Syed Imran Shah

Turbulent Boundary Layer:

Transverse Velocity Prole and Global Parameters

Syed Imran SHAH

21 avril 2015

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Boundary Layer Schematic

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Parameters : Boundary Layer Thickness

It is the wall-normal distance at which the streamwise velocity is 99% of

the streamwise freestream velocity U∞ or Ue . This is denoted as δ99 . Other
variant is δ95 . So y = δ99 when u(x, y) = 0.99Ue (x).

u(x, δ99 )
= 0.99 (1)
Ue (x)
and

u(x, δ95 )
= 0.95 (2)
Ue (x)
Other denitions are also used in literature (e.g., based on vorticity,
streamwise velocity gradient, etc).

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Parameters : Displacement Thickness

It is the distance through which the external inviscid ow is displaced by

the presence of boundary layer. It is mostly denoted by δ∗ (sometimes δ1 ).
Formulation for the compressible ow :

Z δ  
∗ ρ(x, y)u(x, y)
δ (x) = 1− dy (3)
0 ρe (x)Ue (x)
and for the incompressible ow :

Z δ  
∗ u(x, y)
δ (x) = 1− dy (4)
0 Ue (x)
For comparison, δ > δ∗ and δ ∗ ∼ 0.3δ . Alternate denitions of the
displacement thickness have been used for the ows over curved surfaces.

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Parameters : Momentum Thickness

It is also known as the momentum-loss thickness. Mostly denoted by θ

(sometimes δ2 ), it quanties the decrement in uid momentum due to the
presence of boundary layer. Formulation for the compressible ow :

Z δ  
ρ(x, y)u(x, y) u(x, y)
θ(x) = 1− dy (5)
0 ρe (x)Ue (x) Ue (x)
and for the incompressible ow :

Z δ  
u(x, y) u(x, y)
θ(x) = 1− dy (6)
0 Ue (x) Ue (x)
Alternate denitions of the momentum thickness have been used for the
ows over curved surfaces. Other integral quantities like energy-loss
thickness and density-loss thickness (for compressible ow) also exist.

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Parameters : Shape Factor

It is a non-dimensional parameter denoted by H and is the ratio of the

∗
displacement thickness (δ ) to the momentum thickness (θ ) :

δ ∗ (x)
H(x) = (7)
θ(x)
or

δ1 (x)
H12 (x) =
δ2 (x)
It is valid for both laminar and turbulent ows. It shows the development of
a boundary layer and is often used to predict ow separation, although no
denite universal value for separation can be mentioned.
It is also used in the empirical or semi-empirical formulae for the prediction
of the skin friction coecient.

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Parameters : Skin Friction Coecient

The local skin friction coecient (non-dimensional) is dened as :

τw
cf = 1 2
(8)
2 ρUe

where τw = µ ∂u
∂y is the wall shear stress. By denition, τw = ρu2τ where uτ
is called friction velocity. Therefore we can write,

cf ρu2τ u2τ
= =
2 ρUe2 Ue2
or

r
cf uτ
= (9)
2 Ue

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APG TBL Parameters from J.H.Watmu (1988)

Going downstream with multiple measurement positions.

Reθ
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
45 8
δ99 (mm)
40 δ* (mm)
35 θ (mm) 7.5
Ue (m/s)
30
7

Ue (m/s)
25
(mm)

20
6.5
15

10 6
5

0 5.5
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
x (cm) 8 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

Boundary Layer thickness (ZPG) from J.Osterlund (1999)

KTH Sweden
Varying freestream velocity for a xed measurement position.

Reθ
10000 15000 20000 25000
0.061 0.013
0.06 δ* (m) 0.0125
0.059 0.012
θ(m) 0.0115
δ95 (m)

0.058 0.011
0.057 0.0105
0.056 0.01
0.055 0.0095
0.009
0.054 0.0085
0.053 0.008
0.052 0.0075
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

U (m/s) 9 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

APG TBL Parameters from J.H.Watmu (1988)

Going downstream with multiple measurement positions.

Reθ
900 1200 1500 1800 2100 2400
0.005 0.3
cf
cp 0.2
0.0045

0.1
0.004
0

cp
0.0035
cf

-0.1
0.003
-0.2

0.0025 -0.3

0.002 -0.4
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
x (cm) 10 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

ZPG TBL from J.Osterlund (1999) KTH Sweden

Varying freestream velocity for a xed measurement position.

