FDIM Symposium – 2005

SOLAR ACTIVITY & HF PROPAGATION

(With aa “Flare”
(With “Flare” of
of Solar
Solar Physics)
Physics)
by Paul Harden, NA5N (na5n@zianet.com)

Presented at the 10th Anniversary of ARCI’s FDIM

Dayton Hamfest 2005
B

The Sun–Earth Interconnect

Since the late 1800s, it was noted solar activity affected telegraphic lines, and later, radio communications. However,
there was no scientific proof for this link. From the 1920s onward, radio amateurs clearly correlated HF propagation
and the MUF to the solar cycle. But again, there was no scientific proof. Astronomers and physicists knew there was a
sun–earth connection, but without direct observational data, it remained an un proven scientific theory.
The scientific proof did not come until quite recently – basically, the space age – when we got our first look at the sun
from outside our protective atmosphere. In the 1970s, the Voyager spacecrafts were the first to confirm the existence
of the solar wind. It was not until Skylab that increases in radiation and the solar wind were linked to solar flares, and
coronal mass ejections (CME) were first detected. The sun-earth interconnect finally became a scientific fact.
Since then, numerous satellites and ground based instruments monitor the sun and our geomagnetic field in realtime.
Today, the radio amateur and QRPer has a wealth of solar information available via the internet that professional
astronomers did not have a decade ago. This article, in part, describes how to interpret this internet data, and some of
the terminology encountered in the daily reports and solar data from NOAA. Much of the solar physics in this article
has been developed by astrophysicists in the past 15 years, and not yet available in other than scientific journals.

Solar Radiation
If the sun radiated as a thermal source only, the received brightness
Optical Brightness

would vary directly with frequency – from ultraviolet and visable Observed
light down into the radio spectrum. This is called Plank’s black body optical
radiation law. Optical observations at different wavelengths does radiation
follow the black body radiation, proving the visible and optical
wavelengths from our sun are thermally generated. However, radio
energy does not follow black body radiation, proving the radio Ideal black
energy from our sun is being generated by processes other than heat, body radiation
as shown in Fig. 1.
Solar Flux IR Optical Light UV
Deep in the core of the sun is a massive thermo-nuclear reactor
generating very short wavelength energy (gamma and x-rays). As Disturbed
Radio Brightness

this energy works its way to the surface of the sun, the wavelength Sun
gets elongated, or stretched, into the radio wavelengths, becoming
n
Su
the background radiation from the sun – called the solar flux (SF). It
is measured at several observatories and reported daily by the ie t
National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Qu
at their website: http://www.sec.noaa.gov/today.html. The solar flux 10,000°K
is low during the quiet sun (SF <100) and elevated during the active black body
sun (SF >100). In short, the solar flux is a measure of the ionizing 10
1 10 100 1
radiation from the sun, and an indicator of the electron density of our MHz MHz MHz GHz GHz
ionosphere. The higher the electron density, the more reflective our
ionosphere is to HF signals, and the higher the maximum usable Fig. 1 – Optical and Radio Emissions
frequency (MUF). from our Sun

