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Textile Progress
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PROGRESS IN AIR-JET SPINNING

A. Basu

Online Publication Date: 01 September 1999

To cite this Article Basu, A.(1999)'PROGRESS IN AIR-JET SPINNING',Textile Progress,29:3,1 — 38

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/00405169908688877
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 PROGRESS IN AIR-JET SPINNING
Dr. A. Basu

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 DeHnition ..
Air-jet spinning is the new spinning method which is accepted as one of the most promismg
technologies. By this system are produced the so-called fasciated yarns, having outside bindmg
fibres wrapped around a core of parallel fibres.

1.2 Background of the Invention

During the 1960s there was a striking increase in speeds of preparatory processes for spmning
and consequently the actual spinning process became a bottleneck, which impeded automatmg
beyond the drawn sliver stage. Because ring spinning offered little scope for further improvement,
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researcb was directed into altemative methods of spinning at higher speeds. As a result, various
new spinning methods appeared in the 1970s, amongst which open-end rotor spinning proved
to be commercially successful. Though rotor spinning could take some market share from ring
spinning, it could not replace ring spinning because of some tecbno-economic reasons. In the
1980s, a few more new technologies appeared in the spinning field. Among these systems, air-
jet spinning appeared to offer a real promise of commercial success, since it could cater for the
part of the market, short staple spinning, wbich could not be fulfilled by rotor spinning, again
for tecbno-economic reasons.
The major difference between air-jet spinning and rotor spinning is tbat the former method
is a false twist process and does not involve open-end technology.

1.3 History of Air-jet Spinning

1.3.1 The Du Pont Fasciated Yarn System
The principle on which air-jet spinning is based, was first introduced by Du Pont in 1956, though
at that time it was not commercially successful for 100% short staple spinning. The invention
which E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company claimed consisted of a number of spinning
methods using air-jet twisting nozzles [1]. In these systems, filaments were either false twisted
and subsequently heat set (i.e. texturised) or simply false twisted together with a certain amount
of staple fibres. The plasticizing and adhesive application and the feed of filament could be
omitted all together from the process and thus pure staple fibres could be spun. This product was
called 'sheaf yam. In the sheaf yarn, staple fibres were 'tied', at random intervals along the yam
length, by other staple fibres which were firmly twisted about the yam surface.
In one of Du Pont's patents [2] the first arrangement consists of a stretch breaking unit to break
the filament supplied, an air-operated collecting aspirator, an air-jet false twister, and a cheese-
type winding unit. The filament tows are joined as a single bundle and are fed into a robust
drafting unit comprising two pairs of rollers. At tbe front roller nip, the filaments are stretched
to break into staple form and made into the desired thickness. It is necessary that the staple fibre
bundle at the front roller nip is in ribbon form and preferably spread over a wide distance. The
primary function ofthe aspirating jet is to remove the fibres from the front drafting rollers so as
to prevent roller wraps, and to guide tbe fibres into the bundle being twist-consolidated into a
 Textile Progress

yarn. Tbe twisting jet applies a torque to the fibre bundle by means of a vortex formed within it.
A system [2] claimed to be suitable for spinning natural fibres is a modification ofthe earlier
system. An additional aspirating jet is arranged to forward a proportion of fibres from the front
roller nip to join the main branch at a distance upstream of the twisting jet.
It was in 1971 tbat Du Pont announced it had developed a yarn, under the trademark 'Nandal',
which was a lasciated structure of staple fibres held together by surface fibres wrapped around
the bundle [3]. This process was patented as the Rotofil process and is shown in Fig. 1. The
process involves drafting strands of fibres which are forwarded by an aspirating jet to a torque
jet. whereby the fibres are consolidated into a fasciated yam assembly by fiuid twisting. The
drafting fibres are presented in a fiat, ribbon-shaped bundle to the aspirating jet, and advance
to the torque jet which introduces true twist or wrappings to tbe surface by a phenomenon referred
to as 'twist transference'. The torque jet imparts false twist, since the amount of rotation
introduced in one direction prior to the torque jet is equalled by the amount of rotation in the other
direction after the jet. However, since the fibres are delivered in a ribbon-like, parallel form, and
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since the fibres are discontinuous, some fibres, particularly those lying at the edges of tbe ribbon,
will not be subject to the full twisting action imparted to the main body ofthe fibres by the torque
jet operating downstream. Hence, these edge fibres become wrappers. The properties of fasciated
yams and fabrics produced by this system have been compared with those produced by ring
spinning by Heuberger and co-workers [3].

Sliver Aspirator Main Bundle Wraps

Edge Fibres Torque Jet

Fig. 1 Rotofil process [3]

1.3.2 Toray Air-jet Spmning Systems

Toray of Japan introduced their air-jet spinning machine, AJS, which is suitable for short staple,
man-made fibres, in ATME-85 [4,5]. After drafting [5,6], the supplied sliver emerges from the
front roller as a uniform, ribbon-shaped fleece. The drafting fibre band is separated by a fieece
separator and, as a result, one part become free fibres. These fibres having one end in the open-
end state, are twisted around the remaining assembly of fibres (Fig. 2).
The twisted fibre strand, and the untwisted free fibres, are subsequently consolidated and,
after they pass through the nozzle, the free fibres wrap around the non-twisted core.
Tbe Toray AJS 101 is composed of a 4 line drafting system, a yam-forming section that
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

Drafting Rollers Suction Pipe False Twister Roller

Sliver

Fig. 2 Toray air-jet spinning system [6]

includes a single air-jet nozzle and a fieece separator, and a winding section that includes a
delivery roller, a slub catcher, and a cheese winder. It is claimed to be capable of processing
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polyester, acrylic, rayon and other man-made fibres, cotton, and blends of these. An improved
version, the AJS 102, contains some more automation, but the spinning principle remains the
same as that of the AJS 101 [7].

1.3.3 Murata Air-jet Spinning Systems

The Murata Jet Spinner, the MJS 801, was first exhibited at ATME-Intemational in 1982 and,
at present, is the most commercially successful air-jet spinning system (Fig. 3) [8-11].

Fig. 3 View of a Murata MJS 801 air-jet spinning machine

 Textile Progress

Tbe MJS is provided witb two air-jet nozzles wbich create vortices rotating in opposite
directions. Tbe second nozzle (N2) is used to apply twist to tbe fibre bundle coming out of tbe
front roller. Tbis is the so-called 'false twist nozzle', and good yarn cannot be produced by this
nozzle alone. Tbe olher nozzle (Nl) is situated between N2 and tbe front roller. Tbe air in tbis
nozzle rotates in tbe opposite direction to tbat in N2.
Tbe fibre bundle coming out of the front roller, is twisted by N2; however, since the fibre
bundle is rotated in tbe opposite direction by Nl, tbe fibre bundle receives an untwisting action
and some of tbe twist in tbe fibre bundle between the front roller and Nl is reduced. Because of
tbe reduced twist, some of the fibres are separated from tbe main fibre bundles, and become
wound around the fibre bundle by tbe force of the Nl nozzle. Tbe fibre strand coming out of Nl
is tben twisted by N2. Tbe air vortex in the nozzle rotates at a very bigb rate (about two to three
million r/min) and tbe fibre bundle rotates at 200 000 to 300 000 r/min [11,12]. Twisting and
winding of tbe fibres are tbus performed continuously and instantaneously at high speed. Due
to tbe opposite action of two nozzles, and tbe air cuirent produced by the bigb speed of tbe front
drafting rollers, a few edge fibres go out of tbe main fibre strand in tbe Zone between tbe front
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roller and first nozzle. These edge fibres consequently become wrapper fibres after passing
through tbe second nozzle. Tbe twist of the main yarn body gets removed due to tbe false twisting
action, but the second nozzle wraps tbose edge fibres tigbtly on tbe yam body.
High-speed pbotograpby shows the formation of edge fibres wbile producing yam by air-jet
spinning on tbe Murata principle [13] (Fig. 4).

Generation of edge fibres in the Murata spinning principle f 13]

 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

The limitations of tbis spinning system are being addressed by Murata and tbe development
is a continuous process. It is claimed tbat, tbe newer MJS 802 is capable of spinning 100% cotton
yam, wbicb was difficult witb tbe earlier version [14].
A subsequent version, known as tbe MJS 802H, is claimed to be a high-production machine
(take-off speeds of up to 300 m/min) as compared to earlier versions [15].
At tbe ITMA'95, Murata Machinery Limited exhibited its new 804 RJS (Roller Jet Spinning)
air-jet spinning machine, featuring a gearless invertor control, and capable of running at
400 m/min [16,17].
It is reported that, at tbe 6tb OTEMAS, Japan, Murata bas exhibited its latest model,
MUS-851, designed to spin 100% cotton yarns at speeds up to 350 m/min [18].
At ATME 1989, Murata exhibited a spinner, MTS-881, wbicb uses tbe concepts of twin jet
spinning - the yams from two spinning positions are wound togetber on one package [19,20].
Following tbeir formation in tbe air nozzles, tbe yarns pass tbrougb a yam clearer and a waxing
device, and are tben taken up (two parallel ends) on tbe finished package. Tbese package are fed
directly to two-for-one twisters for twisting.
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1.3.4 Suessen Air-jet Spinning Systems

Spindelfabric Suessen of Gennany bas developed a new yarn-making system known as Spin
Assembly Winding (SAW) and it was first exhibited at ITMA 1987 [21.22]. In tbis system, two
slivers of fibres are drafted simultaneously through a 5-roll bigh drafting system. These drafted
strands are passed tbrough air-jet beads separately and are given what is called false twist.
Finally, tbe two ends are brougbt togetber and wound up on a package of tbe type normally used
on a two-for-one twister. Tbe PLYfil 1000 is for short staple yams of, say, a maximum of 50 mm
staple length, but tbis could extend to 90 mm if a system of slip drafting is used in tbe 5-roll bigb
draft system. Tbe PLYfil 2000 accommodates long worsted type staples of 60-220 mm.

1.3.5 Other Systems

At tbe beginning of 1980s, several other machinery manufacturers came out with their air-jet
spinning systems, but with lesser success. Toyoda Automatic Loom Works Ltd., Japan, exhibited
its air jet system, TYS, at ITMA, 1983. Tbis system worked witb a single jet. It was claimed
[23,24] tbat it was suitable for processing polyester and polyester-cotton blends.
Howa of Japan introduced some equipment known as tbe 'Fs-Fasciated Spinning Frame'
whicb was capable of processing polyester, cotton blends, and 100% man-made fibres, of
38-51 mm staple lengtb. Tbe basic difference of tbis system from others is tbat it used a
combing roller, as in rotor spinning, for drafting the fibres. It spun yam using a single jet.
A few otber companies, such as Scbubert and Salzer Mascbinenfabrik AG, Germany [25],
NPK Tekstitno Masbinostroene, Bulgaria [26], Machinenfabrik Rieter AG, Gennany [27] and
Toyota Chuo Kinkyusbo, Japan [28] patented tbeir air-jet spinning tecbnology but commercially
tbey were not so successful.