Reθ
9000 13000 17000 21000 25000
0.0028 1.6
0.0027 cf 1.4
0.0026 uτ (m/s) 1.2

uτ (m/s)
0.0025 1
cf

0.0024 0.8
0.0023 0.6
0.0022 0.4
0.0021 0.2
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Ue (m/s)
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Parameters : Pressure Coecient

It is a dimensionless quantity, expressed by the relations ;

p(x) − pref p(x) − pref

Cp (x) = = 1 2
(10)
ptot − pref 2 ρref Uref

It can be simplied for the incompressible and steady ow as (Bernoulli

relation),

 2
Ue (x)
Cp (x) = 1 − (11)
Uref
from the above equation we can derive for the incompressible ow,

q
Ue (x) = Uref 1 − Cp (x) (12)

The subscript ref  is for reference values, mostly taken at the inlet or at
the freestream. Uref is actually (Ue )ref . ptot indicates total pressure.

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Pressure Gradient
dp
=0→ Zero pressure gradient (or constant pressure).
dx

dp
<0→ Favorable (or negative) pressure gradient.
dx

dp
>0→ Adverse (or positive) pressure gradient.
dx

dp d2 p
> 0, 2 > 0 → Increasingly adverse pressure gradient.
dx dx

dp d2 p
> 0, 2 < 0 → Decreasingly adverse pressure gradient.
dx dx

dp d2 p
> 0, 2 = 0 → Constant adverse pressure gradient.
dx dx
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Flow geometries for APG : Subsonic Internal ow

Reverse the ow direction for Favorable Pressure Gradient (FPG).

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Flow geometries for APG : Subsonic External ow

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Equations
The Reynolds-averaged continuity and x-momentum equations for a 2D
incompressible Turbulent boundary layer are ;

∂u ∂v
+ = 0 (13)
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂u 1 ∂p ∂ ∂u
u +v = − + (ν − u0 v 0 ) (14)
∂x ∂y ρ ∂x ∂y ∂y

With no-slip boundary condition at wall u(x, 0) = uwall and

v(x, 0) = vwall . In case of a stationary wall, the no-slip boundary condition
becomes u(x, 0) = v(x, 0) = 0.
In case of wall-normal air blowing at wall, v(x, 0) = Vb , where Vb is the
velocity of blowing air. In case of wall-normal (vertical) air suction at wall,
v(x, 0) = −Vs , where Vs is the air suction velocity. At freestream y = δ , we
have, u(x, δ) = Ue (x) where Ue is the edge or external velocity.

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Transverse Structure of TBL

From :

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TBL Velocity Prole : High Reynolds Number

Semi-logarithmic plot from Fluid Mechanics by Kundu and Kohen (2002).

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The Inner Layer : Law of the Wall

Many ow parameters of engineering interest are determined in this region.
It extends up to y/δ < 0.1 and consists of a viscous sublayer (y + < 5), a
buer layer (5 < y + < 30) and the overlap layer (y + > 50)1 . The inner
layer is dominated by the viscous forces and the convection terms can be
neglected. Hence the x-momentum equation becomes,
 
∂ ∂u 0 0
0= ν −uv (15)
∂y ∂y
Very near the wall (viscous sublayer), ν(∂u/∂y)  −u0 v 0 , and thus we can
integrate the above equation as,

∂u τw
ν = = constant = u2τ (16)
∂y ρ
integrating again, we get,

u yuτ
=
uτ ν
1
Turbulent Flows by S B Pope, 2000. 19 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

p p
where uτ = ν(∂u/∂y)w = τw /ρ and w stands for wall or y =0.
In wall units, we can write,

u+ = y + (17)

where u+ = u/uτ and y + = yuτ /ν . This equation is the linear law of

velocity and is applicable only in the viscous sublayer (y
+ < 5). If equation
+
(15) is scaled in wall units, i.e., u = u/uτ , y+ = yuτ /ν and
τ + = τ /(ρu2τ ), then it can be written as :

du+ + u2
τ+ = +
− u0 v 0 = τ2 = 1 (18)
dy uτ

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Velocity Proles - ZPG TBL from Osterlund (1999) KTH

