).
1. Improper surface cleaning or preparation. Use
of too coarse sandpaper or omitting a sealer in
panel repairs greatly exaggerates swelling caused
by thinner penetration.
2. Improper thinner or reducer, especially a slow-
dry thinner or reducer when sealer has been
omitted.
3. Underreduced or wrong thinner (too fast) used
in primer-surfacer causes "bridging" of scratches.
Rust under Finish Causes
1. Improper metal preparation.
2. Broken paint filin allows moisture to creep un-
der surrounding finish.
3. Water in air lines.
4. Fingerprints (moisture on skin).
Rust under Finish Prevention
1. Locate source of moisture and seal.
2. When replacing ornaments or molding, be care-
ful not to break paint film and allow dissimilar
Sandscratch Swelling Prevention
1. Use appropriate grits of sanding materials for the
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

topcoats being used.

2. Seal to eliminate sandscratch swelling. Select
thinner or reducer suitable for existing shop con-
ditions.
3. Use proper thinner and reducer for primer
surfacer.
Sandscratch Swelling Solution
Sand affected area down to a smooth surface and
apply the appropriate scaler before refinishing.
on the depth of the blisters; then refinish. In less
severe cases, sand out, resurface, and retopcoat.
UNDERCOAT SHOW-THROUGH
Undercoat show-through is a variation in surface color
(Figure 21-16).
SOLVENT POPPING
Solvent popping is blisters on the paint surface
caused by trapped solvents in the topcoats or primer-
surfacer-a situation that is further aggravated by
force drying or uneven heating.
Undercoat Show-through Causes
1. Insufficient colorcoats.
2. Repeated compounding.
Solvent Papping Causes
1. Improper surface cleaning or preparation.
2. Wrong thinner or reducer. Use of fast-dry thin-
ner or reducer, especially when the material is
sprayed too dry or at excessive pressure, can
cause solvent popping by trapping air in the film.
3. Excessive film thickness. Insufficient drying time
between coats and too heavy application of the
undercoats can trap solvents causing popping
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of the colorcoat as they later escape.

Undercoat Show-through
Prevention
1. Apply good coverage of color.
2. Avoid excessive compounding or polishing.
Undercoat Show-through Solution
Sand and refinish.
WATER SPOTTING
Water spotting is the general dulling of gloss in
spots or masses of spots (Figure 21-17).
Solvent Papping Prevention
1. Thoroughly clean areas to be painted.
2. Select the thinner or reducer suitable for exist-
ing shop conditions.
3. Do not pile on undercoats or topcoats. Allow
sufficient flash and dry time. Allow proper dry-
ing time for undercoats and topcoats. Allow each
coat of primer-surfacer to flash naturally-do
not fan.
Water Spotting Causes
1. Water evaporating on finish before it is thor-
oughly dry.
2. Washing finish in bright sunlight.
Solvent Popping Solution
If damage is extensive and severe, paint must be re-
moved down to the undercoat or metal, depending
Water Spotting Prevention
1. Do not apply water to a fresh paint job and try
to keep a newly finished car out of the rain.
CIGURE 21-16 This is an undercoat show through
problem. (Courtesy of PPG industries, Inc.)
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

FIGURE 21-17 Water spotting dulls paint gloss.

(Courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.)
Allow sufficient dry time before delivering the
car to the customer.
2. Wash car in the shade and wipe completely dry.
Water Spotting Solution
Compound or polish with rubbing or polishing
compound. In severe cases, sand affected areas and
refinish.
Wrinkling Causes
1. Improper dry. When a freshly applied topcoat is
baked or force dried too soon, softening of the
undercoats can occur. This increases topcoat sol-
vent penetration and swelling. In addition, bak.
ing or force drying causes surface layers to dry
too soon. The combination of these forces causes
wrinkling.
2. Piling on heavy or wet coats. When enamel coats
are too thick, the lower wet coats are not able to
release their solvents and set up at the same rate
as the surface layer, which results in wrinkling,
3. Improper reducer or incompatible materials. A
fast-dry reducer or the use of a lacquer thinner
in enamel can cause wrinkling.
4. Improper or rapid change in shop temperature.
Drafts of warm air cause enamel surfaces to set
up and shrink before sublayers have released
their solvents, which results in localized skin-
ning in uneven patterns.
WET SPOTS
Wet spots is discoloration and/or the slow drying
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

of various areas.
Wet Spots Causes
1. Improper cleaning and preparation.
2. Improper drying of excessive undercoat film
build.
3. Sanding with contaminated solvent.
Wet Spots Prevention
1. Thoroughly clean all areas to be painted.
2. Allow proper drying time for undercoats.
3. Wet sand with clean water.
Wrinkling Prevention
1. Allow proper drying time for undercoats and
topcoats. When force drying alkyd enamel, bak-
ing additive is required to retard surface setup
until lower layers harden. Lesser amounts can
be used in hot weather. Read and carefully fol-
low label instructions.
2. Do not pile on topcoats. Allow sufficient flash
and dry time.
3. Select proper reducer and avoid using incom-
patible materials such as a reducer with lacquer
products or thinner with enamel products.
4. Schedule painting to avoid temperature extremnes
or rapid changes.
Wet Spots Solution
Wash or sand all affected areas thoroughly and then
refinish.
WRINKLING
Wrinkling is a severe puckering of the paint film
that appears like the skin of a prune (fruit) and is
more common with enamel paints. There is a loss of
 ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

gloss as paint drics. Minute wrinkling may not be

visible to the naked eye (Figure 21-18).
Wrinkling Solution
Remove wrinkled enamel and refinish.
21.2 REMOVING MASKING
MATERIALS
After the topcoat has dried, the masking paper and
tape must be removed. If the finish has been force
dried, the masking should be removed while the paint
finish is still warm. If the finish is allowed to cool,
the tape is more difficult to remove and leaves adhe-
sive particles on the areas that were masked.
The tape should be removed slowly so that it
comes off evenly. Pull the tape away from the paint
edge-never across it. If the vehicle was not force dried,
take care not to touch any painted areas because the
paint might not be completely dry. Fingerprints or
FIGUAL 29-18 Wrinkling gives the paint a "prune look."
Courtesy of PPS Industries, Inc.)👌😊🙏