2. ECONOMICS OF THE SYSTEM

2.1 Speed of Production
Any new system coming onto tbe market bas to prove itself to be economically more attractive
wben compared to tbe existing market leader. Unfortunately, any new yarn-making process will
most likely result in a product differing, to a greater or lesser extent, in its characteristics from
tbose to whicb people bave been bitherto accustomed, and tbus tbe introduction of new spinning
 6 Textile Progress

technology requires considerable development efforts far beyond the spinning step. Economics,
of course, are a most stringent consideration for a new technology and it becomes mandatory for
a new method to produce yarn at a speed tbat is a multiple of tbe old one in order to reach a
competitive advantage [11]. If tbe 'speed map' of various spinning systems is considered, it
becomes clear tbat air-jet spinning is rather promising (Fig. 5).

m/mtn

300
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S 200
Hi
Q.

LJ
Q
100

4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200
YARN COUNT Ne

Fig. 5 Relation between yam delivery speed and yarn count for different spinning systems [11]

2.2 Reduction in the Number of Processes

Air-jet spinning uses a bigb-speed spinning frame, with no bigb-speed rotating mechanism,
whicb twists and spins yarn simply by means of a compressed-air jet [29]. Tbe economic
advantages include:
• slivers are spun directly with no roving process;
• yam defects are fewer. An electronic yam clearer is fitted to eacb unit resulting in
elimination of tbe separate winding process;
• tbe large winding capacity greatly shortens handling time for doffing;
• yarn piece-up knotting/splicing is automatically effected by a knotter/splicer;
• the operator bas only to cbeck tbe red-fiagged spindles and cbange sliver cans;
• the floor space requirement is 40% less tban tbat of a ring spinning frame;
• as very bigb-speed mecbanical parts, sucb as ring spindles or rotors, are not required, there
is less generation of beat by the machine. This saves on air-conditioning costs; and
• the noise level is 85 db (A) at the most, and operating conditions are mucb better as tbe
dust in tbe drafting part is collected in a dust box through a duct.
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

For air-jet spinning producing double yarn:

• three processing steps, namely roving, winding after spinning including yam clearing, and
assembly winding, are eliminated [19,22];
• tbe productivity of a spinning position is up to 40 times higher tban tbat of a ring spindle;
and
• doubling can be carried out witb a reduced number of tums -only approximately 60-80%
of the usual folding twist.
As well as fewer processing stages, an additional advantage witb air-jet spinning is ease of
equipment maintenances and less wear and tear due to fewer revolving parts [30].

2.3 Comparative Costs of Ring, Air-jet, and other Systems

A cost comparison of tbe three systems, i.e. air-jet, rotor, and ring spinning, was reported by
Santjer [31]. The investment per annual production is lowest for conventional ring spinning and
highest for air-jet spinning, but so is productivity. Tbe investment for air-jet spinning is
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somewhat lower for finer counts tban for coarser (Fig. 6).

I RING

16
n ROTOR
§8
^ JLINK RING 25M
I K RING 17M

O
O
CD

I 14,8
I I

19.7 29.5

Yarn Count (tex)

Fig. 6 Investmentcostsfordifferentspinningsystem.s|31]

Tbe yarn manufacturing cost is lowest for air-jet spinning of finer counts, and for rotor
spinning of coarser counts (Fig. 7). Over tbe complete range of counts, the power consumption
for air-jet spinning is less, and the difference increases witb yam count [5]. Automatic yam tyin?
and doffing on tbe air-jet spinner permits labour cost reductions to a level between 25-33% o'f
tbose for a ring spinning system.
Comparison of running costs show a distinct advantage for air-jet spinning over otber
spinning systems [32] and improved versions show advantages over eariier versions (Fio 8) In
proportion to decreasing capital, tbe cost of borrowing is, of course, reduced and tbe higher tbe
interest rates in a given country, the greater are these savings.
When calculating the economy of the system, the cost of compressed air has to be kept in mind
[33]. It is claimed that, in the advanced model of air-jet spinning machine MJS 802H, due to
 Textile Progres.s

improved nozzle design, the increased volume of air required (<5%) is small in relation to tbe
increased speed. This saves 30-35% of the required power per kg of yam produced [32].

2.5

DROTOR
Q LINK RING 25M
D U N K RING I7M
O 1 c

o ^•
B >
u
i
% 0.5
i
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14.8 19.7 29.5

Yarn Count (tex)

Fig. 7 Manufacturingcostsfordiffeientspinningsystems[31]

0.6
SLABOUR QPOWER DMAINTENANCE DMACHINE
0.5
Ne30 0.41 0.41
0.4
X5
0.32
^0.3 0.26
00

0.2 ' / / / / • / / /

'! in//
/ /,.' /
0.1

0
802H STD. MJS OLD RING OES
TYPE CF SPINNING

Fig. 8 Comparison of running costs [32]

The required space to produce lOOkgof yam per hour shows a 30-35% saving over the older
model (MJS 802), thus resulting in savings in building and air-conditioning costs.
It is claimed [32] that reduced maintenance is also a major cost saver when compared with
ring and open-end spinning, due to twisting fibres by air rather than with moving parts.
Maintenance costs per pound of yam are further reduced with the higher speed of improved
versions of air-jet spinning machines.
With time, the air-jet spinning speed is being improved and the gap is being widened when
compared with ring and rotor spinning, making this system yet more competitive [32] (Fig. 9).
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

350

300
300 Ne 30, T.M.-3.4 f\

250

210

200
• I—( 180

160

B 150 140 140

12:;

95
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100
82

50
23 25 27
20 22

1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991

Year

Fig. 9 Improvement in spinning speed over the years [32]

When producing double yam through air-jet spinning machines, the economic advantages
increase. The productivity of the twin spinners is 17 to 27 times higher than that of ring spinners,
depending on yam count [34]. The advantages increase as the yam becomes finer. The labour-
and space-saving are greater for finer count yams. The capital cost can be reduced by 38-48%
compared with ring spinners, depending on yarn count. The yams obtained are free from defects
since yam defects, such as slubs produced in the middle of the spinning, are eliminated and a
knotter/splicer is used for joining. The double yam produced by the PLYfil 2000 system needs
to be cleared after twi.sting [35].
Since the use of air represents a co.st factor, the lowest possible pressure in the nozzle will be
desirable. As the air pressure is reduced, the single yam strength will be lower, so the pressure
should be regulated in such a manner that the minimum strength of singles and folded yam is
guaranteed not to fall below 50 cN. This is the pre-requisite for trouble-free twisting without
thread breaks.
In contrast to the above, Chellamani [36] has reported that the overall cost of production in
double yam air-jet spinning is marginally higher (by 4%) when compared with ring spinning.
While studying the techno-economic feasibility of air-jet spinning in Indian condition, he
observed that, even though wage costs are lower in air-jet spinning, these are more than offset
by higher power costs plus maintenance and depreciation costs. This may be due to the higher
interest rates and lower wages in India when compared with many developed countries
 '" Te.xtile Progress

Consideration must also be given to down-stream economics in weaving and knitting. When
air-jet spun yarn is used as warp, an improvement in loom stoppages up to an extent of 23% is
observed as compared to that of ring spun yarn [12].

3. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AIR-JET SPINNING

3.1 The Three Zones
The activities carried out the air-jet spinning machine can be broadly divided into three zones,
namely drafting zone, yarn forming zone, and take-up zone.

3.2 Drafting Zone

In addition to Murata. Howa and Toyoda of Japan also engaged in developing air-jet false twist
spinning machines [37]. Howa developed a drafting system in which sliver attenuation is not
affected by drafting but by disengaging and reforming, as in the open end (OE) rotor spinning
systems. In line with OE rotor technology, the fibres are fed into a rotor, rotating at much slower
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speed when compared with rotor spinning, and are taken off through the yam axis. The rotor
imparts only a very low degree of twist to the yarn. Due to the particular design of the system,
the yam leaves the rotor with about 10-30% untwisted fibres. LUnenschlossera/. [37] developed
a drafting system that avoided draw-system drafting. In this system, the fibres are fed by means
of an OE disentangling unit onto a perforated ring, and to a nip point. For improved fibre
orientation, two or more air exhausted perforated rings can be arranged behind each other to
enable the fibre material to be drafted aerodynamically/mechanically.
For spinning polyester-cotton blended yarn of optimum yam structure and properties, the
hardness of the top roller should be 82 + 2° and the impact elasticity should be 11-16% [38].
The improved model of the Murata air-jet spinning machine 802H, contains a grooved front
top cot to allow the air at higher speed to fiow through the cot, rather than aiound the end of it
[15]. As the front roller rotates at very high speed (100-300 m/min, i.e. 1200 to 4000 r/min or
more), the accompanying fiows of air appear around the rollers [3]. However, since such
accompanying air flows act in a converging direction at the entrance portion of the nip point of
the front rollers, turbulent flow appear at this part, disturbs the arrangement of the fibre bundle,
and acts to scatter the fibres.
Murata has developed a special type of front roller cot which has an 'annular air escaping
groove' formed on the circumference and located at a predetermined distance from the width of
the bundle of fibres at the nip point of the front rollers [39]. These air escaping grooves reduce
the disturbances by allowing the air-fiow to pass through the grooves. Furthermore, these air-
fiows are discharged sideways of the fibre bundle which is being ballooned at the entrance of the
nip point.
In the Murata Twin Spinner (MTS), the width of the cots and the active part of the bottom
rollers are increased to accommodate the drafting of two slivers simultaneously, without
touching each other [19]. Sliver guides are provided behind the back roller, and between the back
roller and apron, to avoid intermingling of the two slivers during drafting.

