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CHEMISTRY
(Mastery Test)

Study of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Also known as the “central science”

THE STRUCTURE OF ATOM

❖ Atom – smallest particle component of an element having the chemical properties of the element
Parts:
● Electron – (e-) NEGATIVE CHARGE; very small thus, cannot be counted as amu
● Protons – (p+) POSITIVE CHARGE; relative mass is equal to the neutron
● Neutron – (n) NO CHARGE; relative mass is equal to the proton
A. EARLY IDEAS ABOUT MATTER
Greek Philosophers
❖ Democritus
- propose the idea that matter was not infinitely divisible
- matter was made up of tiny individual particles called “atomos”
- atoms could not be created, destroyed, or further divided
- matter is composed of atoms, which move through empty spacE
❖ Aristotle
- empty space cannot exist
- matter is made of earth, fire, air and wateR
❖ John Dalton’s Atomic Theory
- Matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms
- Atoms are indivisible and indestructible
- Atoms of a given element are indentical in size, mass and chemical properties
- Atoms combine in simple whole ratios to form compounds
- Revised Democritus’ ideas
- Marks the beginning of the development of modern atomic theory

B. DEFINING THE ATOM

❖ Cathode-Ray Tube
- newly invented vacuum pump, they passed electricity through glass tubes from which most of the air
had been removed.
- relationship between mass and charge
- tube with an anode (+) and a cathode (-) at the other end.
● Properties
❏ Magnet – deflected toward (-) charge; particles in the ray must be (+) charged
❏ Electric Field – deflected toward (+) charge; particles in ray must have a (-) charge.
❖ J.J. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model
- states that atom is a uniform, positively charged sphere containing electrons
- matter is neutral (no electric charge)
❖ Ernest Rutherford’s Gold Foil Experiment and The Nucleus
- a few of (+) alpha particles were deflected at large angles, while several particles were deflected
straight back toward the source
- Nucleus – consists of atom’s (+) charge; tiny dense region in the center of the atom

C. HOW ATOMS DIFFER

❖ Atomic Number and Mass Number
➢ Atomic Number – number of protons in an atom; equal to the number of electrons

➢ Mass Number – sum of the number of protons and neutrons

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➢ Isotopes – same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; more neutrons have a
greater mass

Second Quarter
Electrons in an Atom
Section 1: LIGHT AND QUANTIZED ENERGY
LIGHT, a form of a electromagnetic radiation, has
characteristics of a both wave and a particle.

❖ Why did Bohr revise Rutherford’s Model?

- Bohr improved Rutherford's model by proposing that electrons travelled about the nucleus in orbits that had
specific energy levels. Bohr's model was an improvement because it explained why the light emitted by atoms
consists of lines of certain colors.

❖ How did Bohr revise Rutherford’s atomic model?

- To remedy the stability problem, Bohr modified the Rutherford model by requiring that the electrons move in
orbits of fixed size and energy. The energy of an electron depends on the size of the orbit and is lower for smaller
orbits. Radiation can occur only when the electron jumps from one orbit to another.

A. The Wave Nature of Light

❏ Light
- can be also called wave
- form of energy
- produce colors
* Scientist discovered that when it is exposed to flame will produce different colors of wave per
element/compound.
❏ Electromagnetic Radiation
- form of energy that exhibits wavelike behavior as it travel through space.
- ex: X-rays, Microwave, Radio
Characteristics of Waves:
➢ Wavelength
- shortest distance between equivalent points on a continuous wave
- measured from crest to crest or trough to trough
➢ Frequency
- number of waves that pass a given point per second
➢ Amplitude
- wave’s height from origin to crest
➢ Crest
- highest point of a wave
➢ Trough
- lowest point of a wave

Classification of Waves:
a. Mechanical Wave
- travel through a medium
- ex: voice travels through air
b. Electromagnetic Wave
- can travel without a medium
● Frequency
- number of waves that pass a given point per second.
- gives the color of light
- ex: radio, microwaves, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays
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FORMULA:
The speed of light n a vacuum is equal to the product of the wavelength and the frequency.
c = λⱱ
Where:
c = speed of light in a vacuum (m/s)
λ = wavelength (m, cm or nm = 10-9 m)
ⱱ = frequency (Hz, waves/sec or s-1)

❏ Electromagnetic Spectrum
- includes all forms of electromagnetic radiation
● Spectrum
- a bond of colors, produced by separation of the components of light according to
wavelength
- continuous (each point of it corresponds to a unique wavelength & frequency.)
B. The Particle Nature of Light
* Wave Model of Light
- cannot explain why heated object emit only certain frequencies of light at a given temperature.
- cannot explain why some emit electrons when light of a specific frequency shines on them.

Important Aspects of Light Interactions with Matter:

❏ Quantum
- minimum amount of energy that could be gained or lost by an atom.
- example: IRON
→ dark gray at room temp.
→ red when heated & orange
→ bluish at ↑ temp.
* Temp. of an object ⇒ measure of the average kinetic energy of its particles
*When objects are heated, they emit glowing light
* IRON gets hotter = ↑ amount of energy & emits different color
↳respond to different frequencies
and wavelengths

*Wavelength of the light emitted by heated metal depends on the room temperature
❏ Max Planck
- German physicist
- studied the light emitted by heated objects
- conclusion: matter could , gain or lose energy only in small, specific amount ⇨ Quanta
- proposed that the energy emitted by hot objects was quantized
- demonstrated mathematically the relationship between energy of a quantum and frequency of
the emitted radiation
- Formula: Energy of a Quantum

E quanta = hⱱ

❏ Photoelectric Effect
- emission of photoelectrons from a metal’s surface when light of a certain frequency or higher
than a certain frequency, shine on the surface
- occurs when light of a certain frequency strikes a metal surface and ejects electron
- ↑ intensity of light = ↑ no. of electrons ejected
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What effect the way electrons are ejected?

