Guidance Leaflet

Reducing water use –

softeners and reverse osmosis

Most water supplies contain dissolved solids Hardness or scale formation can impair the efficiency of
(e.g. salts and other minerals, particularly some equipment (e.g. boilers and heat exchange units)
or, simply, the operation of valves. Just 1.6 mm (1/16”) of
calcium and magnesium). The type and level of
scale in heating systems will cause a 12% loss in heating
the dissolved solids contribute to the overall efficiency1.
‘hardness’ of the water which, in certain parts
of the UK, such as the east and south-east, can To remove the dissolved solids, water softeners, based
on ion exchange, are often used. In situations where
be very high. If not treated, these can impair
high-quality water is required or is beneficial (e.g. for
process efficiency and cause equipment to fail. renal dialysis or cooling tower ‘make-up’ water), further
Businesses abstracting water directly from a groundwater treatment by reverse osmosis to remove the total dissolved
source or receiving water supplied by their water company solids (TDS) may be required. In each of these treatment
in hard water areas may need to take action to prevent processes there are opportunities to save water.
scale forming through the precipitation of these minerals
during use.

1
British Water ‘A Consumers’ Guide to Water Softening’, available at
www.britishwater.co.uk/Document/Download.aspx?uid=ee36c54e-925e-4b64-b732-b7b13aa6a638

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02 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis
10000 100

Ion exchange softeners 1000

Figure 1: Salt and water use by softeners during a regeneration cycle
10

10,000
10000 100
100

Salt (kg/regen)

(m3/regeneration)
Ion exchange water softeners comprise a resin

Salt (kg/regeneration)
100 1,000
1000 10
10 1
or ‘bed’ contained in a large cylinder through which

(m /regen)
Salt (kg/regen)
the water flows. The calcium and magnesium 100
100 11

3
ions in the water (which cause hardness) are 10

Water Water
0.1
exchanged for sodium ions from the resin.
10
10 0.1
0.1

Once all the sodium ions have been exchanged for

calcium and magnesium ions, the resin will need to be 1 0.01
regenerated. This is undertaken by backflushing a strong 1 11 0.01
0.01
11 10 10
10 100100
100 1,000
1000 1000
salt solution (brine) through the unit allowing the calcium CapacityCapacity of softener 3 3) at 300ppm hardness
(m
Capacityof
ofsoftener
softener(m (m3))at at300ppm
300 ppmhardness
hardness
and magnesium ions to be exchanged for sodium. The Water use Salt use
Water use Salt use
used brine solution, which now contains calcium and
magnesium, is discharged to drain.
Note, this graph assumes a water hardness of 300 ppm
Water softeners may be installed on the main water of calcium carbonate, which is for very hard water. If the
supply (but excluding wholesome (potable) water) to a water hardness is significantly different from 300 ppm,
whole building or dedicated to a specific area such as: then the capacity of the softener will be different from that
shown. For example, if your water hardness is 150 ppm,
• boiler ‘make-up’ water; the effective capacity of the softener will be about double
that calculated from the graph.
• laundries;
Salt typically costs between £5 and £8 per 25 kg (bulk
• kitchens (dishwashers); delivery tends to be cheaper) and, using your water supply
• process waters in high hardness areas; costs, you should be able to estimate the ‘value’ of each
cubic metre of softened water.
• dyeing; and
Typical values of mains and softened water are:
• cooling tower ‘make-up’ water.
UK mains supply3 £0.59 – £1.75/m3
Water softeners should not be installed on the wholesome
water supply because the elevated concentration of Softened water £1.00 - £2.16/m3
sodium in softened water has potential health risks.

Water companies should be able to provide information Remember that additional costs will be incurred for
on the water hardness in their area. Alternatively, a map disposal of any water (e.g. regeneration liquors) to sewer,
that shows the water hardness in England and Wales is typically between £0.54 and £2.67/m3.
available from the Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI)2.