3.3 Yarn Forming Zone

In the yam formation zone, mainly two types of system have been used by different machinery
manufacturers - single nozzle, and twin nozzles. A comparative study of single nozzles, two
nozzles twisting in the same direction, and two nozzles twisting in opposite directions has been
reported by Grosberg et al. [40,41 ]. It was reported that the twin nozzle arrangement (based on
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

the Murata principle) produced the strongest yarn. Measurements made on the yam .structure
indicated that this was due to a reduction in the proportion of the unwrapped portions. Also, the
twin nozzle aixangement produces a yarn with the most and longest wrapping fibres (Table 1).
When a leading end of edge fibre emerges from the front roller nip, it is pulled downstream and
towards the centre of the balloon by the suction generated by the first nozzle. If the edge fibre
protruding is long enough to contact the balloon, it impacts with the strands or the protruding
fibre ends on the yam surface and is thrown to the tangent of the balloon in the direction in which
the balloon rotates. Fig. 10 represents the situation being viewed along the balloon axes in the
twin nozzle and single nozzle twisting, respectively. In the twin-jet system, edge fibre 'f
(Fig. 10) is more or less at right angles to the surface fibre of the strand, but in the single nozzle
system it is nearly parallel with the surface fibres. As a result, when the fibre end slips over the
twisted strand during the impact, it is more easily gripped by the surface fibres in single nozzle
spinning than in twin nozzle spinning. Hence, in the twin nozzle (opposite direction) system
there are more edge fibres not being trapped on early impacts: instead they are caught later and
become longer wrappings on the yam surface.
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Table 1
Wrappings in the Yarns Spun by Different Jet Arrangements
Arrangement Single Jet Two Jets in Two jets in
ofJets Same Direction Opposite Direction
Total Observations 300 300 300
No. of wrappings 45(15.0%) 58(19.3%) 89 (29.77%)
Average length 3.05 mm 4.90 mm 6.72 mm
CV% 79.2% 102.2% 102.0%
Leading ends 87.9% 96.8% 95.6%
Middle 3.1% _ —
Trailing ends 9.0% 3.2% AA%
Average fibre extension - 32.3 mm -
Wrapped in Length 1.41% 2.93% 5.98%
From Grosberg et al. [40]

It was observed by Grosberg et al. [41] that the construction of the second nozzle favours the
production of a high-speed vortex, since it is designed to have a less sharp axial-orifice angle
jetting air to the twisting chamber, and the conical outlet of the jet utilises the exhausting air to
twist the yarn further.
The air nozzles introduce tension to the twisting thread by exhausting air downstream. Hence,
before entering the first nozzle, the thread is at its highest tension, the next highest tension being
in the region between the two nozzles, and the lowest tension in the region after the second
nozzle.
The rotational speed of the vortex in an air-jet spinning nozzle is of the order of two million
tums per minute [11]. The yarn rotates at a much slower speed during false twisting. This speed
lies between 150 000 and 250 000 r/min. It is claimed [9] to be possible to increase the nozzle
efficiency to reach even higher speeds.
The air-fiow in the twist insertion channel has been studied by Gao and Gu [42] and
[43]. High-speed cinematography revealed that the fiow is supersonic, turbulent and i
[43]. ' "
The effects on the yarn properties of different design parameters of the second nozzle, such
as axial orifice angle (Fig. 11), twisting chamber diameter, and the surface friction of twisting
chambers, were investigated by Oxenham and Basu [44,45] and Chen [46]. These parameters
 12 Textile Progress

Hurata Twin-jet principle

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Du Pont Single-jet principle

Fig. 10 Formation of wrapper fibres [41]

Air Reservoir Compressed Air Inlet

i
////I I///////

T
Inler —> Outlet

Twisting
Chamber Orifice Angle

/ ,.-'' y

Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of second nozzle [44]

 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

have significant infiuence on yarn properties [44]. For cotton or polyester-cotton yarn, the yam
quality improves with the increase of axial orifice angle up to 50°, and then it starts detenoratmg.
For polyester fibre, the optimum yarn properties are achieved at a jet orifice angle of 45°
(Table 2). The optimum angle was found to be dependent on the presence of short fibres m the
mix [45]. A lower friction coefficient of the twisting chamber improves the yarn .strength.

Table 2
Effect of Second Jet Orifice Angle on Yarn Properties
Jet type 1st Jet Tenacity CV%of Elongation
(angle in degrees) Pres.sure (CN/tex) Tenacity atBreak(%)
C(45) 1.5 2.8 21.8 3.8
2.0 3.1 25.2 4.3
3.0 3.3 17.4 4.4
D (50) 1.5 2.8 32.0 4.0
2.0 3.4 30.2 5.0
3.0 5.0 13.6 6.9
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Material is cotton, yam count is 18 tex. and second jet pressure 2.5 kg/cm-.
From Oxenham and Basu [44]

The modified air-jet nozzles of the Murata MJS 802H need very little increase in air-volume,
and yet give up to 50 percent more productivity when compared with earlier versions [15].
Aiming at improved fabric quality, a new device has been introduced in its latest version. This
device is similar to the belt texturing unit attached to the original delivery roller. It is designed
to help tie down the wrapping fibres in the yam and thus reduce yam hairiness and make it more
even and lustrous. These belts can be mn in the opposite direction and the resultant yam has zero
torque. This feature is considered to be attractive for knitting as it is claimed that it will give a
straight wale line during knitting and will restrict the fabric from curling at the cut and sew
operation.
The Murata 804 RJS (Roller Jet Spinning) air-jet spinning machine attains the highest
spinning speed of all staple fibre spinning systems, by modifying the twisting arrangement
[16,17]. In this machine, a single jet followed by crossed rubber rollers produces false twist.
These rollers produce weaving yams of very low hairiness [17]. Automated piecing can be
accommodated in place of knotting, in which case the yam end from the yam package is placed
on the raised front roller and is pieced up at full speed.
A comparison of false twisting by air-jet nozzles and crossed belts shows that the spinning
tension is much lower (1-10 cN) in the case of the former as compared with the latter (20-40 cN)
[47]. Also, the tenacity of crossed belt twisted yarn has yet to achieve the level attained by air-jet
spun yarn.

3.4 Take-up Zone

Commercially available machines such as Murata [12] and Toray [5] air-jet spinning machines
are equipped with yam clearers. In the Murata machines, yarn quality is ensured by an automatic
evenness observation system (Super Spectron), Fig. 12 [48]. If high levels of unevenness are
detected, the spindle and the source of the problem are displayed, enabling maintenance work
to be carried out easily and efficiently. Upon instructions from the CPU, the yam evenness si<^nals
from the yarn clearer of each spindle are input sequentially to the Super Spectron, via the
multiplexer and are there converted to digital signals. Then the spectrum is obtained by Fast
Fourier Transformation and the standard deviation is calculated. The Fast Fourier Transformation
 14 Textile Progress

method enables high-speed, real tinne processing. This provides precision analysis for up to
400 spectrum lines. The CPU determines whether periodic unevenness is present or not. If it is,
the trouble sources are determined from the frequency (wavelength). Then the spindle number
and the position are displayed on the Super Spectron panel.
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Fig. \2 Yam clcareronMurata air-jet spinning machine

The Intelligence Analyser collects data from the Super Spectron, knotter, doffer, etc. and
provides the running status of the machine and causes of lost efficiency, and gives advice on
coiTection of the causes [20]. The Intelligence Analyser III combines all the information and
gives the added capabilities of measuring yarn CV, imperfections, and infrequent yarn faults
(Classimat type data) instantaneously on the machine.
Automatic doffing and piecing-up is an integral part of most of the commercial machines
(Fig. 13). Additional automation, such as can hauling, sliver piece-up, package transport, and
completely automated palletising, are available with Murata machines.

3.5 Other Developments

Fancy yarns and variety yarns can be produced by air-jet spinning machines [49]. A device can
be attached to the machine which uses a twisting action on the yarn as it is being spun. These
yams have almost no hairiness, better yarn strength, and no torque, depending on the direction
of tile device. Air-jet spinning machines can be set up to produce a spun yarn that has one fibre
on the outside and another fibre inside. They can run almost any filament yarn in the core, from
polyester, nylon, and fibreglass to Lycra (Fig. 14).
 15
Progress in Air-jet Spiiming
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Fig. 13 Autodoffer on Murala air-jet spinning machine

Fig. 14 Production ofcore yarn by air-jet spinning

 •"' Textile Progress

Attempts have been made to cotnbine the mechanism of air-jet spinning with that of ring
spinning [50,51]. This system consists of a single air-jet below the yarn-fonning zone of a
conventional ring spinning system (Fig. 15). This jet acts in a way similar to the first nozzle in
twin nozzle air-jet spinning. It is claimed that, with the application of lower air pressure (0.5 bar)
when cotnpared with air-jet spinning, the yarns can be produced with less hairiness. However,
these yams are sotnewhat weaker compared with ring spun yam.

Front drafting
rollen

Air-jet
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Pig tail guide

Yam bobbin

Ring and travellor

Fig. 15 Schematic diagram ofjet-ring spinning system [50]

A novel way of producing polyester staple core cotton wrap yarn has been reported by Sawhney
et al. [52]. They used air-jet spinning and friction spinning in tandem to produce the yam. It was
possible to spin all-staple wrap composite yam with a relatively fine size and low core content.
Those yams could be used for knitting and weaving without stripping.
IVIahmoudi and Oxenham [53,54] used an air-jet nozzle to improve the bulkiness of worsted
yams.
Wang and Miao [55] have used an air-jet nozzle on a winding machine to control the hairiness
of wound ring and rotor spun yams. It is claitned that there is some reduction in the increase of
hairiness during the winding process by using the air-jet nozzle.

4. STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OE AIR-JET SPUN YARN

4.1 Structure of Air-jet Spun Yarn
4.J.I Classification
In air-jet spinning, tbe yarn fonnation principle is unique and produces a yarn with a totally
unique sttucture. Accotding to Oxenham [56], the air-jet spun yam is a fasciated type of yam
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

consisting of a core of parallel fibres, held together by wrapper fibres. This structure has been
studied by different researchers. Lawrence and Baqui [57] reported that air-jet spun yam
consisted of an untwisted core of fibres and a surface layers of fibres wrapped around the greater
part of the core. According to them, the yarn can be classified into three types of structure. Class I
structure consists of a twistless core, which at times is crimped but is wrapped uniformly by a
thin fibre ribbon with a unifonn helix angle and direction. Class II structure consists of a twistless
core randomly wrapped by fibres in a singular state and in groups, showing 'Z' and 'S' direction
of wrap with differing helix angles. Class III structure contains unwrapped sections of yarn cores,
at times having residual twist. The relative frequency of different classes and their mean lengths
can be varied by varying the process parameters.
How et al. [58] also observed that the yarn produced by air-jet spinning is different from that
produced by other spinning methods. The yarns are formed by two parts; bundle fibres and
outside wrapping fibres. In the bundle fibres, a majority of the fibres are inclined at an angle of
5-10° in an 'S' and 'Z' direction ; sometimes the fibres are parallel to each other or crossed
together. The outside wrapping fibres are gripped on the bundle fibres in different styles, such
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as a spiral 'corkscrew-like' wrapping, irregular wrapping, kinked wrapping, even wrapping

featuring the edge free end fibres wrapped evenly on the bundles, loose wrapping, and non-
wrapped portions. The observed percentage of wrappings for 19s (31 tex), 10.5s (56.2 tex), and
9sNe (65.6 tex) yarns were as follows:

• Spiral corkscrew-like - 36.51-45.69%

• Irregular - 17.66-20.74%
• Kinked - 8.20-11.60%
• Even - 15.64-20.00%
• Loose - 6.60-11.98%
• Non-wrapped portions - 1.93-3.53%
Miao [59] and Basu [13] have used the following classifications of the yam stmcture (Fig. 16)
in their studies:
Class 1: The part of the yarn that has regular helical wrappings and the yam core crimped.
This core strand appears to be a spatial curve similar to a helix. According to them, the yam
crimpiness is due to the buckling force generated by wrapping fibre torque and tension.
Class 2: This structure has no wrapping fibres on the surface and has a geometry similar
to a ring spun yam, but with a low twist level.
Class 3: This structure consists of a straight yam core wrapped by regularly twisted
wrapping fibres. Generally this wrapping fibres are less tight.
Class 4: This structure has a straight yarn core with wrappers of inegular twist.
Basu and Oxenham [60] reported that, in the case of 100% polyester, polyester-cotton blended
yam, and 100% cotton yam, the relative proportion of Class 1 stmcture is around 50%. The
proportions of the other three classes are also not very much different for these materials, i e
Class 2 around 15%, Class 3 18-20%, the rest being Class 4. The average length of wrapped
stmcture was found to be different for yams made from different materials; this may be due to
differences in fibre type and fibre length (Tables 3 and 4). The cotton yarn had the highest core
twist and polyester yam bad the lowest. According to the authors, because of the higher efficiency
of twist transference (i.e. conVersion of twist into wrapper fibres) in the case of polyester, the
residual twist was minimum in this yam.
 Iti Textile Pwi^resx

Class 1
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Class 2

Class 3

Class 4

Fig. 16 Sliucluralclassincalionofyam[l3.40]
 }9
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

Table 3
Structural Characteristics of Jet-spun Yarns
Poly/Cotton (50/50) Cottoi
Polyester
Proportion Lengtii Proportion Length
Proportion Length
(mm) {%) (mm)
(%) (nun) (%)
57.4 18.6 48.9 15 50 8.12
Class 1
13.9 6.8 17.7 7.4 17.3 4.2
Class 2
Class 3 17.2 5.6 19.8 5.4 17.5 3.4
Class 4 11.6 4.6 13.6 4.9 15.2 2.9

From Basu [13].

Table 4
Structural Characteristics of Jet Spun Yarns
Polyester • Poly/Cotton Cotton
Structural parameter (50/50)
Class 1 Wrapping angle (°) 40.3 39.3 40.8
Crimp angle (°) 16.6 17.5 18.4
Fibre in wrapper 2.4 2.5 2.6
Wavelength (mm) 0.6 0.8 0.6
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Class2 Twist angle (°) 10.7 13 16.5

Class 3 Wrapping angle (°) 43.4 48.3 45.2

Core twist angle (°) 10.6 10.6 13.6
Fibre in wrapper 2.4 2.6 2.7
Class 4 Core twist angle (°) 11.5 11.5 15
Wrappings/mm 1.9 1.9 2.9
From Basu [13].

Kato [48] concluded that the structure of air-jet spun yam is not unifonn but includes 'smooth
parts' with balanced tension between the core fibre bundle and wrapping fibres, 'kinky' parts,
and wrapping parts with fibres wound irregularly around the bundle. Also, there are some yam
sections which fall between these three divisions.
In a Toray Patent [61], the structure of air-jet spun yam was classified into five categories
based on microscopic observation.
Chasmawala et al. [62] opined that the yarn stmcture is essentially that of a comparatively
straight central core of fibres held together by taut surface fibres wound onto the central core
helically. The straight fibres are termed as 'core fibres' while the taut, helically wound fibres are
called 'wrapper fibres'. Another class of fibres, which follow random, intemiittent paths are
termed 'wild fibres'. Two additional categories, 'core wild' and 'wrapper wild', are added to
these three easily distinguishable types to cover the entire range of fibre configurations. The
proportions of different classes vary with changing process parameters. The microscopic
obsei-vations made revealed that a prominent feature of air-jet spun yams is the predominance
of leading hooks. According to Chasmawala et al. [62], these hooks could have originated in the
carding process or could be due lo either air currents or tbe frictional resistance encountered by
fibres at the point of entry into the nozzles. A protruding leading end is likely to be bent back
and get caught in the fibres behind it to form a leading hook; a protruding trailing hook can be
expected to be straightened out at the point of entry into the nozzle. Further analysis shows that
hooks might have predominantly formed at the first nozzle.
In contrast, Punj et al. [63] observed that, while using polyester-viscose blended yam for
analysis, there is a majority of trailing hooks, as compared to leading and both sides hooks.
Viscose fibre has more hooking tendency as well as more hook extent than polyester fibre They
classified the yam structure as belts, short wrappers, long wrappers, migrated core fibres and
 20 Textile Progie.ss

core fibres. The percentage of belts and short wrappers is very low and there is no significant
difference between the percentage of belts made of polyester and viscose fibres. The percentage
of tight, short wrappers made by viscose fibres is more than that of polyester fibres, and in the
case of tight long wrappers the trend is vice versa. The percentage of tight long wrappers is
significantly higher than that of loose long wrappers in both the fibres.
Uematsu [64], and Nakahara [65] also classified the yarn structures into different categories.
According to Uematsu [64], the yam structure can be controlled by optimising various process
parameters.
According to Lord et al. [66], the yarn core has very little twist and the wrapper fibres apply
lateral forces to the yam, which give it coherence. The wrappers fibres are under tension in the
spun yarn and this not only causes a substantial coherence between the core fibres but also causes
the core to contract as it takes up the shape of a small radius helix.

4.1.2 Migration and Fibre Extent

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Ishtiaque and Khare [67] reported a study of internal structures of ring, rotor, and air-jet spun
blended yarns. The centre of gravity of the yarn cross-section was calculated with the help of an
image analyser. Taking that as the centre, Ishtiaque and Khane divided the area of cross-section
into class intervals of five equal width zones. The fibre packing density is not uniform across the
yarn cross-section. It is observed that the radial packing density is maximum irrespective of the
spinning system. Of all the three yarns, rotor spun yams give maximum packing density,
followed by ring and air-jet spun yam in the first zone (from the centre) of the yam cross section.
At the other end, air-jet spun yarn shows least packing density followed by rotor and ring spun
yams in the fifth zone of yam cross-section. For air-jet spun yam, fibres are mostly packed in
the first three zones, the last two zones giving least packing density in comparison with the other
two. Total packing density, calculated as the ratio of total area of fibres in the yam cross-section
to the yam cross-section, is maximum for air-jet spun yam followed by ring and rotor yarns. The
rotor yam has the lowest migration index followed by ring and air-jet spun yams.
Punj et al. [63] observed that the extent of short wrappers, long wrappers, and migrated core
fibres is more for viscose fibre when compared with polyester fibre. Viscose core fibres show less
fibre extent than polyester fibres due to more hooks in the case of the former. The average fibre
extent of viscose fibre is more in polyester/viscose blended yams, despite viscose fibre having
more hooking tendency. The fibre extent varies with changing process parameters such as
second nozzle pressure, spinning speed, etc.

4.2 Properties of Air-jet Spun Yarn

4.2. J General
Ring spun yarn has been in use for the last 150 years. In the following paragraphs, yam properties
have therefore been discussed in relation to ring spun yarns in general.

4.2.2 Tensile Properties

Air-jet spun yarn is weaker than ring spun yam. The tenacity value ofcotton air-jet spun yam
is 55-60% of that of similar ring spun yam; this value is 80-85% for polyester or polyester-
cotton blended yarns [68]. Similar observations are reported by Kato [48], Nierhaus [69], and
Lunenschloss et al. [70]. It is observed by Sreenivasamurthy etal. [71] that single-yarn tenacity
is lower for air-jet spun yams in'comparison with ring yarns. The difference between the two
types of yarns is lower (30-59%) for polyester-cotton blended yams than for all-cotton yarns
(about 55%). Elongation-at-break for air-jet spun eotton yarns is more or less similar to that of
 . . 21
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

respective ring yarns; however, it is 15% lower in finer yarns. For polyester-cotton blended
yarns, it is about 7-19% lower and the difference widens with decrease in yarn fineness. The
work-of-mpture for air-jet spun yams is lower by 55-64% compared to ring spun yams ofcotton,
and by 34-60% for polyester blended material. Contrary to many researchers' observations,
Murata [29] observed that the tensile properties of air-jet spun yams is not inferior when
compared with ring spun yarn, but loop strength is a little lower owing to the difference in single
yam stmcture.
Polyester-viscose blended air-jet spun yarn is 14-18% weaker than the corresponding ring
spun yam [72]. The values of breaking extension for ring and air-jet spun yams show that, in
general, air-jet spun yarns are more extensible than their ring counterparts.
The tenacity of acrylic-cotton blended air-jet spun yams is reported to be 22-30% lower than
that of their OE rotor counterparts. The trend for breaking extension is similar to that observed
in the case of tenacity [73].
In an effort to improve the tensile properties, Sengupta etal. [74] annealed (by dry heat) air-
jet and ring spun polyester yams and observed that, for both types, tenacity decreases and
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breaking extension increases after slack annealing. Tension annealing reduces the breaking
extension of both types; tenacity, however, increases marginally for air-jet yam and decreases
for ring yam. Tension annealing can be seen to increase modulus, which is especially significant
for air-jet spun yam.
The tenacity and breaking elongation of air-jet spun is lower when compared with ring yam,
at all extension rates and gauge lengths [75]. With increasing extension rate, tenacity increases
up to a certain limit, beyond which a further increase in extension rate causes a drop in tenacity.
In long gauge lengths, the maximum tenacity is achieved at an extension rate of 200 mm/min.
The tenacity either remains almost the same, or drops, when the extension rate is increased to
500 mm/min. In short gauge lengths, the maximum tenacity is obtained at a lower rate of
extension than is tenable with the long gauge lengths. The effect of change in extension rate and
gauge length is more pronounced with air-jet spun yarn than with ring spun yam. At high
extension rates, the tenacity difference between ring and air-jet spun yarns is minimal. The
effects of extension rate and gauge length, separately, on breaking elongation or combined, are
statistically significant, but there is no specific trend for ring and air-jet spun yams.
After doubling, the increase in tenacity of air-jet yam is greater (14^6%) than that of ring
spun yam (around 12%) [76].