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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
The solar flux is measured at 2880 MHz (10 cm), a frequency not generally affected by solar flares, and one where our
atmosphere is very transparent. Occasionally, a large solar flare will increase the 2880 MHz solar flux. NOAA will
report this event as a ten-flare, indicating the 10cm solar flux value has been contaminated by a solar flare. Most
people ignore the elevated solar flux from a ten-flare. However, it does indicate the earth was exposed to increased
ionizing radiation from the solar flare – ionizing our E and F layers above the normal solar flux.
QRP Propagation Hint: QRPers should check the higher bands for openings for several hours following a solar
flare, or a ten-flare event, due to the enhanced E/F layer ionization, possibly temporarily raising the MUF.
Ionization
The daytime ionizing radiation from the sun strips electrons away from their host molecules in our upper atmosphere.
These free electrons increase the electron density of the ionosphere, stratify into layers, and called the D, E and F
layers. The E/F layers are reflective to HF signals below the MUF, reflecting them back to earth for long distance
communications. This is generally called skip propagation. The HF signals must also pass through the D-layer, the
closest to the earth’s surface. This is called the absorption layer, since some of your HF signal will be absorbed by the
D-layer – in fact, twice – going to, and coming back from the E/F layers for 2-6dB total path loss.
At night, solar radiation ceases and the free electrons recombine with their host molecules. The D-layer completely
disappears and offers no signal loss. The E/F layers merge into a single layer, but remain reflective to HF signals.
However, this combined layer has a lower electron density than daytime levels, lowering the MUF.
Astronomers call these ionization layers plasma layers and the lowest frequency that escapes into space the plasma
frequency, fp. QRPers look at it just opposite – what is the highest frequency that does not escape into space? We call
this the maximum usable frequency or MUF. In reality, the MUF and plasma frequency are exactly the same.
During the active sun, Earth’s plasma frequency is about 18 MHz (nighttime) to 30+ MHz (daytime), and during the
quiet sun, varies from about 10MHz (nighttime) to around 20 MHz (daytime). Interestingly, the sun’s plasma
frequency varies between 300–1000 MHz. The only time strong HF radiation escapes the sun is during a solar flare,
and when it does, it is called a solar storm.

Sunspots and the Solar Cycle Fig. 2 – Classifications of Sunspots/Active Regions

The solar cycle was first realized by noting Sunspot Description of the Potential for
that sunspots “come and go” over a 7–11 Class Active Region Solar Flare Activity
year cycle. Sunspots are cooler areas on the ALPHA Unorganized, unipolar Little threat, but watched
the solar surface. More recently, sunspots magnetic fields for further growth
have been identified as regions with strong BETA Bipolar magnetic fields C class flares and
magnetic fields called Alpha, Beta and Delta between sunspots possible M class flares
groups, as defined in Fig. 2 and illustrated in DELTA Strong, compact bipolar High potential for large
Fig. 3. These active regions are carefully fields between sunspots M or X class flares
watched for possible flare activity.
An Alpha group are sunspots with no bipolar Fig. 3 – Sunspot Groups Illustrated
magnetic fields, and seldom produce a flare.
When bipolar magnetic fields (with N-S, or Beta or Delta group
Bipolar magnetic fields (N–S) magnetic
+/– polarization) develop between sunspots, between sunspots field lines
it is called a Beta group. When a Beta group
becomes particularly intense, with strong, sunspot Alpha group
bipolar magnetic fields between sunspots, it no bipolar
is called a Delta group. A major flare alert is fields
issued by NOAA when a Delta configuration
develops. A major solar flare will always
occur from a Beta or Delta group, but, not all umbra
Beta or Delta groups will produce a flare.
S
N (+) penumbra N S
Terminology seen in the NOAA reports will (–) (–)
NA5N (filaments) (+)
be the umbra, the central core area of the
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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
sunspot, surrounded by an outer area with a filament structure called the penumbra. It is believed the filamentary
structure of the penumbra is “painting” a picture of the magnetic field lines emanating from the sunspot. Often NOAA
will report that a Beta group shows rapid growth in the penumbra. This means the magnetic field lines of the sunspot
disturbance are rapidly growing, likely into a Delta group, becoming a high candidate for a major flare.

The Physics of a Solar Flare

Until recently, the physics behind a solar flare was not well known. They are extremely energetic events on the sun
that can produce emissions across the entire spectrum – in the optical wavelengths, gamma and x-rays, down to the HF
frequencies.