Sweden
Linear-Linear plot :

16000
Ue = 10.44(m/s)
14000 Ue = 13.14(m/s)
12000 Ue = 15.89(m/s)
Ue = 21.42(m/s)
10000 Ue = 32.21(m/s)
Ue = 37.39(m/s)
y+

8000
Ue = 42.50(m/s)
6000 Ue = 48.28(m/s)
4000
2000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

u+ 21 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

The Overlap Layer : Log Law

This is a region of overlap between inner and outer layers (at high Reynolds
number). The velocity prole in this layer is described by logarithmic law.
Due to the logarithmic form of velocity prole, the overlap layer is also
called the log layer. Log law in the inner and outer variables is given as ;

u 1 yuτ
= ln +A (19)
uτ κ ν
Ue − u 1 y
= − ln + B (20)
uτ κ δ
The values of log law constant A and Von Kármán constant κ varies
slightly in literature but experiments show that generally, A = 5.0 , κ ∼ 0.4
and B=1 for a at plate. Base 10 log can also be used instead of the
natural log and in that case the log law is written as ;

u yuτ
= C log10 +A (21)
uτ ν
Where C = 5.61 and A is the same as in the above equations. 22 / 49
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TBL Velocity Prole from DNS (2010) : KTH Sweden

Semi-logarithmic plot :

KTH DNS of ZPG FP TBL (Schlatter et al,2010)

30
Reθ = 1000
25 Reθ = 1410
Reθ = 2000
20
Reθ = 2540

15 Log Law
+
u

10

−5 −2 0 2 4
10 10 10 10
+
y 23 / 49
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The Outer Layer : Law of Wake

In the outer region, the velocity prole deviates from the logarithmic law
with half-wake type shape. Coles(1956) proposed that,

u 1 yuτ Π y 
= ln( )+A+ W (22)
uτ κ ν κ δ
where κ≡ 0.41, A≡ 4.5 - 5.5 and the wake function,
y  π y 
W = 2sin2 (23)
δ 2δ
such that W (0) = 0 (wall) and W (1) = 2 (outer edge). Alternate forms of
the wake function also exist. If we put y=δ and u = Ue in the equation
(22),
κ Ue ln δ +
 
Π(x) = − −A (24)
2 uτ κ
whereδ + = δuτ /ν . For zero pressure gradient TBLs, the wake parameter
Π(x) = 0.55 for Reθ > 5000.
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The Outer Layer : Defect Law

The outer layer exists for y + > 50 or y/δ > 0.1, which evidently overlaps
with the inner layer to some extent. The general characteristics of the outer
region are ow resembling that of wall-free turbulent ow. The existence of
the Reynolds stresses in the outer region results in a drag on the ow and
generates a velocity defect (Ue − u), which when normalized by uτ is
considered to be only a function of y/δ . Therefore, we can write,

Ue − u y
= g( ) (25)
uτ δ
This is called the velocity defect law. Empirical formula of Hama (1954) :

Ue − u y
= 9.6(1 − )2 (26)
uτ δ

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Velocity Defect Proles ZPG TBL from J.Osterlund (1999)

KTH Sweden

30
Reθ = 8209 Reθ = 15182
25 Reθ = 9706 Reθ = 17102
Reθ = 12633 Reθ = 17901
Reθ = 10161 Reθ = 20258
20
Reθ = 10386 Reθ = 22845
(Ue-u-)/uτ

Reθ = 12886 Reθ = 25779

15 Reθ = 14972

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
y/δ 26 / 49
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Log Law : Derivation

For the inner layer, we have ;

u
u+ = y + ⇒ = f (y + ) ⇒ u = uτ f (y + ) (27)
uτ
For the outer layer ;

Ue − u y y
= g( ) ⇒ u = Ue − uτ g( ) (28)
uτ δ δ
Logically, the velocity proles of inner and outer layers should match in the
overlap layer. But instead of matching the velocities of inner and outer
layers, it is more convenient to match their gradients. From equations (27)
and (28), the velocity gradients in the inner and outer layers are given as,

du u2 df
= τ + (29)
dy ν dy
du uτ dg
=− (30)
dy δ dη
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where η = y/δ . Equating equation(29) and equation(30), and multiplying

by y/uτ , we get,

dg df 1
−η = y+ + = (31)
dη dy κ
The term on left hand side is a function of η only and the term on right
hand side is a function of y
+ only, both sides therefore must be equal to

some universal constant, 1/κ, where κ is the Von Kármán constant.