4.2.3 Evenness and Imperfections

Air-jet spun yam is more even than equivalent ring spun yam [69,70,72,76-79]. Unevenness
of air-jet spun yarns is lower by 25% and 20% respectively for cotton and polyester-cotton
blended materials when compared with similar ring spun yam [71]. Where the effective fibre
length is mainly influenced by the cut length of the polyester fibre, actual unevenness follows
the trend of theoretical irregularity, the U% decreases with increasing number of fibres in the
cross-section (Fig. 19). Yarn imperfections, in terms of thin places, thick places, and neps, are
lower for air-jet yarn when compared with ring yarn. Total imperfections are lower by about 70%.
If ring spun irregularity is taken as 100%, air-jet yarn irregularity lies between 65-95% [79]
Rotor spun yarns, which are usually considered more even than ring spun yams, also cannot
achieve the results obtained by air-jet spun yarns [80]. According to Uster statistics, eveness of
air-jet spun yarns is better than-the upper quartile values, i.e. the results obtained by the best ^5%
of all spinning mills in the world, for ring spun yam. The advantage of air-jet yarns is niore
 22 Textile Progress

obvious in the case of thin places, where air-jet yams are significantly better than ring and rotor
spun yams.
The lower CV% of yarn may be due to the feeding of very uniform sliver with a low CV% [81].
After doubling, the unevenness and imperfections of air-jet yarns decrease by 20-30% and
24-84% respectively; the corresponding values for ring spun yarn are 19.87% and 68.58%
respectively (polyester-viscose blended yams) [72].
The number of yam defects (slubs) in air-jet yam is far less as compared to that in ring spun
yarn [45]. In the case of ring spun carded eotton (polyester-cotton, 40/60) there is a large quantity
of trash and neps classified as Al according to the Uster Classimat. Many of these are separated
and blown off by high-speed ballooning when passed through the air nozzle. Accordingly, air-
jet spun yarn contains fewer minor slubs belonging to the Al class. Major slubs generated (6
classes, i.e. A4. B4, C3, C4, D3, D4) are fewer in number.

4.2.4 Yarn Hairiness, Bulk, and Frictional Properties

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Air-jet spun yams are less hairy when compared with ring spun yams [77,81-83].
In general, the range in values of hairiness are lower for rotor spun yarns compared to ring
spun yam. Air-jet spun yarns are similar to ring spun yams for 1-2 mm intervals, but they fall
to the level of rotor spun yarn for 3 ^ and 4-6 mm intervals, and finally they drop below other
yams.
In a blend of cotton and acrylic, the cotton-rich yams are relatively more hairy than yams
having higher acrylic content [84], although the latter are more bulky. The yam bulk increases
considerably after a steaming process.
If ring yarn diameter is taken as 100%, the diameter of air-jet spun yarn of same linear density
is 75-100%' [85].
After studying the static and dynamic frictional behaviour of cotton and acrylic air-jet spun
yams, Kalyanaraman [86] concluded that air-jet cotton yam has a higher coefficient of friction
than that of similar ring spun yam. Acrylic yarns show higher coefficients and more abrasion
on machine parts in processing.
For polyester-cotton blended yarn, the friction factor of air-jet spun yam is higher than that
of ring spun yam [29].

4.2.5 Stiffness and Abrasion Resistance

Air-jet spun yams have higher bending stiffness when compared with ring spun yams
[72,82,87,88]; and they are less compressible than ring spun yams [82].
The fiexural rigidity of air-jet spun acrylic-cotton blended yam is 15-20% higher than that
of rotor spun yam [74]. In the air-jet spun yams, the clustering effect ofcore fibres due to their
parallel arrangement and winding by tight wrapper fibres, allows little freedom of movement of
fibres during bending, causing higher fiexural rigidity.
The bending stiffness can be reduced by changing various process parameters but this is
achieved with a significant loss in yam strength and increase in yarn hairiness [81]. After
doubling, the increase in fiexural rigidity of air-jet spun yam is lower when compared with that
of ring spun yam, narrowing the difference [24].
The abrasion resistance of air-jet spun yarn is higher than that of ring spun yam [89].
Acrylic-cotton air-jet spun yam shows 3 0 ^ 0 % lower resistance to abrasion than similar
rotor yarn. The tight wrappers niake the air-jet yam sheath immobile, unlike the rotor-spun yarn
sheath which is mobile and thus enhances the abrasion resistance [74]. Toughness index, which
is an indicator of the ability ofa textile substrate to absorb work, also significantly affects the
 23
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

abrasion resistance. The lower toughness index of acrylic-cotton air-jet yams compared with
that of similar OE rotor yarns thus signifies lower abrasion resistance.
After doubling of air-jet spun yarn, the improvement in abrasion resistance is greater than that
of ring spun yam [76].

4.3 Structure - Properties Relationship

The properties of the yams are related to their structural variations. In an attempt to predict yarn
properties through their surface characteristics, Chasmawala et al. [62] derived the following
regression equations:

Breaking load = 515 - (3.12 x # core) (1)

Evenness (CV%) = 15.6 -t- (0.191 # wr) - (0.230 # wr. wi) (2)

Hairiness = 4561 - (42.8 # wr. wi) - (92.4 # wi) - (35.1 # core) (3)
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where hairiness is expressed by number of hairs per eight yards as measured by Toray tester,
# core is the number of core fibres,
# wr is the number of wrapper fibres,
# wr.wi is the number of wrapper wild fibres, and
# wi is the number of wild fibres.
As the number ofcore fibres increases, the breaking load decreases. The number of wrapper
fibres has a greater influence on yam evenness when compared with wrapper wild fibres. As the
number ofcore fibres increases, the proportion of protruding fibres is reduced resulting in lower
yam hairiness.
The length and frequency of wrapper fibres influence the tensile properties of air-jet spun
yams [60]. Also the type of wrappers determines the strength of yarns produced [58,60].
Grosberg et al. [40] reported that, of the three jet arrangements (single jet, two jets in one
direction, and two jets in opposite directions), the two jets imparting twist in opposite directions
produced the strongest yam. Measurements made on the yarn structure indicate that this is due
to a reduction in the proportion of unwrapped structure.
With changes in various process parameters, the yam properties change, which can be
explained by the change of structural parameters such as the extent of wrappers and the
percentage of migrated core fibres [57,58].
Xie et al. [90] and Krause and Soliman [91] have shown that yam strain is related to wrapper
fibre strain by the equation

e^, = (2 sinfl^ - 1)- + [(2 sin^/^ - 1)" -i- ^,^, (2 -i- ejf' (4)

where e^ is the yam strain, e^^ is the wrapper fibre strain, and c<- is the initial angle of wrap
of the wrapper fibre.
Rajamanickam e! al. [92] have formulated a computer simulation model for the prediction
of yam strength from various parameters including the number of wrapper fibres, the wrappin<J
angle of the different wrapper fibres, and the length of the structural classes. They observed that
the yarn strength initially increases with an increased wrapping angle, but then decreases at hi^h
wrapping angles. Moreover, there is a significant interaction between the number of wrapp'er
fibres and the wrapping angle.
 24 Textile Progress

In analytical modelling, certain parameters that are random variables are very difficult to deal
with. The mathematical model relates yam strength to the number of wrapper fibres in the yam,
but the number of wrapper fibres is not constant at all points of the yarn. Therefore, yarn strength,
which is determined in part by the number of wrapper fibres, is not the same at all points of the
yarn and is a random variable with a certain distribution. Using mean values of the random
variations may lead to a large prediction error. To avoid this problem, computer simulation may
be used which can capture the inherent randomness in yams very accurately. But the simulation
model shows the predictive error to be in the range of 37.7-154.7% when compared with
experimentally detennined yarn strength.
Lawrence and Baqui [57] observed that the wrapped stmctures should have imparted strength
to the yarn, and find that the parameters for the Class I (uniformly wrapped) structure were
inversely related to those of Class III (unwrapped) structure, whereas the two parameters for
Class II (randomly wrapped) structure shared no relation. As the frequency of unwrapped places
in the yarn increased, the breaking load and extension of the spun yam decreased. The mean
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length of the class increased as the frequency of the class increased, but did not correlate
significantly with the tensile values. They concluded that the uniformly wrapped portion is
important for obtaining increased yarn strength. Increase in the parameters of frequency and
average length for Class I give better yam evenness, whereas for Class II they show a direct
relation to yarn neppiness. The registered neps were identified as the Class II stmctures.

4.4 Influence of Fibre Properties on Yarn Properties

4.4.1 Ovennew
The properties of yams are dependent on the properties of raw materials and process parameters.
The fibre properties such as fibre length, strength, fineness, frictional characteristics, and
cleanliness play an important role in determining the properties of air-jet spun yarns.

4.4.2 Fibre Length

Fibre length is very important for fasciated yams, more so than for twisted yarns [31,48]. The
longer the fibre, the better the chance that the fibre will adhere to the fibre bundle. The shorter
the fibre, the lower the chance and this results in sharply increasing fibre loss [31]. Longer fibre
can be wound a greater number of times with the same angle of twist, and thus can securely hold
the fibre bundle. At the same twist angle, shorter fibres can be wound around the core only once
or twice, scarcely enough to secure the fibre bundle, and thus the yam strength will be low. For
short staple fibres it is therefore necessary to make the pitch as short as possible in order to
increase the number of turns.
In polyester-cotton blended yarn there is a need for long staple cotton fibres as well as a high
concentration of polyester to maximise yarn strength [93]. The strength of the yarn core results
largely from the frictional effect and from fibre migration. As a result, yam strength would be
expected to be strongly dependent on fibre length [79,83,94,95].
The effect of fibre length on evenness of air-jet spun yam is far higher than for ring spun yams
[71].
Looney [93] observed that the use of 50% fibres shorter than 38 mm (polyester) increased yam
non-uniformity by 10% and the total imperfections by almost 100%, relative to the use of totally
38 mm fibre. Yam non-uniformity (CV%) increased by 30% when combed cotton was replaced
by carded cotton. Similarly, Uster imperfections were four times greater and yam strength tended
to be lower.
Krause and Soliman [91] showed, by theoretical analysis of wrapping twist in single-jet false
 25
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

twist spinning, that this spinning technique requires relatively long fibres of an even length
distribution.
Greater fibre length and minimal short fibre content contribute to improved quality in 100
percent cotton, air-jet spun yarns [96]. Increasing 2.5% span length and 50% span length by 3
mm results in an increase in tenacity of 1 cN/tex [97]. Short fibre content has the most significant
effect on yam quality [96,98,99]. An increase in short fibre content results in lower yam strength,
higher Uster CV%, increased hairiness, increased thin and thick places, and increased Classimat
long thick places. This is more pronounced for finer yam. Le Blanc [100] observed that, for
polyester yarns, the fibre length does not influence the Uster CV% of the yams.
In a core-sheath yam, fibre length in the core is most important [31]. The co-efficient of
variation of yam tenacity improves with longer fibres as well. Yam uniformity does not improve
as much with long sheath fibres and the unmatched fibre length in drafting becomes important
in 'non-intimately blended' yams.

