Electrical & Electronic

Engineering
(AC & 3-Phase AC Circuits)

Course- EL&EC Eng (ENEL2EE) (2024)

Course Lecturer- Dr. P. Kumar
Email- kumarp@ukzn.az.za
1
 AC signals 3

• Alternating current (AC) flows one way, then the other

DC
AC

way, continually reversing direction.

AC

• A sinusoidal wave 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 is given by

𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝 cos(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝜑𝜑) 1

1 2𝜋𝜋
• 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 is the amplitude; 𝑓𝑓 = is the frequency; 𝜔𝜔 = is

Amplitude
0
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇
the angular frequency; 𝜑𝜑 is the phase angle.
• Frequency of the wave in Fig (on right) is equal to: -1

1 1
𝑓𝑓 = = Hertz
𝑇𝑇 2
-2

𝜋𝜋
• 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 cos(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝜑𝜑) = cos 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − = sin 𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 -3

2 0 1 2 3 4 5
Time(sec)
6 7 8 9 10

2
 AC signals (cont.)
• Phase relations is a term used to describe the angle relationship between two signals of same
frequency.
sin 𝛼𝛼 = cos 𝛼𝛼 − 90
• As a result, the cosine wave is said to have a leading phase of 90° ahead of the sine wave and
the sine wave is said to have a lagging phase of 90° behind the cosine wave.
• What this means is that, the cosine wave will reach its maximum value ahead of the sine
wave.

3
 AC signals (cont.)

• Current has 40⁰ phase lead to voltage

4
 AC signals (cont.)
Example: Find the phase relation between 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 2cos 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 10 and
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 3sin(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 10).

5
 AC signals (cont.)
Solution:
• 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 3sin 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 10
• 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 3cos(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 10 − 90)
• 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 3cos(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 − 100)
=> Current has 110⁰ phase lead to voltage.

6
 AC signals (cont.)
Phasor notation:
• In physics and engineering, a phase vector, or phasor, is a representation of a
sinusoidal wave whose amplitude (𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 ) and frequency ( f ) are time-invariant.
Phasors decompose the behaviour of a sinusoid into three independent
factors that relay amplitude, frequency and phase information.
• The phasor representation of a sinusoidal wave 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑) is
given by

• 𝑽𝑽 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 ∠𝜑𝜑

7
 AC signals (cont.)
Average and rms values:
• Average of a signal
1 𝑇𝑇
𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = � 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 0
• Root Mean Square (RMS) average is a
mathematical quantity used to compare both
alternating and direct signals.
1 𝑇𝑇
𝑦𝑦𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = � 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑇𝑇 0
• For a Sine wave of 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐴𝐴 sin(2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 + 𝜑𝜑)
the Average and RMS values are calculated as
1 𝑇𝑇
• 𝑦𝑦𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ∫ 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑇𝑇 0
1 𝑇𝑇 𝐴𝐴
• 𝑦𝑦𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = ∫ 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑇𝑇 0 2
8
 AC circuits and phasor notation
• Consider a circuit with an ac voltage connected to a load. The ac voltage gives rise to a current
with a phase angle.

𝑽𝑽 𝑉𝑉∠0 𝑉𝑉
• 𝑰𝑰 = = = ∠ − 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑖𝑖𝑖 − 𝜑𝜑
𝒁𝒁 𝑍𝑍∠𝜑𝜑 𝑍𝑍

9
 Impedance and admittance
• Impedance is the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current in a load.
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉
• 𝑍𝑍 = = = ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 − 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝜑𝜑𝑧𝑧
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼
• Admittance is the ratio of the phasor current to the phasor voltage in a load.
𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼∠𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 𝐼𝐼
• 𝑌𝑌 = = = ∠ 𝜑𝜑𝑖𝑖 − 𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 = 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝜑𝜑𝑦𝑦
𝑉𝑉 𝑉𝑉∠𝜑𝜑𝑣𝑣 𝑉𝑉
1 1 1
• 𝑍𝑍 = 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝜑𝜑𝑧𝑧 = = = ∠ −𝜑𝜑𝑦𝑦
𝑌𝑌 𝑌𝑌𝑌𝜑𝜑𝑦𝑦 𝑌𝑌
Combination of Impedances
• Impedances in series 𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑍𝑍1 + 𝑍𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑍3 + ⋯
1 1 1 1
• Impedances in Parallel = + + +⋯
𝑍𝑍𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑍𝑍1 𝑍𝑍2 𝑍𝑍3
Combination of Admittances
1 1 1 1
• Admittances in series = + + +⋯
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑌𝑌1 𝑌𝑌2 𝑌𝑌3
• Admittances in Parallel 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑌𝑌1 + 𝑌𝑌2 + 𝑌𝑌3 + ⋯
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 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Resistive load:
• In a resistive load the voltage and current are in phase.
• 𝑣𝑣𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑
• 𝑖𝑖𝑅𝑅 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) ~ 𝑅𝑅

𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅 ∠𝜑𝜑 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅

• 𝑍𝑍𝑅𝑅 = = = = 𝑅𝑅
𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅 ∠𝜑𝜑 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅

11
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Inductive load:
• In an inductive load the voltage and current are out of phase. Voltage leads current by 90⁰.
• 𝑣𝑣𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑
• 𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 − 90
𝑽𝑽𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿 ∠𝜑𝜑 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿
𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) ~ 𝐿𝐿
• 𝒁𝒁𝐿𝐿 = = = ∠90 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿 ∠𝜑𝜑−90 𝐼𝐼𝐿𝐿

12
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Capacitive load:
In a capacitive load the voltage and current are out of phase. Current leads voltage by
90⁰.
𝑣𝑣𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑
𝑖𝑖𝐶𝐶 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜑𝜑 + 90 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) ~ 𝐶𝐶
𝑽𝑽𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 ∠𝜑𝜑 𝑉𝑉𝐶𝐶 1 1
𝒁𝒁𝐶𝐶 = = = ∠ − 90 = ∠ − 90 =
𝑰𝑰𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 ∠𝜑𝜑 + 90 𝐼𝐼𝐶𝐶 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗

13
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Mesh Method (Matrices Analysis)

• By using this method N simultaneous equation of N-mesh can be written in matrix form.

1. A current is assigned to each mesh of the network (from mesh 1 to mesh N). (loop current
assignment). 𝐼𝐼1 , 𝐼𝐼2 , … , 𝐼𝐼𝑁𝑁
2. 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 "𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 " 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
3. 𝑍𝑍𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 "𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 "𝑛𝑛𝑛)
4. 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚

14
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Node Method (Matrices Analysis)

• By using this method N simultaneous equation of N-node can be written in matrix form.

1. A voltage is assigned to each principle node of the network (from node 1 to node N).
𝑉𝑉1 , 𝑉𝑉2 , … , 𝑉𝑉𝑁𝑁
2. 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 "𝑚𝑚𝑚
3. 𝑌𝑌𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = −(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 "𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 "𝑛𝑛𝑛)
4. 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 "𝑚𝑚𝑚
15
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Example: The voltage across a certain circuit element, v(t), and the current flowing in the same circuit
element are given by:
( ) ( )
v ( t ) = 800 sin 628t + 30o V ; i( t ) = 5 sin 628t + 30o A
Determine:
A) The nature and magnitude of the element
B) The frequency and period T of the waveforms
C) The readings on the instruments used to measure the waveforms.

16
 Impedance and admittance (cont.)
Solution:

Vm
Vm = 800; I m = 5; ⇒ R = = 160Ω
Im
ω 628
f = = = 100 Hz
2π 2 x 314
.
1 1
T= = = 0.01sec = 10ms
f 100
V 800
Vrms = m = = 565.6V
2 1414
.
I 5
Irms = m = = 3565
. A
2 1414
.

17
 Real and reactive power
• A voltage 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) is applied across a load with impedance 𝑍𝑍∠𝜑𝜑 and stablish a
current 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜑𝜑).
• The instantaneous power used by this load is
1 1
𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜑𝜑 + 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜑𝜑
2 2
1 1
Real power = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜑𝜑 ; Reactive power = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜑𝜑
2 2
 The instantaneous power thus consists of a constant value and a sinusoidal value. The constant
value is called the active power or the real power. It is equal to the average power that is the
net flow of power during one cycle.
1 𝑇𝑇 1
� 𝑆𝑆 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝐼𝐼𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜑𝜑 = 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜑𝜑
𝑇𝑇 0 2
 The sinusoidal value is called reactive power. During a portion of one cycle that the
instantaneous power is positive, power flows into the load and during the rest of the cycle that
the instantaneous power may be negative, the power flows out of the load.
18
 Real and reactive power (cont.)
 Active power is shown with 𝑃𝑃 and its unit is watt (W).
 Reactive power is shown with Q and its unit is volt-
ampere reactive (VAr).
 Instantaneous power (apparent power) is shown with S
and its unit is volt-ampere (VA).

19
 Real and reactive power (cont.)
Power Factor (PF)
• Power factor is the ratio of real power, P, to 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 .
𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 cos 𝜑𝜑
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = = = cos 𝜑𝜑
𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝐼𝐼𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

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 Real and reactive power (cont.)
Example: Consider three impedances R = 100Ω,L = 10mH and C = 10µF connected in series and
supplied by a 230 V, 50 Hz source.
1. Determine the magnitude and the phase angle of the current.
2. Draw a phasor diagram showing the voltage across each component.
3. Determine the power delivered to the circuit, the power factor and the power loss
across the resistor.
4. Determine the value of capacitance to give minimum total impedance in the circuit.

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 Real and reactive power (cont.)
Solution:

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 Real and reactive power (cont.)
Solution (cont.):

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