Experimentally, k ∼ 0.41. Integrating equation (31) yields,

1
f (y + ) = ln y + + A, (32)
κ
1
F (η) = − ln η + B. (33)
κ
Experiments show that A = 5.0 and B = 1.0 for a smooth at plate, hence
we can write equations (32) and (33) as,

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u 1 yuτ
= ln + 5.0 (34)
uτ κ ν
Ue − u 1 y
= − ln + 1.0 (35)
uτ κ δ
The equation (35) can also be written as,

u − Ue 1 y
= ln − 1.0 (36)
uτ κ δ
Limitation : Law limited to attached ows over smooth surfaces.

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Dimensional Velocity Proles - ZPG TBL from Osterlund

(1999) KTH Sweden

0.16
Ue = 32.21(m/s)
0.14 Ue = 37.39(m/s)
0.12 Ue = 42.50(m/s)
Ue = 48.28(m/s)
0.1
y(m)

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
- (m/s)
u
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TBL Velocity Prole Over Rough Surfaces

Roughness aects only the internal layer of the boundary layer. The
logarithmic law is given as,

u 1
= ln y + + A (37)
uτ κ
uτ
The value of A is aected and it becomes a function of + (= ν ) where 
is the roughness height. Hence, the modied law of the wall becomes ;

u+ = f (y + , + ) (38)

Experiments show that if  is less than the thickness of the viscous sublayer
(y + ≤ 5), then the surface can be considered as smooth from aerodynamic
point of view. The modied velocity prole has a corrective term and is
given as ;

u 1 1 +
= ln y + + A − ln (39)
uτ κ κ 3.1
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Limitation of Theory and Simulation

Velocity Prole for v and w

The law of wall mentioned aboved is only valid for the mean streamwise
component of velocity,i.e., u.
Laws describing the velocity proles of the mean wall-normal component of
velocity v and the mean spanwise component w do not exist yet (at least
in the public literature).
Implications for the wall-functions used in the CFD softwares ?

Friction Velocity uτ at cf = 0
When τw → 0 orcf → 0 near separation in 2D ow or without separation
in 3D ow, it implies uτ → 0. At uτ = 0, all the velocity laws discussed
above (linear law, log law and defect law) become invalid. Several alternate
velocity scales have been proposed to overcome this diculty.

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Velocity Proles - Separated Diuser Flow from Ohlsson et

al (2010) KTH Sweden
KTH Sweden (2010), DNS of 3D Diffuser, z = 250
4 x0
x2
x4
3.5 x6
x8
x10
3

2.5
y

1.5

0.5

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
x
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Velocity Proles - Separated Diuser Flow from Ohlsson et

al (2010) KTH Sweden
KTH Sweden (2010), DNS of 3D Diffuser, z = 250
3.5
x0
x2
3
x4
x6
2.5 x8
x10
2
y/H

1.5

0.5

0
−0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u/ubulk
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Velocity Proles - Separated Diuser Flow from Ohlsson et

al (2010) KTH Sweden

KTH Sweden (2010), DNS of 3D Diffuser, z = 250

3.5
x0
x2
3
x4
x6
2.5 x8
x10
2
y/H

1.5

0.5

0
−0.04 −0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
v/u 35 / 49
bulk
 Syed Imran Shah

Power Law of Velocity

Law suggested by experiments for the ow over the impermeable surfaces :

u y 1
= ( )n (40)
Ue δ
or in wall-units :

1
u+ = 8.75(y + ) n (41)

withn = 7 for 5 × 105 ≤ Rex ≤ 107 and y+ > 1500 for ow with
dp/dx = 0.
Limitation 1 : At wall, the velocity gradient becomes innity with power law
(+ve for attached ow). Taking derivative of the equation (40) with n=7,

du Ue 1 1
= (42)
dy 7 δ 1/7 y 6/7

du  Ue 1 1
= =∞ (43)
dy y=0 7 δ 1/7 0
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Power Law : Contd