4.4.3 Fibre Fineness

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It is expected that, as the number of fibres per cross-section increases, the tenacity of the yam
will increase. Such a trend was observed by Lord [83] andKaushikera/. [101]. Long coarse fibres
tend to create more imperfections and machine-stops than finer fibres [83]. Air-jet spun yam
produced from fine fibres has considerably lower fiexural rigidity and higher elastic recovery
[101].
In contrast, it has been commented by Miao [59], Puttachiyong [94], and Basu and Oxenham
[102] that the ratio of wrapper to core fibre decreases when fine fibres are used, resulting in
decreased yarn strength. Gilbert [99] reported that the yam strength peaked at medium level
micronaire for both 100% cotton and polyester-cotton blended yams and came down again with
higher micronaire of cotton.
The breaking load of a fibre increases with increased fibre denier [92]. For a given yam count,
however, the number of fibres in a cross-section decreases as the fibre denier increases. The
resultant yam strength is a function of two opposing factors; (a) the tendency of the weaker fibres
to decrease yarn strength, and (b) the tendency of the increased number of fibres in the yam cross-
section to increase yam strength. The results of simulation showed [41] that the effect of the
decreased number of fibres in the cross-section predominates in fine yam counts and this causes
yam strength to level off when coarse fibres are used for fine count yams. Coarser polyester fibres
and combed cotton in a polyester-cotton blend, lead to a higher number of hairs [103]. Fine
polyester fibre in the mix can increase the production of the machine without significant loss in
yam strength and unevenness, but with a considerable deterioration in yam imperfection level
and hairiness due to the predominant effect of higher delivei7 speed. Artzt and Steinbach [104]
opine that fibre fineness has virtually no effect on yarn strength as long as a sufficient number
of fibres are present in the cross-section. In another publication they report that, for processing
100% polyester through air-jet spinning, 1.3 dtex is the optimum fineness for good spinning
stability [105].

4.4.4 Fibre Strength and Elongation

Fibre strength and elongation have maximum infiuence on the tensile properties of air-jet spun
yarn [102,104]. The correlation coefficient of elongation-at-break with yam tenacity is found to
be 0.98-0.99, and with fibre tenacity is 0.85-0.86. The wrappers formed by higher extensible
fibres can hold the core fibres with a tight grip for a longer period when the yam goes through
 -^ Textile Progress

Stress. A study by Sengupta et al. [106] on the characteristics of rotor spun yarns showed that
the wrappers under strained condition extend, and thereby reinforce the yarn matrix to restrict
fibre slippage.
As yarn strength is significantly influenced by fibre strength, in general, stronger fibres
should be preferred for producing air-jet spun yarn [107]. However, this aspect should always
be considered along with fibre elongation. In the case of polyester, it has been observed that a
fibre tenacity beyond 7.0 g/d offers no additional advantage in yam strength due to reduced fibre
elongation in such super-high tenacity fibres. Those fibres have high orientation and brittleness
and are therefore easily damaged during mechanical operations at the fibre producers end, and
in opening and carding at the mills. The strength loss incurred in this operation can be as high
as 15% [31]. A tougher fibre (higher strength and higher elongation) having a uniform coating
with a more wettable finish can reduce the extent of damage.
In a core-sheath yam, the yam strength continues to increase as fibre tenacity is increased,
and for load-bearing, the core of the yarn is especially important [31].
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4.4.5 Frictional Characteristics and Other Properties

Air-jet spun yarn structure depends very much on fibre to fibre friction for good yam strength.
High-static fibre-to-fibre friction is helpful [31]. Also, for improved yam uniformity, good
drafting at high-speed is essential. Uniform coating of the fibres with a wettable finish is essential
here. When spinning 100% polyester fibre, a special requirement is a non-depositing finish. In
cotton blends, the polyester fibres, which might have problems in ring spinning due to spin
finishes, can be successfully spun without jet deposits. With 100% polyester, spinning nozzle
deposits cause twist in"egularities resulting in weak ends and chokes.
The interactions of fibre friction and fibre tenacity towards yam tenacity have been analysed
by Rajamanickam et al. [92]. Three level of fibre friction {\x = 0.05, 0.10, and 0.15) and three
level of fibre tenacity (2,4, and 6 g/d) were considered. It was observed that the yarn tenacity
increases slightly with increase in fibre-to-fibre friction, and that it depends more on fibre
tenacity than on fibre friction. The total frictional force acting on a fibre depends on frictional
force per unit length and fibre length. For a given value of fibre friction co-efficient, the total
frictional force acting on a fibre will increase with increased fibre length [87]. An increase in
the total frictional force will generally increase the number of breaking fibres. An analysis of the
interaction between fibre friction (|i = 0.05,0.10, and 0.15) and fibre length (30,45, and 65 mm)
shows that there is a significant interaction between the two towards yam strength. The effect
of increased fibre friction is more pronounced at lower fibre length.
The cleanliness of cotton fibre is very important for air-jet spinning. Any trash particles or
fibrous aggregates such as neps, hinder the rotation of the yam in the naiTOw air path of the air-
jets [31]. This leads to a short-tenn interruption of twist insertion, creating weak places and end
breaks. The machine life is alo adversely affected by such abrasive trash particles.
Chellamani et al. reported that it is possible to produce jute-polyester blended yarn by air-
jet spinning, despite the brittle nature of jute fibres [108]. The maximum permissible limit for
the jute proportion appears to be 20%. Higher proportions of jute lead to significant deterioration
in all the major yam properties.

4.5 Influence of Process Parameters on Yarn Properties

4.5./ Overview
It is natural that, in any kind of spinning system, the properties of the yams should change with
 27
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

the change in the process parameters. In air-jet spinning there are several parameters that can
affect the yarn properties, such as air pressure in the nozzles, draft, delivery speed, take-up ratio,
and condenser width.

4.5.2 Air Pressure

With the twin-jet system, an increase in the first (from delivery roller) nozzle pressure improves
the yam tenacity for polyester [59] and for polyester-cotton blended [94] yarns. This increment
is accompanied by an increment in the number of wrappers per unit length [81]. The increase
in yarn strength can be at the cost of evenness [80]. It was reported that at lower first jet pressure,
more even yam is produced. The number of thin places and thick places remain practically
constant at higher pressure whilst the nep count increases in parallel with yam strength and
elongation when first nozzle pressure is increased.
Lawrence and Baqui [57], while using long staple fibres in their experiments, observed that
at the lowest first nozzle pressure (within their experimental range), the strongest yam was
produced. The tensile properties deteriorated with increase in first and second nozzle pressure.
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Increase in first nozzle pressure increased the irregularity and imperfections whereas second
nozzle pressure had no significant influence on the irregularity and imperfections of the air-jet
spun yams.
In contrast, it was observed by Punj et al. [63] that the tenacity and breaking extension of air-
jet spun yarn (polyester-viscose blend) increased with first nozzle pressure up to a certain limit.
Further increase in first nozzle pressure decreased the yam tenacity. Increase in percentage of
wrapper fibres by increasing the first nozzle pressure caused increase in traverse forces. Further
increase in first nozzle pressure increased wrapper fibres but wrapper extent decreased due to
increase in random wrapping. Unwrapped portions in yarn increased, thus showing lower tensile
strength. An increase in second nozzle pressure increased the yam tenacity and breaking
extension [63,95], and resulted in an increase in the percentage of tight wrappers and wrapper
extent. The increase in percentage of long wrappers along with a decrease in percentage of short
wrappers caused the increase in tenacity. Fiexural rigidity of the yam increased with increase
in first and second nozzle pressure. Unevenness and imperfections showed no regular trend with
first or second nozzle pressure.
Rajamanickam and co-workers [109] reported a regression equation between yam tenacity
and nozzle pressures.

Yarn tenacity (g/tex) = 6.121 - [0.082 x (Yarn count in tex)] -i- [0.113 x (% polyester)] +
[0.256 X (first nozzle pressure in kg/cm-)] - [0.219 x (second nozzle pressure in kg/cm-)]

They observed a very good correlation (R- = 94.6%) with actual values.
Rajamanickam el al. [110] also formulated a regression equation regarding material-
process-structure relationships. As per their observation, the Class I stmcture is affected by
polyester content, first nozzle pressure, and second nozzle pressure, whereas Class II and III
stmcture is affected by yarn count in addition to these three factors. There are strong
relationships between (i) process parameters and yarn structure, (ii) process parameters and yam
properties, (iii) material parameters and yarn structure, (iv) material properties and yarn
properties, and (v) yam stmcture and yam properties. In addition there is a weak relationship
between material properties and process conditions (Table 5).
 Textile Progress

Table 5
Summary of Material-Process-Structure-Porperty Relationship
Variable Material structure Material process Material process
property relationship -property relationship structure relationship
model model model
Tenacity P0LY,YC,C3.CI POLY, YC,N2, NI
Breaking POLY. C3 POLY.NI
Elongation
Class I POLY,N1,N2
Class II N1,POLY,N2, YC
Class III POLY, N2,N1,YC
Core Cotton P0LY,N2.NLYC
Core-polyester POLY, N2,
fibre
N1,YC
Wild-cotton POLY, N1,N2
Wild-polyester POLY,N1,
fibre
N2
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Note: The vaiiables in the table are ordered, with the most important one on the left.
(Poly - Proportion of Polyester fibre; YC - Yam count; N1 - first nozzle pressure; N2 - second nozzle
pressure)
From Rajamanickam et a/. [110].

There is an interaction between first nozzle pressure and second nozzle pressure towards yam
tenacity [111]. This is because the total number of wrapper fibres in a given yam section and the
length of wrappings fonned at a given first nozzle pressure, depend on the level of second nozzle
pressure, and vice versa. The optimum number of wrapper fibres and wrapping lengths can be
obtained at several different nozzle pressure combinations. However, it would be advantageous
to use the lowest of these nozzle pressure combinations to gain significant savings in energy.