In many ways, a solar flare is very similar to a nuclear detonation. Imagine

for a moment, you are about to witness the detonation of an atomic bomb,
say the Trinity test in New Mexico on July 16, 1945. Sitting in the main
bunker (see Fig. 4 and 5), you are surrounded by radio equipment to see
what affect, if any, will occur to the HF and VHF frequencies.
At 5:29 am, the world’s first atomic bomb is detonated. You see a
tremendous flash of light; the gamma and x-ray detectors are immediately
triggered, and you hear deafening blasts of noise coming from your
receivers. Light, ionizing radiation and radio waves are the first forms of Fig. 4 – Trinity Site Main Bunker
energy to arrive at the bunker – instantly. They are traveling at relativistic still exists today, minus the cables
speeds – the scientific terminology for the “speed of light.”
For the first few seconds, you see a huge, brilliant bubble of plasma and
burning gasses. Everything inside this bubble is vaporized from the
extreme temperatures (Fig. 6, t0+.05s). After several seconds, the
production of gamma and x-rays begins to subside. After about 10
seconds, the rising gas cloud begins to make the familiar mushroom shape
(Fig. 6, t0+15s). These are the hot burning gasses, electrons, protons and
debris rising at about the speed of sound, or at sonic speeds. Along the
ground, you can see a wall of debris being blown away from the explosion
by the shock wave.
Several seconds after the detonation, you hear the thunderous boom of the
air shock arriving. Several minutes later, the shockwave hits the bunker.
This is a blast of hot wind traveling over 100 mph, carrying with it dirt,
rocks and other debris carried along the way.
A solar flare is not much different. While the exact mechanism triggering a
flare is not precisely known, it is believed that the strong magnetic field Fig. 5 – Main bunker radio gear.
lines emanating from the sunspots becomes so strong, hot burning gasses Note Simpson VOM on the floor.
from the sun are suddenly
sucked out of the interior Fig. 6 – Physics of a nuclear blast
and carried along the Plasma
Light & radio emissions
magnetic field lines of the bubble Shock (relativistic speeds)
disturbance in a violent wave Rising gas cloud
explosion. While the Ionizing (sonic speeds)
interior of the sun is radiation
exposed at the flare site, Shock wave
gamma and x-rays are (sonic speeds)
allowed to escape,
traveling outward at NA5N
relativistic speeds. This t0+.05sec. NØQT
explosion creates a 35 mi. t0+15sec.
shockwave, at supersonic Photos of Trinity blast and bunker courtesy: Jim Eckles, PAO, White Sands Missile Range
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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
speeds, usually around 1,200–2,000 km/sec. Being well above the 350 Fig. 7 – A full-halo CME
km/sec. escape velocity of the sun, this shockwave carries some of the
LASCO satellite image
burning solar mass out into space.
This shockwave and rising gas cloud of solar mass, being ejected from
the sun, is called a Coronal Mass Ejection, or CME. It is traveling
outwards at supersonic speeds and could strike the earth if the trajectory
and geometry is correct. Some of the burning mass gets caught in the
magnetic field lines of the disturbance, forming an illuminated loop or
halo, and called a full-halo CME as shown in Fig. 7.
The key point is a solar flare releases several major forms of energy that
can effect VHF and HF propagation on earth:
Flare site
1. Ionizing radiation, electrons and protons at relativistic speeds
(arrives at earth immediately and for the duration of the flare event)
2. A supersonic shockwave riding along with the solar wind Full-halo CME
3. Dense particles behind the shockwave
(#2 and #3 arrives at earth 2-3 days after the flare event)
Fig. 8 – OPTICAL and X-RAY
emissions following a solar flare
OPTICAL EMISSIONS
The emissions from a solar flare in the optical (visible) wavelengths are Optical brightness
illustrated in Fig. 8. for a typical short-duration flare and the less
Short duration flare
common long-duration flare. An actual brightness plot of a flare,
long duration flare
measured by photon counts from satellite instrumentation, is also
shown. This is the optical evidence of the flare, which is actually very
difficult to detect due to the normally bright surface of the sun. For this
reason, flares are now determined by the x-ray radiation, detected
onboard the GEOS, LASCO and SOHO satellites, not optically. 0 10 20 30
Time after Flare (minutes)
The optical properties of a flare are not particularly important to the ham
Actual brightness plot of a
or QRPer, other than indicating that other things are about to come! short duration M-class solar flare
X-ray and Gamma radiation from a Solar Flare Flare 7012
9.395e+05 counts
Fig. 8 also shows the x-rays released from a solar flare. The hard x-rays, /2000 cm 3
those >30 kev, is the ionizing radiation striking the earths atmosphere.
COUNTS

