Week

1: Introduction
Energy and power
E = mc02 = qV = k B T
hc
E ph = hν =
λ
1240(eV ⋅ nm)
E ph (eV ) =
λ (nm)
E = ∫ P(t )dt

2
P = VI = I R

Planck’s law
2hc 02 1
LBB
e (T , λ ) = 5

λ ⎛ hc 0 ⎞
exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − 1
⎝ λk B T ⎠
I eBB (T , λ ) = LBB
e (T , λ )Ω sun
2
⎛ Rsun ⎞
Ω sun = π ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ AU − REarth ⎠

Air mass
1
AM =
cosθ



Week 2: Semiconductor basics
Band gap
EG = EC − EV

Fermi-Dirac function
1
f (E) =
⎛ E − EF ⎞
1 + exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ k BT ⎠

Density of states in conduction and valence bands:
32
⎛ 4 2 π mn∗ ⎞ 12
gC ( E ) = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ( E − EC )
⎝ h3 ⎠
 32
⎛ 4 2 π m∗p ⎞ 12
gV ( E ) = ⎜ ⎟ ( E − EV )
⎜
⎝ h3 ⎟
⎠

Charge carrier density in conduction and valence band
E top
n0 = ∫ gC ( E ) f ( E )dE
EC
EV
p0 = ∫ gV ( E )[1 − f ( E )]dE
Ebottom

Charge carrier density in conduction and valence band applying Boltzmann approximation
⎛E −E ⎞
n = N C exp ⎜⎜ F C ⎟⎟ for
EC − EF ≥ 3kBT
⎝ k B T ⎠
⎛E −E ⎞
p = N V exp ⎜⎜ V F ⎟⎟ for
EF − EV ≥ 3kBT
⎝ k B T ⎠

Effective densities of conduction and valence band states
3
⎛ 2πmn* k BT ⎞ 2
N C = 2 ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟
h 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
3
⎛ 2πm *p k B T ⎞ 2
NV = 2 ⋅ ⎜ 2
⎟
⎜ h ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Carrier concentration intrinsic semiconductor in equilibrium conditions
⎛ E − EC ⎞ ⎛ − EG ⎞
np = ni2 = NC NV exp⎜⎜ V ⎟⎟ = NC NV exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ,
⎝ kBT ⎠ ⎝ k BT ⎠

Carrier concentration in doped semiconductors in equilibrium conditions
N-type material
n = p + ND ≈ ND
2 2
ni n i
p= ≈ << n
n ND

P-type material
p = n + NA ≈ NA
2 2
ni n i
n= ≈ << p0
p NA
Carrier concentration in semiconductors under illumination:
np ≠ ni2
⎛ EFn − EFp ⎞
np = ni 2 exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kBT ⎠
⎛ E − EC ⎞
n = NC exp ⎜ Fn ⎟
⎝ kBT ⎠
⎛ EV − EFp ⎞
p = NV exp ⎜ ⎟
⎝ kBT ⎠

Carrier transport mechanisms
Charge transport: drift
v dn = −µn ξ
v dp = µ p ξ


J n ,drift = −q n v dn = q n µn ξ

J p ,drift = q p v dp = q p µ p ξ

J drift = q ( p µ p + n µn ) ξ


Charge transport: diffusion
J n ,diff = q Dn∇n

J p ,diff = −q D p ∇p

J diff = q ( Dn∇n − Dp∇p )

Total current density:
J = J drift + J diff = q ( p µ p + n µn ) ξ + q ( Dn∇n − Dp∇p )

Einstein relations:
Dn k BT
=
µn q
Dp k BT
=
µp q


Week 3: Generation and recombination
Electrical conductivity
σ = qµn n + qµ p p

Thermal recombination/generation rate
∂n Δn
=−
∂t thermal τn
R-G for electrons in a p-type material
dp Δp
=−
dt thermal τp
R-G for holes in an n-type material

Recombination under external generation
Rn' = α r p n ≈ α r p0 δ n for electrons in a p-type material
Rp' = α r n p ≈ α r n0 δ p for holes in an n-type material