Hidden costs of Actions

water softening 1. Identify the location and number of water
softeners used on your site.

The softening process will consume chemicals 2. Calculate how much softened water you are
(such as salt), water and electricity, so the cost using and its cost.
of softened water is greater than the incoming
mains or abstracted water.
The amount of salt and water required for the softening
process will depend on the hardness of your water. If you
do not know the amount of salt and water your softener
uses, you can estimate what it should use from Figure 1.

2
www.dwi.gov.uk/consumers/advice-leaflets/hardness_map.pdf
3
UK mains supply based on standard 2010/11 tariffs.
 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis 03

Understanding where
water is used in a
softening plant
To identify the water saving opportunities, you Water used for regenerating ion exchange beds can be
first need to consider: easily monitored. Meters M1 and M2 installed in the
locations shown in Figure 2 enable the water volume to be
• how much water the softening process calculated:
uses; and M1 – M2 = water used by softening unit for
regeneration and brine make-up
• how much and where softened water is
being used. This measured volume can then be used to check the
plant’s actual performance against the manufacturer’s
specification.

Figure 2: A typical softening plant and potential water efficiency improvements

3. Understand how regeneration

is initiated and whether it can be
1. How many softeners improved
do you have on site?

Controller

Incoming cold water

M1
V2
V1 V3

Ion
exchange
bed
Regenerant
effluents to
Salt drain
solution

2. Understand how much

water (and salt) is used

Key Normal flow route V4

(producing softened water)
M2
Softened water
Cold water
supply
Softened water
Salt/regenerant solution
M1 Meter location 4. Understand where
V1, V2, V3, V4 Valves for softened water is
regeneration control used and why
04 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis

By looking at your site’s water distribution plan, you

should be able to identify the various points where
Opportunities for
softened water is used and, if you have meters installed,
you can assess the amount of softened water issued,
saving water during
as shown by M2 in Figure 2. Develop a water balance
for your regeneration process to check that the actual
regeneration
volume of mains water used is similar to the theoretical
water consumption value calculated from your water
The amount of salt and water used during a
balance. For guidance on developing a water balance see
EN895 ‘A guide to developing a water balance’, which is regeneration cycle depends on the capacity
available on the WRAP website4. of the softener rather than the degree of
exhaustion of the ion exchange bed because
Each point of use should be reviewed to determine
very few softeners are equipped with sensors
whether it requires softened water or whether mains
water could be used instead. The use of a blend of to detect when the ion exchange bed is
mains and softened water may be appropriate in some exhausted (see Figure 1). This means that,
instances. Meters should also be installed where however much the softener has been used,
appropriate to measure and monitor the use of softened the regeneration cycle will consume the same
water. Water meters are inexpensive to install; a simple amount of salt and water.
30 mm water meter with a pulsed output costs between
£75 and £95, excluding fitting. Meters are included on the Consequently, how often the regeneration cycle is
Water Technology List5, as part of the Enhanced Capital triggered will determine the overall use of salt and
Allowance scheme. water by the softener. With salt costs ranging from
£5 to £8/25 kg (bulk delivery is cheaper) and raw water
Well-labelled pipework is key to understanding where from £0.59 to £1.75/m3, costs for regeneration can soon
water is being used around your site. There are often mount up.
many pipes around a softening installation and, unless
they are easy to follow, it can be difficult to understand Salt and water will be used unnecessarily if the softener
what flows where, making water management more is regenerated before the full capacity of the ion exchange
difficult. Labelling pipework to show its contents and flow bed has been used. This is more likely if regeneration
direction will make this much easier. This is also true for is undertaken manually or on a timed basis. In some
the softened water distribution system. softeners, the volume throughput will be monitored and,
at the appropriate time, a controller will activate the
regeneration cycle by opening the regeneration valves
(V1 – V4 in Figure 2). This is the most efficient and cost-
Actions effective method of controlling regeneration cycles.
1. If necessary, install meters to monitor your The volume of water that can be softened by an ion
softened water use. exchange bed depends on the water’s hardness, and this
varies from location to location (although it is usually
2. Check your actual regeneration water use consistent for any single water supply). Therefore, the
against the theoretical value and investigate maximum volume of water that can be softened before
the bed capacity is exhausted needs to be established
any discrepancies. before setting the controller to the volume at which
regeneration is to start, known as the breakthrough point.
3. Check that softened water is necessary for
each point of use and whether any could be The breakthrough point can usually be calculated by
replaced with mains water. using the softener specification/hardness of water or
it can be determined by undertaking simple tablet/
4. Label pipework to indicate contents and flow colorimetric testing6 on the softened water to detect
where the hardness breaks through.
direction.