The hard x-rays last only a minute or two, while the soft x-rays can ~1 min.
persist from tens of minutes to over an hour – all the while showering the duration
earth with ionizing radiation. X-rays from very large flares can also
penetrate our atmosphere, all the way to the ground (a GLE, or ground 0

level event). This will highly ionize the D-layer as well, causing an HF
radio blackout for several tens of minutes following a major flare. This
2155 2156 2157 2158 2159 2200
is fairly rare, occurring only a few times each solar cycle.
Data Start 03/17/2000 2154
LAD Geometric Area cm2 :(33–60 kev)
QRP Propagation Hint: If you’re in a QSO when a major flare causes 1 1701 (84%) Background subtracted
2 1495 (74%) Average LAD rates
an HF blackout, it seldom lasts more than an hour. If you’re working a
contest, this hint could be useful. Take a break, but don’t QRT! X-rays As detected in space
These x-rays do provide extra ionization to the E/F layers for improved Hard
Soft
reflectivity and a higher MUF. Exploit the benefits of a solar flare.
QRP Propagation Hint: Good DX contacts are possible immediately
following a solar flare until sundown due to the improved reflectivity Detected on Earth
(better signal-to-noise ratio for QRP signals) and the higher MUF
opening the higher bands – especially during the solar minimum years.
Soft <10Kev Hard >30Kev
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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
Radio Emissions from a Solar Flare
The microwave radiation from a solar flare (Fig. 9) is similar to the ionizing radiation. It can produce powerful radio
energies for several minutes following a flare, sometimes disrupting satellite and VHF communications. Radio
telescopes use 2–10 GHz (S,C and X band) to make maps of the fine structures of the solar flare. 1.4 GHz, the spectral
line of hydrogen (L band), is also mapped to show the intensities of local hydrogen and HII during a flare. This reveals
the amount of ionization, and recombination near the sun’s surface. This is interesting from a science viewpoint, but
not necessarily for ham radio.

For the radio amateur and QRPer, the real interest lies in what happens to Fig. 9 – RADIO emissions
the HF bands. Radio emissions from a flare can cause noise bursts, following a solar flare
buzzing sounds, sudden QSB, continuum noise, and occasionally, a Microwave As detected on Earth
temporary HF blackout. After about 30 minutes following the flare, HF 10 GHz
noise levels and propagation return to normal.
1 GHz
QRP Propagation Hint: The most important thing to remember about a
solar flare is this: the HF effects are generally only for the duration of the
flare event (20-60 minutes) and seldom effect frequencies <10 MHz.
The most damaging effects of a solar flare is actually the arrival of the
shockwave 2-3 days later, triggering a geomagnetic storm. This is HF (1-30MHz) As detected on Earth
discussed beginning on the next page (Geomagnetic Storms). Type III Type I+II Continuum
bursts bursts noise
The following details of a solar storm is offered for completeness only.
This is relatively new solar physics theories, and presented for those so
interested, as the information is currently available only in professional
astrophysical journals, and certainly not in amateur publications.
Radio Emissions due to the Electrons
The first radio emissions to arrive on earth following a flare is the bursty 0 10 20 30
Type III storm occuring for the first 5-6 minutes following a flare. Time after Flare (minutes)
These are relativistic electrons released by the flare traveling through
the sun’s magnetic field (Fig. 10). The radio
emissions begin around 300 MHz and drift Fig. 10 – Radio emissions due to interaction with the
downward in frequency at about 20 MHz/sec.. magnetic field lines of THE SUN
They sound like ignition noise from a fast running
Spiraling
engine, or sometimes a “buzz” as they sweep past Magnetic Relativistic
Open
Field line
your frequency. Seldom will these bursts be heard Field Lines of Electrons
below 10 MHz. Some of these electrons migrate THE SUN ~0.5c
Solar
and travel along the open field lines in a spiraling Prominence
motion, still about the speed of light, producing
continuum noise (wideband) from 10–300 MHz.
TYPE II
Radio Emissions due to the Shockwave BURSTS
As the shockwave travels through the sun’s
magnetic field lines, electric currents and bursty SUN
radio emissions are generated by the dynamo 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Solar Radii Shock Wave Earth
effect, called a Type II storm. The sun’s plasma TYPE III
BURSTS
frequency becomes lower at greater distances.
300
FREQ (MHz)