Limitation 2 : At the outer edge of the boundary layer (y = δ) over a at
plate with no streamwise pressure gradient, the velocity gradient du/dy
should be zero. It is not true for the power law of velocity.


du  Ue 1 1 Ue
= 1/7 6/7
= 6= 0 (44)
dy y=δ
 7 δ δ 7δ
TBL parameters derived from the power law ;

2n dδ
cf (x) = (45)
(n + 1)(n + 2) dx
δ
δ∗ = (46)
(n + 1)
δn
θ = (47)
(n + 1)(n + 2)
δ∗ (n + 2)
H = = (48)
θ n
The formula for cf is valid for ows with zero pressure gradient ow.
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Skin Friction Coecient from Log Law

The logarithmic law of velocity is given as :

u 1 yuτ
= ln +A
uτ κ ν
where A = 4.5 - 5.5 and κ = 0.41. At the outer edge, y=δ and u = Ue ,
therefore we can write,

Ue 1 δuτ
= ln +A (49)
uτ κ ν
r r
cf uτ δuτ δUe uτ uτ cf
Now = and = = Reδ = Reδ
2 Ue ν ν Ue Ue 2
substituting in the equation (49), we have,

s  r 
2 1 cf
= ln Reδ +A (50)
cf κ 2
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Skin Friction : Empirical Relations (External Flow)

Many propositions of the local skin friction coecient exist for both
smooth and rough surfaces, with and without pressure gradients, permeable
and impermeable surfaces, compressible or incompressible ow and in terms
of ow length Reynolds number Rex or momentum thickness based
Reynolds number Reθ .
Ludwieg-Tillmann law (1949) : Valid for arbitrary pressure gradients over
smooth surfaces.

0.246 −0.678H
cf = 10 (51)
Re0.268
θ

For Rex ≥ 107 , law of Schultz-Grünov (1940) :

1
−2.58
cf (x) = 0.185 logRex (x) (52)
2

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For dp/dx >0, the empirical formula of Fernholz (1964) :

  1.705
8.05
cf = 0.085 log10 Reθ−0.268 (53)
H 1.818
For zero pressure gradient (ZPG) ow, J.Ö sterlund (1999) proposed the
following t,

   −2
1
cf = 2 ln Reθ + C (54)
κ
Where the Von Kármán constant κ = 0.384 and the constant C = 4.08.

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TBL Parameters from the Power Law of Velocity

dp
For zero pressure gradient
dx = 0, the global parameters derived from the
power law of velocity and based on the length Reynolds number with
limitation Rex < 107 are ;

δ(x)
= 0.37(Rex )−1/5 (55)
x
δ ∗ (x)
= 0.0475(Rex )−1/5 (56)
x
θ(x)
= 0.036(Rex )−1/5 (57)
x
τw (x) = 0.029ρUe1.8 ν 0.2 x−1/5 (58)
−1/5
cf (x) = 0.058(Rex ) (59)

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TBL Parameters from the Log Law of Velocity

For 105 < Rex < 109 ,

δ(x)
= 0.14(Rex )−1/7 (60)
x
τw (x) = 0.0125ρUe2 (Rex )−1/7 (61)
−1/7
cf (x) = 0.025(Rex ) (62)
−1/7
CD = 0.03(ReL ) (63)
−1/7
FD = 0.015W L(ReL ) (64)

Here W is the width and L is the length of at plate, CD is the coecient
of drag and FD is the drag force.
2

2
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics by Shaughnessy, Katz and Schaer
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Boundary Layer Integral Equation

The turbulent boundary layer x-momentum equation is given as :

∂u ∂u dUe 1 ∂τ
u +v = Ue + (65)
∂x ∂y dx ρ ∂y
where τ = µ ∂u 0 0
∂y − ρu v and u and v are mean velocities. Integrate from
y = 0 to y = δ(x),
Z δ Z δ Z δ Z δ
∂u ∂u dUe 1 ∂τ
u dy + v dy = Ue dy + dy
0 ∂x 0 ∂y 0 dx 0 ρ ∂y
First term on the LHS :

Z δ Z δ
∂u 1 ∂ 2
u dy = (u )dy
0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x
Second term on the LHS : Using integration by parts,