4
http://envirowise.wrap.org.uk
5
www.businesslink.gov.uk/wtl
6
Tablet/colorimetric testing uses proprietary tablets that react with the ‘hardness’ in a water sample to produce a colour. This is measured in a
colorimeter, which then indicates the level of hardness in the sample.
 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis 05

Actions Hidden costs of

1. Establish how your softener is set to reverse osmosis
regenerate – manually, by timer or by
volume. Electricity used by the high-pressure feed
pump is the main operating cost of RO plant.
2. Consider setting regeneration to start based
Typically, the installed power requirement
on volume throughput.
increases as the capacity of the RO unit
3. Check the volume throughput is set to the increases. The range of installed power
maximum so that regeneration occurs requirements for various capacities of RO units
just before bed exhaustion (i.e. hardness is shown in Figure 4.
breakthrough).
Figure 4: Range of installed power requirements for RO units

35
35

Reverse osmosis Installed power (kW)

30
30

25
25

20
20
Reverse osmosis (RO) works by forcing
water molecules through a semi-permeable 15
15

membrane at high pressure, typically between 10

10

400 kPa and 1,200 kPa (4 bar and 12 bar), 5

producing two water streams. One stream is
00
very pure water and is known as the permeate. 0
0.0 5
5.0 10
10.0 15
15.0 20
20.0 25
25.0 30
30.0 35
35.0 40
40.0
The other stream retains the dissolved solids Feed flow3 (m /h)
Feed flow
3
(m /hour)
and particulate matter, and is known as the
reject water (or concentrate). Reject water Additional costs may be incurred for the disposal of
is usually disposed of to drain. A typical the reject water as trade effluent, any necessary pre-
membrane treatment plant is shown in Figure 3. treatment (such as softening) and membrane cleaning.
Periodic replacement of the membranes will also be
RO removes a high proportion of TDS, typically between required, but this depends on the operational life of the
90% and 98%, and virtually all particulates. This means RO plant. Typical costs for water treated by RO7 range
RO is suitable for many applications where high-quality between £1.51 and £3.83/m3.
water is required or is beneficial (e.g. boiler or cooling
tower feedwater).

Mains water has a relatively high TDS content. Therefore Action

it is often softened before it enters the RO unit to prevent
scale build-up and membrane fouling, which reduce 1. Using your own costs, calculate the cost of
performance. the treated water produced by your RO plant
to see how it compares with the ‘typical costs’.
Figure 3: Membrane treatment plant recovering evaporative
condensate for reuse (courtesy United Milk, now Westbury Dairies)

7
Note this does not include capital and maintenance costs (e.g. including membrane replacement) which can be significant for RO plant.
06 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis

Understanding where Volume of permeate

x 100
water is used during Recovery efficiency (%) =
Volume of feedwater

reverse osmosis Installing meters in the locations shown in Figure 5 would

allow this to be measured and expressed as:

To identify the water saving opportunities on

M3
RO installations you first need to consider: Recovery efficiency (%) = x 100
M2
• how much water is being used by the RO
process;
Typical recovery efficiencies are between 70% and 80%,
• the volume of reject water that is produced; but will depend on operating parameters as well as
the feedwater quality, membrane type and membrane
and condition.
• how much permeate is being produced and The main loss of water will be due to the flow of reject
where it is being used. water; a lower reject water volume will give a higher
recovery efficiency.
Potential areas for water efficiency improvements in a
typical RO plant are shown in Figure 5. Additional water will be used for the periodic cleaning of
the membrane units. However, this is usually insignificant
The recovery efficiency of RO units can be monitored since
compared with the flow of reject water.
most RO installations have meters (or rotameters) on the
permeate and reject water flows. The recovery efficiency of
an RO unit can be calculated using the following formula:

Figure 5: A typical RO plant and potential water efficiency improvements

1. Can pre-treatment be
improved to increase
membrane performance?

Cartridge
particulate
Softening filter
Incoming
cold water
M1
4. Can used permeate be
Regeneration recovered for reuse?
M2
liquors to drain

Reverse osmosis units Permeate or

M3 ‘treated water’
High-pressure
to supply
pump
400 kPa – 1,200 kPa
(4 bar – 12 bar) M4
Key
Cold water
Softened water 3. Can the reject water be Reject water/
Reject water/ recovered for reuse? concentrate
concentrate 2. Can the ratio of
to drain
Permeate or permeate:concentrate
‘treated water’ be improved?
M1 Meter location
 Reducing water use – softeners and reverse osmosis 07

Reuse of reject water

Actions The flow of reject water can be high, between 20% and
30% of the feedwater flow. Therefore, recovering and
1. Calculate the recovery efficiency of your RO unit. reusing this water offers considerable scope for water
savings. Often, this water is very similar to the initial
2. Quantify the monthly or annual flow of reject feedwater, but contains an elevated concentration of
TDS, typically between 3 and 5 times the concentration
water to identify whether it can be recovered
in the feedwater. This water can usually be recovered
for reuse. and reused directly where water quality is not important
(e.g. for toilet flushing).
3. Identify where permeate is being used, assess
whether required and reduce if possible. If the water has been softened prior to use in the RO
unit and the site uses large volumes of softened water
elsewhere, it may well be possible to recover the reject
water (which is essentially ‘concentrated’ softened water)

Opportunities for and add it to other softened water in a storage tank. The
concentrated TDS in the reject water will be diluted and is

saving water during unlikely to significantly affect the hardness of the water.
This reduces the amount of softened water you may need

reverse osmosis to generate and helps to reduce costs.

Reuse of used permeate

Permeate from RO units is high-quality water. Very often,
There are three key aspects to consider when when this water is used, the wastewater generated (i.e.
used permeate) is also high quality when compared with
evaluating the water efficiency of RO plant: ‘raw’ mains water. As such, it may be possible to collect it
and reuse it (e.g. for final high-quality rinse water).
• increasing the recovery efficiency;

• reusing the reject water; and
• reusing used permeate. Actions
Recovery efficiency
The recovery efficiency can be increased by improving
1. Establish whether any changes to the
the pre-treatment, for example, by installing softeners to plant operation could improve the recovery
reduce membrane fouling or cartridge filters to reduce efficiency.
fine solids in the feedwater.
2. Review the opportunities to recover reject
Sometimes, solids can limit the recovery efficiency.
water and possibly blend with other water for
Having a high concentration of these solids in the
feedwater may result in the membrane being fouled. To reuse.
prevent salts precipitating out, the concentration needs
to be reduced by continual dilution to keep the salts in 3. Review uses of permeate and establish
solution. whether any used permeate could be
recovered for reuse elsewhere on site.
The addition of chemicals may help to mitigate this effect
(e.g. the addition of an acid can help to limit bicarbonate
ion concentration). Your RO supplier should be able to
advise further.

Waste & Resources The Old Academy Tel: 01295 819 900 Resource Efficiency helpline
Action Programme 21 Horse Fair Fax: 01295 819 911 0808 100 2040
Banbury, Oxon E-mail: info@wrap.org.uk
January 2011 OX16 0AH

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