9 AC networks I: phasors and impedance

Outline

• AC voltage and current in single elements–resistor, capacitor, inductor

• Impedance

• Phasor analysis–Examples

• Network analysis using phasors–Examples

– Series group
– Parallel group

• Power factor

• Single- and three-phase electrical power–star, delta

Learning outcomes

After completing this section you should be able to...

1. Calculate currents and voltages in a passive network excited by a.c. at a

specified frequency, using phasor methods.

2. Recognise and correctly interpret the following terms: impedance, pha-

sor, reference phasor, reactance.
9.1 AC voltage and current in single elements

9.1.1 Resistor
i v, i
vR

E R vR
6
i  2 !t CURRENT AND VOLTAGE
REMAIN ‘IN PHASE’
T t
= 1=f
KVL: R = v E = Vm cos !t
vR 1
Ohm’s law:
iR = R = R Vm cos !t (9.1)
or if i = Im cos !t then
vR = iR = RIm cos !t: (9.2)
9.1.2 Capacitor
NEW ORIGIN
i =C t
dv
i v, i
= CVm( ! sin !t)

6


d
vC



= !CVm cos(!t + 12 )



i
vC
6

E C
t 
PHASE SHIFT
CURRENT ‘LEADS’ VOLTAGE

KVL: Cv = E = Vm cos !t so
 
iC = !CVm cos !t + 12  : (9.3)

If i = Im cos !t ,
1 
vC = !C Im cos !t 12  :

(9.4)
Summary

Under steady a.c. conditions, the voltage across a capacitor...

(a) constantly lags the current by 90

(b) has an amplitude 1=!C that of the current
9.1.3 Inductor
i = Im cos !t
di
i v, i

 vL = L dt
= LIm( ! sin !t)

i vL

9


vL
= !LIm cos(!t + 21 )
6

E L
t

VOLTAGE ‘LEADS’ CURRENT

Let i = Im cos !t, then

 
vL = !LIm cos !t + 12  (9.5)
Summary

Under steady a.c. conditions, the voltage across an inductor...

(a) constantly leads the current by 90

(b) has an amplitude !L that of the current
9.2 Impedance

Impedance, Z , extends the concept of resistance to a.c..

a.c. voltage to a.c. current has two components:

z of voltage to current magnitude (in ohms, Ò)

(a) The ratio

(b) The phase shift  from current to voltage (in degrees or radians)

Impedance can be written as z ∠ where

Vm V
z= I = I
m
 For single elements:

• Resistor: Z = R ∠0

• Capacitor: Z =
1 ∠ 90
!C
• Inductor: Z = !L∠ + 90

To remember the phase shift:

CIVIL
in a capacitor C, I leads V , and V leads I in an inductor L
9.3 Phasor analysis

• Provide an important visualisation and sketching tool

• Can be used to solve simple problems

9.3.1 Phasor quantities

x = Xm cos !t can be visualised as the projection of a rotating line...

Xm long and...
rotating at ! radians per second
 Rotating line is... a phasor (rotating vector)

x x
Xm x versus t plot
CONVENTION:
THIS WAY UP!!
Phasor diagram

ωt
PHASOR Xm










time, t
 CONVENTION:
THIS WAY UP!!
Phasor diagram

PHASOR Xm




ωt
x

x
x versus
• At any instant, a phasor is defined by...

its length

its angle (∠) to the positive x axis

• Phasor notation Xm∠

e.g. in the case shown above...

(a) at t = 0: x = Xm∠0
(b) at time (!t = 12 ), x = Xm∠90
 v, i Vm v, i v, i versus t plot
v Im
Phasor diagram

i
ωt
Vm

time, t
Im α
Reference phasor

Vm
Im
α
Im α ωt
v, i v, i Im v, i
Vm
φ
VOLTAGE CURRENT
CHOSEN AS Vm CHOSEN AS
REFERENCE REFERENCE
9.3.2 Addition of sinusoidal voltages and currents
The diagram opposite represents the output voltages from two a.c. sources with the
9.3.2 Addition of sinusoidal voltages and currents
same frequency, but with different amplitudes and phases: g
+
v
'$
v1 = Vm1 cos ωt ,
1 = Vm1 cos !t
vand v2 = Vm2 cos(!t + ) : 1 (v1 + v2) = ?
6

and
+
&%

v2
'$

v2 = Vm2 cos (ωt + φ) .

&%
g

v v versus t plot
v
Vm1

 

v
Phasor diagram


YH
H
JJ HH
J H
HH
J H
HH time, t
α

J
J H
H
J
J
Vm2

At any instant, KVL applies, so that the total voltage is

v12 (t) = v1 (t) + v2 (t) :

 The sum of sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency is represented by
the vector sum of their phasors

Also true for currents...

simple method for applying Kirchhoff’s laws to a.c. networks

9.3.3 Voltage, current and impedance phasors

The length of a phasor represents an r.m.s. value, not a peak value as

in the diagrams above.

Impedance

The impedance, Z, of a port is the voltage phasor between its terminals

when a unit current phasor, 1∠0 A, flows
Example 9.1

The impedance of a network at 50 Hz is 20∠45 Ò. What will be the peak

value and phase angle  of the voltage if a current 10∠15 A flows between

the network terminals at the same frequency?

10 A implies an r.m.s. value

Quoted 45 phase angle implies that reference already chosen

For current 10∠0 A ...
the voltage is 10  20∠45 V by definition of impedance
 200 V 200 V

-


45 45 I = 10 A
15


:

I = 10 A
 
- 

v, i v, i
p
Vm = 2pVrms
= 200 2 V!