Z δ  δ  Z δ
∂u  ∂v
v dy = v u − u dy
0 ∂y 0 0 ∂y 43 / 49
 Syed Imran Shah

Now at y = 0, u = 0 and at y = δ , u = Ue . Also from the continuity

∂v ∂u
equation,
∂y = − ∂x . Therefore, we have,

δ δ
1 δ ∂ 2
Z Z Z
∂u ∂u
v dy = v(Ue − 0) + u dy = vUe + (u )dy
0 ∂y 0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x
R δ ∂v R δ ∂u
Again using the continuity equation, v =
0 ∂y dy = − 0 ∂x dy , we have,
Z δ Z δ Z δ
∂u ∂u 1 ∂ 2
v dy = −Ue dy + (u )dy
0 ∂y 0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x
Assembling terms of the LHS :

δ
1 δ ∂ 2 1 δ ∂ 2
Z Z Z
∂u
−Ue dy + (u )dy + (u )dy
0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x 2 0 ∂x
Z δ Z δ
∂ 2 ∂u
= u dy − Ue dy
0 ∂x 0 ∂x
Z δ Z δ
d d
= u2 dy − Ue udy
dx 0 dx 0
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Now,
3
Z δ Z δ Z δ
d d dUe
Ue udy = uUe dy − udy
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0
Finally, LHS becomes :

Z δ Z δ Z δ
d 2 d dUe
u dy − uUe dy + udy
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0
Second term on the RHS :

δ
1 δ
Z 
1 ∂τ τw
= τ = −
ρ 0 ∂y ρ 0 ρ

3
Dynamique des Fluides, Inge L. Ryhming
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Assembling all terms of equation,

Z δ Z δ Z δ Z δ
d 2 d dUe dUe τw
u dy − uUe dy + udy − Ue dy = −
dx 0 dx 0 dx 0 0 dx ρ
Z δ
dUe δ
Z
d 2 τw
(u − uUe )dy + (u − Ue )dy = −
dx 0 dx 0 ρ
Z δ
dUe δ
Z
d τw
u(Ue − u)dy + (Ue − u)dy =
dx 0 dx 0 ρ
d 2 δ u dUe δ
Z Z
u u τw
Ue (1 − )dy + Ue (1 − )dy =
dx 0 Ue Ue dx 0 Ue ρ
d dUe ∗ τw
(U 2 θ) + Ue δ = (66)
dx e dx ρ
further simplication (re-arranging and dividing by Ue2 ) gives,

dθ θ dUe cf
+ (2 + H) = (67)
dx Ue dx 2
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For the zero pressure gradient ow dp/dx = dUe /dx = 0 and we have from
the boundary layer integral momentum equation ;

cf dθ
= (68)
2 dx

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 Syed Imran Shah

TBL Pressure Gradient Parameters

Clauser (1954) parameter β (non-dimensional) :

δ ∗ dp δ ∗ dp δ ∗ dUe δ ∗ dCp
β= = 2 =− = (69)
τw dx ρuτ dx uτ dx cf dx

Pressure gradient normalized with wall units, P+ (non-dimensional) :

1 ν dp ν β ν dUe
P+ = = = −Ue 3 (70)
ρ u3τ dx uτ δ ∗ uτ dx
β, P +> 0 → adverse (or positive) pressure gradient
β, P +< 0 → favorable (or negative) pressure gradient
β, P += 0 → zero pressure gradient (or constant pressure)
β, P += ∞ → At cf = 0 or uτ = 0 (2D separated ows).
Launder (1964) Acceleration parameter kacc (non-dimensional) :

1 ν dp ν dUe
kacc = − 3
= 2 (71)
ρ Ue dx Ue dx
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If persistent, a favorable pressure gradient can lead to relaminarization

whereas a persistent adverse pressure gradient can lead to ow separation.
Generally, β> 3 or P+ > 0.15 can be considered as strong adverse
pressure gradients.
According to Launder (1964), relaminarization of a turbulent boundary
layer is supposed to occur if kacc > 3.5 × 10−6 .
According to Patel (1965), the threshold values for separation and
relaminarization are P + = 0.09 and P + = −0.018 respectively.

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