4.5.3 Delivery Speed

At a high surface speed of the front roller, the air flow caused by the drafting rollers plays an
important role [77]. Upstream of the nip between the two rollers, there is a strong air flow along
this nip and away from the axis of the fibre material. Downstream of the nip, the air flows back
towards the axis of the fibrous material. This air flows pei"pendicular to the axis of the fibrous
strand and disturbs the fibre flow. In particular, the fibres on the surface of the fibre ribbon in
the drafting unit risk separation from the rest of the fibres and such fibres go, at least partly, out
of control. The tenacity of the yarn improves with increased delivery speed but the thick places
and neps become higher [57]. This conclusion was drawn based on an experimental spinning
unit where maximum delivery speed was much lower than commercial machines.
Studies carried out on commercial machines show that the yam strength improves with
increase in delivery speed, up to a certain limit, after which it deteriorates [112,113]. The yarn
hairiness increases rapidly with increase in delivery speed, whereas unevenness is not significantly
affected. Kaushik et al. [72] reported that U% increases as the production speed is increased.
The average fibre extent of the yarn increases with increasing spinning speed [63].
In the case of acrylic-cotton air-jet spun yarn, the abrasion resistance shows an increase with
increase in production speed [74]. An increase in wrapped-in length and the number of wrapping
fibres which effectively shield the core leads to higher abrasion resistance and consequently the
flexural rigidity value of yarns i-ncreases with increasing production speed.
It is reported [80] that the yarn twist increases with increase in yarn delivery speed. For blends
of viscose and modal fibre with cotton, a realistic maximum spinning speed to achieve
 Progress in An-jet Spinning

satisfactory yarn tenacity is 180 m/min for 20 tex . Imperfections, such as thick places and neps,
increase after 180 m/min, but the number of thin places is independent of delivery speed. For
cotton yarn [59], the optimum speed was found to be 150 m/min.

4.5.4 Condenser Width

For air-jet spun yarn, the yam strength is attained mainly by the resultant normal force of the
fibres wrapped around the parallel core fibres, which gives rise to the frictional forces necessary
in the yarn assemblage to effect the transfer of tensile strength. These wrappings are caused by
fibres standing out from the main body of the yarn whilst false twisting the fibre assemblage, and
they wrap around the yarn during untwisting. As the band width increases, more fibres go out
of control of the false twist and they form more wrappers [13]. But after a certain limit, the fibres
get out of control completely due to the air turbulence caused by the high speed of the front
drafting roller and the majority of fibres become wrappers, leaving a few as core fibres. The
optimum setting was observed to be between 10-12 mm for cotton yarn.
At a condenser width of 10 mm, the strongest polyester yam could be produced with maximum
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number of wrappers [59].

Tyagi et al. [73,84] and Shah [114] observed that wider condensers increase the tenacity of
yam, along with some increase of unevenness and abrasion resistance. As a natural consequence,
the flexural rigidity increases due to the higher number of wrappers. In their experiments they
might not have reached the maximum hmit as observed by others.
In contrast to others, Kampl etal. [115] suggested that minor improvement of the yam tensile
properties can be achieved by using a nan^ower condenser.

4.5.5 Draft
The main draft has a significant influence on the breaking load, elongation-at-break, and
hairiness of air-jet spun yarns. All these parameters increase with increase in main draft. The
effect of a specific first nozzle pressure on the yam evenness is different at different drafts. This
implies that the number of wrapper fibres is affected as draft changes and hence a simple change
in draft can affect yam structure also [62].
Drafts of up to 170 can be used to produce yarn with very good regularity indices, using a three-
roller drafting system [116]. However, break drafts and main drafts aie governed by limits. The
mean tenacity and elongation values increase with rise in main diaft. One would have to use as
high a main draft as possible and a low preliminary draft. The high main draft stretches the fibre
well, resulting in a high level of fibre orientation and more useful fibres for sharing the load under
strain. At the same time, however, the variation of tenacity and breaking elongation can become
higher. The yam imperfections increase sharply with an increase in the main draft and, because
of poor consolidation, the thick places lead to weak spots in the yarn. The optimum main draft
is 35 and the maximum break draft can be up to 5. The three-roller drafting system does not show
any disadvantages over the four-roller drafting system at a given sliver weight. Despite the two
drafting zones, the three-line drafting system operates just as well as a four-line drafting system
up to specific preliminary and main draft levels. In particular, there are no differences reoardino
yarn tenacity and elongation-at-break, which are very important criteria for evaluating false
twist yarns. The advantage of the four-roller drafting system is that, whilst keeping the mai'n draft
constant, the total draft can be increased due to having three drafting zones, which means heavier
sliver can be processed.
With the increase in main draft, the relaxation shrinkage of yarn reduces significantly [85]
 ^0 Textile Progress

4.5.6 Other Process Variables

The tenacity of air-jet yam increases marginally with feed ratio but then passes through a
maximum value. The elongation-at-break follows a similar trend [57,94]. The yam uniformity
is improved with increased feed ratio. An optimum value was found to be 0.98 (ratio of surface
speed of delivery roller and surface speed of front roller).
The increment of feed ratio progressively increases the yarn stiffness and measured twist [81].
The strength curve goes through a maximum at a nominal feed ratio of 0.98. The higher the value
of feed ratio, the higher the yarn tension during twisting and the greater the repression of the
false twist effect.
For acrylic air-jet spun yam, with increase of feed ratio from 0.96 to 0.98, the yam tenacity,
breaking elongation, and flexural rigidity increase [87]. Yam hairiness also tends to increase
to a small extent. There is no significant effect on yam evenness and imperfections.
With increase in feed ratio, the frequency and average length of loose wrapped portions and
unwrapped portions come down, whereas the frequency and average length of tightly wrapped
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portions increase [57].

The distance between the two nozzles is also important, though on commercial machines this
parameter cannot be changed. Studies on an experimental unit show that, as the inter nozzle
distance increases, the yam tenacity and breaking elongation improve along with a deterioration
in evenness and imperfections of the yam [57].
Increases in the gap between the first nozzle and the nip of the front roller, from 0.8 to 1.4
cm in increments of 0.1 cm, have a small favourable effect on yam properties [81]. Decreases
in the gap reduce yam bending stiffness. However, this provides for only marginal improvement
because the reduction in stiffness is accompanied by a small reduction in yam strength and a
small increase in hairiness.
The heat treatment of polyester-viscose blended air-jet spun yam under relaxed conditions
(160°C for 5 mins) gives a decrease in flexural rigidity [117]. The decrease is higher for yams
either having higher linear density on relatively higher polyester content or produced at lower
speed. Though heat treatment decreases the flexural rigidity of both ring spun yam and air-jet
spun yams, this decrease is higher for air-jet spun yam. The heat treatment results in a loss of
tenacity of 6-12%. The loss is on the lower side when the air-jet spun yams are produced at higher
speeds. In the case of a 29.5 tex yarn, air-jet spun from 85/15 polyester-viscose blend, an increase
in diameter of about 26% over the untreated yams is seen, whereas the diameter increase was
only 16.5% when the polyester content was 35%. The corresponding increases in diameter for
ring spun yam are 22% and 18%, respectively. In the production speed range 180-200 m/min,
the increase in diameter on heating steadily decreases with increase in speed. On heat treatment,
a slight increase in unevenness is noticed in all cases.

5. PREPARATION AND POST SPINNING PROCESSES

5.1 Preparatory Processes
Being a new technology working on a different principle when compared with ring spinning,
air-jet spinning needs some changes in preparatory and post spinning processes.
The production of yam directly from drawframe sliver requires a draft in the range of 120 to
200 [94]. Similar drafts are used In rotor spun open-end yarns. However, unlike rotor spinning,
air-jet spinning does not increase the number of doubling of the sliver, nor does it increase its
short-term and long-term uniformity. The problem of directly reducing the weight of a sliver to
that of a yarn is further complicated by operating at delivery speeds of 120-150 m/min.
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

Slivers containing fibres differing greatly in staple lengths develop variable restraints,
leading to iiTegular drafting. Consequently, combed long staple cotton is preferred for blending.
Multiple drawframe passages are preferred to optimise fibre orientation in the sliver. Three
passages of drawing are preferred for air-jet spinning. The study quoted [94] revealed that the
third passage of drawing sliver reduced spinning stops by 50% when compared with second-
passage drawn sliver. Both the total number of imperfections (thin and thick places, and neps)
and yam uneveness decreased as the number of draw passages was increased from 2 to 3. There
was no significant effect on yam strength.
The direction of presentation of sliver plays an important role in determining the properties
of yam [118]. The highest orientation index is obtained by presenting the material with majority
hooks as trailing at all directions except at the final draw frame passage. For air-jet spinning,
presentation of trailing-trailing-leading-trailing hooks shows the best results in terms of yam
tenacity, elongation, and evenness. If the tenacity values of ring and air-jet spun yam prepared
under different combinations of sliver presentation are compared, it is observed that air-jet spun
yarn reacts more strongly than ring spun yam as regard to hook formation and yam tenacity
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under similar conditions of drafting passage.

According to Nakahara [12], three passages of drawing produces stronger yarn when
compared with two passages, due to more parallel alignment of fibres. Sliver CV should be
maintained lower than 3% to maintin quality of spun yam and reduced ends down. Uncarded
cotton balls of large size and foreign matter in the sliver must be eliminated as far as possible.
In the case of polyester-viscose blending, blowroom blending produces yam with higher
tenacity as well as higher strength CV when compared with that of drawframe blending. The
breaking extension of blowroom blended yam is higher than that of drawframe blended yam.
Yam produced by drawframe blending shows Iower irregularity and imperfection levels [118].
But in the case of polyester-cotton blends, drawframe blending and blowroom blending do not
show significant differences in yam properties [94].
For 100% cotton spinning, a combing process is required to reduce the length variation as well
as to improve the purity ofcotton fibres (i.e. reduce trash, broken fibres, etc.) [97].

5.2 Post Spinning Processes

The doubling of air-jet spun yam can be carried out with a reduced number of turns; only
approximately 60-80% of the usual folding twist is necessary to get an optimum strength value
[22].
The wrapper fibres release their tight grip on the yam core during application of twist as the
twisting is carried out in the opposite direction to that of the fibre wrapping. The folded yarn is
therefore soft and bulky as well as smooth and pliable.
The percent strength realisation (30-40%) of finer yarn (2/62s P/C) is more or less equal to
that of ring spun folded yam [119]. In coarser counts (30s P/C), the strength realisation of air-
jet spun folded yam is twice than that of its ring countei-part.
In the warping process, because of the higher friction factor of the air-jet yam surface, winding
tension should be lowered [29]. The ends down in the warper are fewer than with ring spun yarrT
In sizing, air-jet yam picks up 10-20% more starch than ring yarn [ 120]. It is therefore necessary
to adjust the squeezing pressure or to lower the viscosity of the starch solution. The two-fold
polyester-cotton yam produced by air-jet spinning can be woven without the addition of warp
sizing if proper polyester fibre characteristics are chosen [121].
The performance of air-jet spun yam during weaving is superior to that of ring spun yarn
 •^- Textile Progress

because of the lower percentage of weak places [12].