Therefore, as the shockwave travels away from

the sun, the bursts are heard at lower and lower 100
frequencies on earth, as shown in Fig. 10.This is Approximate
important to astronomers. By measuring the time 10 plasma freq.
is takes for the bursts to drift from one frequency TYPE III STORM vs. distance
to a lower one, the velocity of the shockwave can (20MHz/sec drift) 1 from the sun
be determined. 0 min. 5 10 15 20

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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
Both Type II and Type III sweeps can be used for the velocity determination, and often reported by NOAA as follows:
1810UTC M7.8 solar flare 1822UTC Type II sweep 1450 km/sec
NOAA uses this information to estimate the arrival time of the shockwave at earth, and the intensity of the
geomagnetic storm. Of course, you can do this as well! The 1450 km/sec shockwave slows down as it travels along
with the solar wind, averaging about 70% of the Type II or III value, or about 1000 km/sec. = ~625 miles/sec. With the
sun about 93 million miles from earth, the travel time will be ~149,000 seconds, or about 41 hours. With the normal
solar wind about 350 km/sec., an increase to 600
km/sec. generally triggers a minor geomagnetic Fig. 11 – Radio emissions due to interaction with the
magnetic field lines of THE SOLAR FLARE
storm, around 1000 km/sec. a major storm, and
much above that, a severe storm. These, of
course, are all rough estimates. Magnetic
Field Lines of TYPE IV
DISTURBANCE CONTINUUM
The shockwave also travels through the strong EMISSIONS
magnetic field lines of the disturbance (Fig. 11), Rising Shock Wave
where the electrons and particles get trapped in Gas Cloud
the closed field lines. This also produces a bursty Solar
radio emission called a Type I storm. These drift Prominence
downward in frequency at about 2 MHz/sec. and
sound like ignition noise from an idling car. A TYPE I
Type I storm can extend to around 10 MHz and BURSTS
persist for 20-30 minutes following a major flare. SUN
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Earth
Radio Emissions due to the Gas Cloud Solar Radii
Behind the shockwave is a gas cloud of particles 300
from the flare, generating wideband noise called a

FREQ (MHz)
TYPE IV STORM
Type IV Continuum Storm. The noise begins 100
around 1 GHz. The higher the gas cloud rises, the GAS CLOUD
10 EQUILIBRIUM
lower in frequency will the noise escape the sun. TYPE I STORM
(That solar plasma frequency thing again). These (2 MHz/sec drift)
1
particles rise until the pressure of the gas cloud 0 min. 5 10 15 20
equals the pressure of the solar atmosphere. At
this point (about 15-30 minutes following the NOTE: Illustrations depicts a major flare. On smaller
flare), the particles become stationary and flares, the shock wave often dissipates before 3 solar
generate noise down to 10-20MHz, depending radii and thus the sun’s plasma frequency is >30 MHz
and no HF emissions occur except Type III. The times
upon the height of equilibrium. The Type IV shown are approximate – the actual time a function of
storm can persist for hours following the flare and the velocity of the shockwave. Every flare is different.
is an overall elevation of noise on HF. The exact
mechanism of this noise emission from the gas
cloud is not well understood. Fig. 12 – Classical model of the Sun’s Electric
Field and flow of the Solar Wind
GEOMAGNETIC STORMS
The Solar Wind
Disturbances to the solar wind, from a solar flare SUN
or coronal hole, can cause serious disruptions to
HF by triggering a geomagnetic storm. The solar
wind is the constant outflow of gasses, electrons, Solar W
in d
and particles from the sun and travel along the
ecliptic plane, as shown in Fig. 12.
EARTH
It was long believed that the solar wind was fairly
constant, at around 350 km/sec., the escape
velocity of the sun. We now know that the solar Ecliptic plane
NA5N