Ambipolar transport equation
∂ 2 (δ n ) ∂ (δ n ) δ n ∂ (δ n )
Dn 2
+ µn E +G − =
∂x ∂x τ n0 ∂t
∂ 2 (δ p ) ∂ (δ p ) δ p ∂ (δ p )
Dp 2
− µ pE +G− =
∂x ∂x τ p0 ∂t

Ambipolar transport equation 3D
∂n 1
= ∇ ⋅ J n − Rn + G n
∂t q
∂p 1
= − ∇ ⋅ J p − Rp + Gp
∂t q




Week 4: The P-N junction
Charge density in depletion region
ρ (x) = q N D for
− ln ≤ x ≤ 0
ρ (x) = −q N A 0 ≤ x ≤ lp
for
N A l p = N D ln



Poisson equation
d 2ψ dξ ρ
2
=− =−
dx dx εr ε0
1
ξ= ρ dx
εr ε0 ∫
ξ (− ln ) = ξ (l p ) = 0
,

Built-in voltage
k BT ⎛ N A N D ⎞
Vbi = EG − E Fn − E Fp = ln⎜⎜ 2
⎟⎟
q ⎝ ni ⎠
q
Vbi =
2ε r ε 0
(N l + N A l p2
2
D n )


Depletion region width of p-n junction
2ε r ε 0 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
W = ln + l p = ψ0 ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
q N
⎝ A N D ⎠


Current-voltage relationship
⎛ qV ⎞
J rec (Va ) = J rec (Va = 0) exp⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟
⎝ k BT ⎠
⎡ ⎛ qV ⎞ ⎤
J (Va ) = J rec (Va )− J gen (Va ) − J ph = J 0 ⎢exp⎜⎜ a ⎟⎟ − 1⎥ − J ph
⎣ ⎝ k BT ⎠ ⎦
⎛ Dn Dp ⎞
J 0 = q ni2 ⎜ + ⎟
⎜L N L N ⎟
⎝ n A p D ⎠

⎡ qDn n p 0 qD p p n 0 ⎤
J0 = ⎢ + ⎥
⎣⎢ L n L p ⎦⎥
J ph = q ⋅ G (Ln + W + L p )

External parameters of solar cell
k BT ⎛ J ph ⎞
Voc = ln⎜⎜ + 1⎟⎟
q ⎝ J0 ⎠
v − ln(voc + 0.72 ) qVoc
FF = oc , where voc =
voc + 1 k BT
P J mp Vmp J sc Voc FF
η = max = =
Pin Pin Pin
Week 5: Advanced Concepts in Semiconductors
Schottky barrier (for an n-type semiconductor)
φBn = φm − χ
Vbi = φBn − φn

Depletion region width Schottky barrier
2ε s (Vbi + VR ) ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
W= ⎜⎜ + ⎟⎟
q N
⎝ d N a ⎠

Thermionic emission
⎡ qϕ ⎤
J (V ) = A*T 2 exp ⎢ − Bn ⎥
⎣ kBT ⎦

Tunneling
⎡ qϕ ⎤ qh N d
JT ∝ exp ⎢ − Bn ⎥ , with E00 =
⎣ E00 ⎦ 2 ε mn

Specific contact resistance
k BT ⎛ + qφ Bn ⎞
exp⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
q k
⎝ B ⎠ T
Rc = Thermionic emission
A*T 2
⎛ + 2 ε s mn* φ ⎞
Rc ∝ exp⎜ ⋅ Bn ⎟ Tunneling
⎜ h Nd ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Electron affinity rule
ΔEC = q( χ n − χ p )

ΔEC + ΔEV = EGp − EGn = ΔEG

Heterojunction built-in voltage
qVbi = q (φsp − φsn )

⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
qVbi = −ΔEC + ΔEG + kBT ln ⎜ Vn ⎟ − kBT ln ⎜ Vp ⎟
⎜p ⎟
⎝ pn 0 ⎠ ⎝ p0 ⎠