Since phasors rotate as a group, V must remain 45 ahead of I , so that

when I = 10∠15
V = 200∠ (45 + 15) = 200∠60:
For phasors V I
and :
V = ZI

“multiply by I Z = z∠” means: • multiply the length of by I z

• increase its phase angle by 

V
I=Z

“divide V by Z ” means: • divide the length of V by z

• decrease its phase angle by 
Example 9.2

The impedance of a network at 10 kHz is ∠ 5 60 Ò. What phasor current

I will flow if an a.c. voltage of 250 V is applied to its terminals at the same
frequency?

250∠0 V, i.e. this voltage

250
‘250 V’ implies is the reference phasor.


The phasor current is
5 ∠ 60  = 50 ∠60 A.

I =1A
60
-
J

60
J 

250 V

5V
J

J
-
J
J
J
J
^
J
9.4 Network analysis using phasors

Kirchhoff’s laws applied to a.c. networks:

KVL: the phasor sum of all a.c. potential differences around a loop is zero
KCL: the phasor sum of all a.c. currents flowing into a node is zero

• Single impedance

• Depends on frequency

• Symbol of resistor
9.4.1 Series group

Animation on Moodle

1. Unit reference current, shared by all elements in group

2. Calculate V = Z across each element

3. KVL: impedance of group is phasor sum of those of its elements

Example 9.3

A load consists of a 470 mH inductor in series with a 220 Ò resistor.

470 mH 220 Ò

(a) Determine the impedance of this load at 50 Hz.

(b) Determine the r.m.s. current, and its phase angle to the applied voltage,
when this load is connected to a 10V, 50 Hz source.
1. Series network: let there be unit current through it.

1 Z 220 0 :
(a)
V
2. Resistor: R =  R = ∠ V V
L= 148 V 265 V
6 
*


V 1 Z !L 90 ∠ 


Inductor: L =  L =





= 2  50  0:47∠90


33:9
 
 

= 148∠90 V


I =1A VR = 220 V
 
 - -

3. By vector addition (using Pythagoras):

V + V =
p
220 148 tan
2+ 2∠

1

148
= 265∠33:9 Ò.

R L
220
Hence for V = 10 V:
(a) Z = 265∠33:9 Ò (b) I =
 V 10

= ∠ 0 33:9 = 37:7∠ 33:9

Z 265
10 V
10
mA (b) 33:9
H
HH 
-

I = 265 A
H
HH
j
H
9.4.2 Parallel group

1. Unit reference voltage, shared by all elements in group

2. Determine I = 1=Z through each element

I
3. KCL: tot is phasor sum of those through parallel elements

4. Impedance of group is Ztot = 1=Itot

Example 9.4


A load consists of a 1 F capacitor in parallel with a 470 Ò resistor.

470 Ò 1 F
u

(a) Determine the impedance of this load at 1 kHz. u

(b) Determine the r.m.s. current, and its phase angle to the applied voltage,
when this load is connected to a 10V, 1 kHz source.
1. Parallel network: let there be unit p.d. across it.

2. Resistor: IR =
1 1
= ∠0 = 2:128∠0 mA.
ZR 470
Capacitor: I =
1 = !C∠90 = 210310 6
∠90 = 6:283∠90mA
C
ZC
IC = 6:283 mA
6 




3. By vector addition (using Pythagoras):
1  
6:283
6:634 mA


p
2 128 6 283 tan

I I
R+ C = = : :
2+ 1

2∠
2:128

Z

= 6:634∠71:3 mA

Hence

1

∠ 71:3 = 150:7∠ 71:3 Ò

(a) Z = 71 3 

6:634  10 3 :

10 V = 1 V IR=2:128mA

V

- -

(b) I = = = 66:34∠71:3 mA 
Z Z
9.5 Power factor

v = Vm cos !t applied to a load, i = Im cos(!t + ) passes

Average work done per cycle:

1
P = 2
Z 2
vi d(!t) = 21 VmIm cos :
0

r.m.s values V , I used, then:

P = V I cos 

cos  is the power factor

9.6 Single- and three-phase electrical power

• Coil rotating at constant speed in magnetic field...

generates sinusoidal, constant frequency a.c. voltage

• Resistive load connected...

input torque will vary periodically...

causing heavy mechanical vibration

• Instead three rotating coils separated by 120

 Phase voltage vLN Phasor diagram
vLN1 vLN2 vLN3 VLNm ILN3 (NB: rms quantities)
VLN
VLN3
time, t VLN1
ILN1
VLN2
ILN2

• Electrical loads on all three coils equal...

total power, input torque... not periodic

• Mains power distribution systems principle

9.6.1 Star connected generator

CONSUMERS
MUST
VLN1 coil 1 R INTERCONNECT
Generator VLN2
'$
Loads

coil 3
L1 I L1 R
&%
R
L2 I L2
VLN3 coil 2 L3 I L3 @
I
@

N
@
@
UNNECESSARY
IL1 + IL2 + IL3 =
9.6.2 Delta connected loads

Industrial electricity consumers connect to all 4 wires

1. Higher voltages by connection between lines

2. Rotating magnetic fields to drive high-power motors

 PHASE
VOLTAGE
VLL

-
Generator R R
Loads
L1
L2
R
L3
N USED FOR
STAR LOADS

By phasor addition,
V
phase voltage across each load resistor... higher than line voltage LN:
p
VLL = 3VLN