Artzt and Conzelmann [80] reported that a weft insertion trial using air-jet spun weft yarn
recorded not one weft stoppage, the weft insertion rate being 1400 m/min and the total number
of picks effected being 220 000.
Less weak spots, less hairiness, and absence of twist transfer in air-jet spun yam helps in
achieving higher weaving efficiency on air-jet looms when compared with ring spun yam [12].
The improvement in warp stops can be up to 25.5%, and filling stops up to 55%, when air-jet
spun yam is used (Table 6).

Table 6
Ring vs. Air-jet (50/50)
Warp stops
Stops/100 m picks Improvement
Percale 17.4 tex MJS Ring
Sulzer projectile looms 3.5 4.5 22.3%
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Shuttlelooms 10.1 12.5 19.2%

Air-jet looms 3.8 5.1 25.5%
Fillings stops
Muslin 21.9 tex
Air-jet looms 2.0 3.9 51.3%
Percale 14.8 tex
Sulzer projectile looms 3.2 2.4 (33.3%)
FromSantjer [31]

A comparison of weft insertion behaviour on air-jet looms shows that air-jet spun yams have
a higher average velocity (31.19 m/s) when compared with similar ring spun yams (20.93 m/s)
[122]. However, both air-jet and ring yams show the same velocity distribution curve over the
distance along the tube.
Kampl and Leitner [115] opine that, on air-jet looms, the air-jet yams have a slightly lower
air consumption than OE yams of the same count.
On warp knitting machines (Tricot), air-jet single yam run well [80]. Previously, synthetic
filament yarns such as nylon, polyester, and acetate were used for waip knitting. Ring spun yarn
cannot be used except for two-ply yarns.

6. PROPERTIES OF FABRICS MADE FROM AIR-JET SPUN YARNS

6.1 Physical Properties of Fabrics
Fabrics produced from air-jet spun yam are weaker than fabrics produced from ring spun yam
[123,124]. At similar pick densities, plain woven fabrics show higher breaking strength than
twill or satin weave due to better fabric assistance i.e. assistance provided by transverse thieads
due to yam intersections[125]. According to Gray [126], tensile and tear strength of air-jet yam
fabrics are practically the same as those of ring yam fabrics.
Fabrics made from air-jet spun yam are thicker than ring spun yam fabrics [124,125]. The
air-jet spun yarns are less compressible [82]; they require more compressional energy and show
higher energy loss. This indicates that less flattening should occur in cloth woven with air-jet
yarn.
The wear resistance of air-jet yam fabric is higher than that of ring yarn fabric [126] and the
weight per unit area is higher for air-jet yarn fabric [125].
Air-jet yam fabrics show higher flexural rigidity, better crease recovery, and higher drape
 33
Progress in Air-jet Spinning

coefficient when compared with ring yarn fabrics [125]. They are claimed [123] to have better
tailorability because of their shear resistance properties.
Air-jet yam fabrics show less pilling tendency than ring spun yarn fabrics. Plain woven fabrics
are less prone to pilling than twill or satin. Finer yarns are less prone to pilling. Pilling propensity
decreases with increase in pick density, irrespective of weave [125]. Knit fabrics constructed
with air-jet spun yam are significantly more pill-resistant than those made with ring or rotor
spun yarns [127]. This result may be attributed to a slower rate of pill formation due to the yarn's
tightly wrapped structure. A microscopic analysis of polyester-cotton fabric shows that the
anchor fibres of the pills on the air-jet fabric are mostly cotton (approximately 90%), while the
anchor fibres of the pills of ring and rotor spun yam fabrics are mostly polyester (approximately
80%). Thus, the tightly wrapped stmcture of the air jet spun yam apparently inhibits the
formation of free ends of polyester, which are the primary cause of pills. The rate of pill formation
for ring and rotor spun fabrics is six to seven times greater than that of air-jet spun fabric at lower
twist. At higher twist, the difference nan'ows but the rate for air-jet spun fabrics is still lower.
It is claimed [128] that fabric produced using Murata roller-jet spun yam has better pilling
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resistance when compared with conventional air-jet spun yams.

Better evenness, less hairiness, and less bulk of yam make air-jet fabric more air-permeable
[29,81,124,125]. However, fabrics made from air-jet spun yam feel harsher [64,126]. Each yam
is somewhat rough because of differences in fibre orientation. Also, the higher porosity and
thickness of air-jet yam fabric suggests a tendency to remain rounder when deflected by the
weave interlacement. This greater yam roundness adds to the increased harshness of the fabric
surface [77]. The fabric can be softened, subsequently, by mercerising using softening agents,
or by weight reducing.
It is claimed by Tamura [32] that the yam produced by their improved model of air-jet
spinning machine produces softer weaving and knitting yam when compared with conventional
air-spun yarn.
The properties of worsted fabrics made from air-jet double yams were studied by Fischer
[ 129]. The fabric produced by air-jet yam is bulkier when compared with that of fabric made from
ring spun ply yarn. The tear and grab strengths show that these fabrics are marginally weaker.
Drape, pilling, and abtasion resi.stance is not significantly different from ring spun double yam
fabric. Due to the higher bulkiness of air-jet ply worsted yam, one can set up a lighter weight
cloth or can use finer ply yams.
A comparative study on spirality of knitted fabrics produced from ring, air-jet, rotor, and
friction spun yams show that the angle of spirality is minimum for air-jet spun yam [130]. The
spirality angle is very low for air-jet and rotor spun yams (below 2.5°). It is possible to knit fabrics
without any spirality [131]. The quality of fabrics produced from air-jet spun double yarns is
similar to or slightly better than that of single yarn fabric; they appear and handle similarly to
ring spun yam fabrics [36]. As far as pilling, wear resistivity, and dryability are concemed, air-
jet double yam fabric is better than ring spun fabric. The water absorption of air-jet yarn fabric
is higher by about 40%.

6.2 Chemical Processing of Fabrics

By applying different finishing tieatments, the handle of air-jet spun fabric can be made to
closely match that of ring spun yarn fabric [8]. Denier reduction, using caustic soda or treatment
with softeners, can improve the handle of fabrics. Fabrics treated with silicone finishes exhibit
improved bending modulus and fabric hand.
 -•^ Textile Progress

The influence of the application of cellulase enzyme, alkali, and a commercial non-ionic
softener on polyester-viscose air-jet and ring yam fabrics was studied by Sharmaef a/. (Table 7)
[132]. The thickness of the enzyme-treated fabric was less than that of the grey fabric as the
enzyme treatment lead to removal of very fine suiface cellulosic fibres. A reasonable decrease
in the thickness of the fabric treated with caustic soda was found, due to the dissolution of the
surface fibres. However, fabric treated with cellulase enzyme followed by NaOH showed the
lowest thickness. Fabric treated with non-ionic softener showed the least decrease of these four
treatments. Also, the weight of all the fabrics decreased to a marginal extent due to the softening
treatments. The crease recovery improved substantially after all the finishing treatments,
treatment with cellulase followed by caustic soda giving the best result. The effect of non-ionic
softener on crease recovery was minimal, while that of caustic soda and cellulase (when treated
separately) was moderate. Although the decrease in thickness was maximum in the case of
cellulase treatment followed by NaOH treatment, the crease recovery value was maximum. Due
to hydrolysis of the 1 ^ glucosidic bond during the treatment with cellulase enzyme, the treated
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fabric exhibited a considerably lower value of flexural rigidity. Fabrics treated with NaOH
showed lower rigidity than untreated fabrics. These improvements of fabric properties were
accompanied by a loss in tensile strength. The above mentioned effects were more dominant in
the case of air-jet spun yam fabric.

Table 7
Various Softening Treatments given to Grey Fabries
Cellulase enzyme NaOH Cellulase and NaOH Non-ionic softener
Cellulase enzyme NaOH (2%) Cellulase Auxi softener
1.5% on the weight Temp. Room 1.5% on the temp. ^g/1
weight ofviscose temp. ofviscose Acetic acid-lg/1
Temp, 50-55°C Duration: Temp. 5O-55°C Temp. 40-45°C
20 min Duration: 60 min
Duration -60 min L:M = 4O:1 L:M = 40:l Duration: 30 min
Liquor: Material pH ^ ^ . 5 L:M = 40:l
40:1 Washed Washed with Na,CO,,
pH -4 ^ . 5 neutralised dried and then treated with 2%
and dried
washed with dilute NaOH
Na,CO, and dried Temp-R.T
Dur: 20 mins

Washed and neutralised

From Sharnia et al. [ 132]

Air-jet spun yam fabrics have more dye pick-up than ring spun yarn fabrics [123,133], but
the dye brilliance is poorer, due to the unique structure of air-jet spun yam [124].
A study on comparative dyeing behaviour of cotton-polyester blended fabrics made from ring
and air-jet spun yarn indicates that, under the same conditions of dyeing, the air-jet spun samples
possess higher colour strength when compared with the ring spun samples [134]. This is true
for both HTHP dyeing and dyeing using carriers.

7. CONCLUSIONS
Air-jet spinning today is an economically viable process for short staple spinning, preferably for
medium to fine yams: in short staple spinning this system is more popular for man-made fibres
and their blends. For long staple spinning, its application is limited to double yarns. Despite
 Progress in Air-jet Spinning

many developments in machinery, process parameters, and chemical processing, it is not so

popular for 100% cotton spinning to date. If this sector of spinning were to accept this
technology, the population of these machines would increase at a much faster rate.
Selection of nozzles, process parameters, and chemical processing is very important for
individual end-uses. Many variations of yarn properties and fabric properties can be produced
simply by proper selection of a combination of the three.
Despite its success throughout the world, it is not so popular in European countries, where
quality of material precedes economy. More research and development work is necessary in that
aspect to make this technology universally acceptable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to Ms Indra Doraiswamy, Director, South India Textile Research
Association, for her continuous encouragement, and permission to publish this monograph. I am
also thankful to Mr T.V. Ratnam, Advisor, SITRA, for his guidance in preparing this issue of
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Textile Progress.
The author and publisher are grateful to various journals for permission to reproduce several
illustrations that have previously appeared elsewhere. Thanks are due to The Textile Institute
for permission to reptoduce Figures 5, 10, and 16, The Textile Research Institute for Figures 1
and 15, The Controller of Her Majesty's Stationary Office for Fig. 2, and Murata Machinery
Works for providing Figures 3, and 12-14.

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