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 FDIM Symposium – 2005
wind is highly variable, ranging from the minimum Fig. 13 – “Balerina Skirt” model of the Sun’s
350 km/sec. to 2,000 km/sec. or more following a Electric Field and flow of the Solar Wind
major solar flare. From years of satellite data, we
now know that the sun’s electric field is not flat, but
instead looks more like the “balerina skirt” model Sun
shown in Fig. 13.
When the earth’s orbit enters or exits the skirt, it is
called a boundry crossing, often reported by
NOAA. The sudden change in the solar wind speed,
Earth
and direction of flow, can trigger a geomagnetic
storm. The –boundry crossing causes a stronger
geomagnetic storm than a positive crossing. – Boundry
However, they are seldom severe and last only a Crossing
few hours. Fig. 13 shows why the solar wind is + Boundry
constantly changing, causing minor geomagnetic Crossing
NA5N
storms, even during very quiet solar conditions.
The solar wind exerts a pressure on the earth’s Fig. 14 – The Earth’s Geomagnetic
magnetic field, which distorts the toroidal pattern Environment Illustrated
as shown in Fig 14. If this pressure should suddenly
change, such as with the arrival of a shockwave Earth’s Magnetosheath
Bow Shock Magnetopause
from a solar flare, our magnetic field suddenly (Toroidal Field)
changes shape in response, causing it to wiggle like
a bowl of jello. This, in turn, generates strong
electric currents by the dynamo effect, traveling
along our magnetic field lines far above our heads.
This, in turn, generates noise on the HF bands. N
While our geomagnetic field is wiggling, it can
often produce strong, bursty noise, or “static SOLAR EARTH MOON
crashes.” As the geomagnetic storm begins to WIND
subside, it settles down to an elevated noise level.
QRP Propagation Hint: Often our magnetic field S
gets very quiet following a strong geomagnetic Dayton
storm for 12–24 hours. This is an excellent time to
work 40–160M due to very low noise levels. Radiation
Belts
Earth’s
The K and A Indices Magnetic
Magnetometers on the earth measure the condition Field
of our magnetic field. The amount of movement Strength
(or, “wiggling”) is averaged and reported by
NOAA as the K-Index every 3 hours. The K-index 40 20 13 0
is a scale from 0– 9 representing quiet to severe Distance in Earth Radii NA5N
conditions. The K-indices are averaged over 24-
hours to form the A-Index, representing the overall planetary geomagnetic conditions for the UTC day. The A-index
ranges from 0–20 for quiet conditions, up to 400 for extreme conditions. A chart showing the correlation between the
K- and A-Indexes to HF noise levels is shown in Fig. 16 on the following page.
QRP Propagation Hint: Use the current K-Index from WWV or the internet to determine the current geomagnetic
conditions. The A-Index is actually yesterday’s geomagnetic condition, and does not represent present conditions.
QRP Propagation Hint: Four websites with solar information, solar flux, K and A indices and solar wind data are:
http://www.sec.noaa.gov/today.html http://www.dxlc.com/solar
http://www.spaceweather.com http://umtof.umd.edu/pm
Copyright © QRP-ARCI – 2005 Page 87 All Rights Reserved
 FDIM Symposium – 2005
Anatomy of a Solar/Geomagnetic Storm Fig. 15 – Anatomy of a strong
Putting everything together, a typical strong solar and Solar & Geomagnetic storm
geomagnetic storm is illustrated in Fig. 15. The solar
flare occurs at time 0, noted on earth by 10-30 minutes Arrival of
Solar Shockwave
of noise bursts (Type I, II, III bursts) and elevated noise. Flare
Almost immediately, the ionizing radiation increases -1 0 1 2 3 4 days
the MUF (whether or not it increases the solar flux). 30
minutes or more after the flare, HF noise levels return to Solar K-Index
Flux
normal, quiet conditions.
QRP Propagation Hint: This is an excellent window 50
MUF
Blackout
for QRPers, right after the flare. As soon as the solar 40