Week 6: Light management 1, Refraction/Dispersion/Diffraction

Electric and magnetic field strengths
E ( r, t ) = E0 exp (ik y y − iωt ) = E0 sin ( k y y − ωt )

H ( r, t ) = H0 exp (ik y y − iωt ) = H0 sin ( k y y − ωt )

n ω 2π 2π n ν
ky = = =
c0 λ c0

Incident power
P = ∫ I dA

I = ∫ P(λ )dλ

λ λ
P (λ ) λ
Φ = ∫ φ (λ )dλ = ∫ dλ
hc
0 0

Spectral utilization
λG λ λ
hc G G

∫0 Φ ( λ ) dλ E G ∫ Φ ( λ ) dλ E G ∫ Φ (λ ) dλ
λ 0
η ult = p abs puse = ∞ ⋅ λG = ∞ 0
hc hc hc
∫0 Φ(λ ) λ dλ ∫ Φ(λ) λ dλ ∫0 Φ(λ) λ dλ
0

Front grid
Af
Cf =
Atot
ρL
R=
WH

Complex refractive index
n%= ε%= n + iκ

Absorption coefficient
4πκ
α=
λ

Lambert-beer law
I x = I 0 exp ( −α x )


Snell’s law
n1 (λ ) sin(θi ) = n2 (λ ) sin(θt )
θi = θ r
⎛ n2 ⎞
θ critical = sin −1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
n
⎝ 1 ⎠
⎛ n2 ⎞
θ Brewster = tan −1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ n1 ⎠

Fresnel coefficients
n1 cos(θi ) − n2 cos(θt )
rS =
n1 cos(θi ) + n2 cos(θt )
n1 cos(θ t ) − n2 cos(θ i )
rP =
n1 cos(θ t ) + n2 cos(θ i )
R = r 2 = 1− T
⎛ n − n2 ⎞
RP = RS = ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ under normal incidence
n
⎝ 1 + n 2 ⎠

1
RP = (rS2 + rP2 ) for unpolarised light
2

Wave superimposition
C0 = A0 + B0 exp (iϕ )


Dielectric multi-layers
λB
= nH d1 = nL d 2
4
2
2p 2p
⎛n n 0 L
⎞− nS n H
R=⎜ 2p ⎟ 2p
⎝n n 0 L + nS n
⎠ H

4 ⎛ n − nL ⎞
Δλ = λB sin −1 ⎜ H ⎟
π ⎝ nH + nL ⎠

Diffraction grating
2π d sin θ
= mϕ
λ


Week 7. Light management II: light scattering
Rayleigh scattering
4 6 2
2 2
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ n p − n0 ⎞ ⎛ d ⎞ 1 + cos θ
2
I (θ ) = I 0 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠ ⎜⎝ n p + 2n0 ⎟⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2R2


Radiance
d Ω = sin θ d θ d ϕ
P=∫ ∫ π L cosθ d Ω dS
e
S 2

1 ∂4 P Le
Le = L∗e =
cos θ ∂S ∂Ω n2

Etendue
P
Etendue = = n 2 dS cos θ dθ
Le
∗


Week 8. Solar cell engineering
External quantum efficiency
I ph ( λ )
EQE ( λ ) =
ϕ (λ ) q
EQE (λ ) = (1 − R(λ ) ) ⋅ I QEop (λ )⋅η g (λ ) ⋅ IQE el (λ )
λ
J sc (V = 0 V) = q ∫ Φ(λ ) ⋅ EQE(λ )dλ
0

Solar cell efficiency
λG λG
hc
∫0 Φ(λ) λ dλ EG ∫ Φ(λ ) dλ
0
Af qVoc
η= ⋅ λG ⋅ (1 − R(λ ) ) ⋅ I QEop (λ )⋅η g (λ ) ⋅ IQEel (λ ) ⋅ ⋅ FF
∞
hc hc Atot EG
∫ Φ (λ )
0
λ
dλ ∫ Φ (λ ) λ
dλ
0