MHz
storm ceases, HF noise levels become quiet with an 30
elevated MUF, lasting until sundown. Night time 20 PROPAGATION
WINDOW
conditions on 80-40M can be excellent. The daytime 10
MUF the next day may be elevated as well.
LUF
Shortly after day 2, the shockwave arrives,
compressing our magnetic field and triggering a major Solar Bursts Continuum Geomagnetic
Noise Storm
geomagnetic storm. HF noise levels immediately rise,
and in severe cases, may cause an HF blackout. HF
Electrons from the shockwave enter the earth at the Noise Quiet
poles, causing a Polar Cap Absorption (PCA) event. Level
This causes blackout conditions on HF in the higher
latitudes. The next 3-hourly K-Index will be high (6–9), Fig. 16 – Geomagnetic Indices & Conditions
sufficient to also trigger auroral activity. A major
K Ap Geomagnetic HF
geomagnetic storm (K>6) can last 12–24 hours. When Index Index Conditions Noise Aurora
it finally subsides, our magnetic field often becomes
very quiet, producing low noise levels on HF. 0 0–2 Very Quiet S1–S2 None
NORMAL

1 3–5 Quiet S1–S2 None

QRP Propagation Hint: This is the other window for 2 6–9 Quiet S1–S2 Very low
QRPers, when the geomagnetic storm subsides. Night 3 12–19 Unsettled S2–S3 Very low
time noise levels on 40-80M can be very low. 4 22–32 Active S2–S3 Low
5 39–56 MINOR storm S4–S6 High
STORM

A Few Final Thoughts 6 67–94 MAJOR storm S6–S9 Very high

1. The solar flux, indicating the level of ionization, 7 111–154 SEVERE storm S9+ Very high
affects HF propagation above about 10 MHz. The 8 179–236 SEVERE STORM Blackout Extreme
solar flux does not affect 40M and below, since the 9 300–400 EXTREME storm Blackout Extreme
MUF seldom drops below 10 MHz. This is why the
lower bands are always open. Fig. 17 – Solar Flare Classifications
2. The K-index, indicating the geomagnetic condition, Flare Type of HF Radio Effects Geomagnetic
indicates HF noise primarily below about 10 MHz, Class Flare (30M to 10M) storm (<20M)
except in severe cases. During a storm, high noise A Very small None None
levels on 40M doesn’t mean high noise on 20M. B Small None None
3. 30M is the ham band caught between the 2 worlds. C Moderate † Low absorption † Active to Minor
It can be affected by both solar flux and the K-index. M Large † High absorption † Minor to Major
On the other hand, it is more often not bothered by X Extreme † Poss. blackout † Major to Severe
either. It is a good band throughout the solar cycle.
† Conditions cited only if Earth is in the trajectory of
4. Every solar flare and the resultant storm is different. the flare’s shockwave.
No two are alike, nor accurately predictable.
5. Never let reports of flares or geomagnetic storms I hope you have found this presentation informative and
scare you from getting on the air and checking it out. helpful. Even though now in the quiet sun, strong flares and
See #5. geomagnetic storms can still occur. If you have questions, feel
6. #5 includes propagation posts on qrp-l by NA5N! free to email me. I’ll try my best to answer your questions.
— 72, Paul NA5N na5n@zianet.com
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