➼ Intensity (brightness)
- Increased light intensity, more electron will be ejected
➼ Frequency
- ↑ frequency of light, faster electrons are ejected

❏ Light’s Dual Nature

- proposed by Albert Einstein
❏ Albert Einstein
- beam of light has wave-like & particle-like
- extends Planck’s idea of quantized energy
- calculated photon’s energy depends on its frequency
- Formula: Energy of a Photon
E photon = hⱱ
❏ Photon
- massless particle that carries quantum of energy
- beam bundles of energy
- its energy must have a certain threshold a value to cause the ejection of a photoelectron from
the surface of the metal. Even small numbers of photons with energy above the threshold a
value will cause the photoelectric effect
Practice Problem:
1. Objects get their colors from reflecting only certain wavelengths when hit with white light. Light reflected from a
green leaf is found to have a wavelength of 4.90 x 1 0−7❑m, what is the frequency of the light?
c = 3.00 x 106
Wavelength = 4.90 x 10-7
frequency = ?
3.00 x 10 6 14
frequency = −7 = 6.12 x 10
4.90 x 1 0

2. X-rays can penetrate body tissues and are widely used to diagnose and treat disorders of internal body
structures. What is the frequency of an x-ray with a wavelength of 7.98 x 1 06 Hz❑What is the speed of the
wave?
c = 3.00 x 106
wavelength = 7.98 x 1 06 Hz❑
frequency = ?
Ans: 3.00 x 106

3. What is the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation with a frequency of 5.00 x 1 012 ? ❑

c = 3.00 x 106
frequency = 5.00 x 1 012❑
Wavelength = ?
3.00 x 1 06 5
wavelength = 12❑ = 6 x 10
5.00 x 10
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4. What is the frequency of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of 3.33 x 1 0−8❑?

c = 3.00 x 106
frequency = ?
wavelength = 3.33 x 1 0−8❑

3.00 x 1 06
Frequency = −8❑
= 9.01 x 1015
3.33 x 10

5. What is the speed of an electromagnetic wave with a frequency of 1.33 x 1 017❑ and a wavelength of 2.25 nm?
c = 3.00 x 106
wavelength = 2.25
frequency = 1.33 x 1 017❑
Ans: 3.00 x 106

II. Quantum Theory and the Atom

Wavelike particles of electrons help relate
atomic emission spectra, energy states of
an atom, and atomic orbitals.
Essential Question:
❖ What is the Bohr model of the atom?
- the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom (Z = 1) or a hydrogen-like ion (Z > 1), where the negatively charged
electron confined to an atomic shell encircles a small, positively charged atomic nucleus and where an electron
jumps between orbits it is accompanied by an emitted or absorbed amount of electromagnetic energy (hν).
❖ Rutherford’s nuclear model vs. Bohr’s electron cloud model:
- So Bohr proposed a new model of the atom with basic principles: -Electrons only exist in fixed orbitals (shells)
and not anywhere in between. In summary: Rutherford explained the nucleus of an atom, while Bohr was more
into the electrons and their energy levels

A. Bohr’s Model of the Atom

❏ Niels Bohr
- Danish physicist
- Proposed a quantum model
- correctly predicted frequencies of the lines in hydrogen atomic emission spectra
❏ Threshold
- magnitude of intensity that must be exceeded reaction, phenomenon, result, or condition to
occur or be manifested.
➢ Energy states of the Hydrogen
Ground State Excited State

- electron is associated with - electron is associated with the

the lowest energy level highest energy level

- atom gains energy

- electron in an atom moves around the nucleus in only certain allowed circular orbits
- smaller electrons’ orbit, lower; larger electrons’ orbit, higher

➢ Hydrogen Line Spectrum

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- when an electron drops from a higher-energy orbit to a lower-energy orbit, a photon is emitted.
B. The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom
❏ Erwin Schrodinger
- Austrian physicist
- furthered the wave-like particle theory proposed by Broglie
- “Wave Mechanical Model or Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom”
↪ atomic model in which
electrons are treated as waves
↪ limits an electron’s energy
to certain values
↪Makes no attempt to
describe the electron’s path
around the nucleus
- “Wave Function”
↪related to the probability of
finding the electron within
particular volume of space
around the nucleus
➢ Electron’s Probable Location

❏ Atomic Orbital
- where wave function predicts a 3-dimensional region around the nucleus which describes the
electron’s probable location
- like a fuzzy cloud in which the density at a given point is proportional to the probability of
finding the electron at that point.
❏ Density Map
- represents the probability of finding an electron of a given position around the nucleus
- electron moving around the nucleus
- Dots represents the electron’s location
- high density dots near the nucleus indicates the electron’s most probable location
- cloud has no definite boundary
C. Hydrogen’s Atomic Orbitals
➢ Principal Quantum Number (n)
- assigns 4 quantum numbers to atomic number
- Indicates the relative size and energy of atomic orbitals
- sets of orbitals with the same n value are often referred to as electron shells or energy level
- describes the size of the orbitals
- ↑ n = larger orbits

❖ 4 Quantum Numbers:
n principal n=2
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l azimuthal l = 0, 1

ml magnetic (-l → l ) ml = 0

ms spin (-½ , ½) ↳= -1, 0, 1,

↳ px, py, px

❖ Sublevel
Sublevel Maximum number of e- Total

s s 1

p p1, p2, p3 3

d d-2, d-1, d0, d1, d2, 5

f f-3, f-2, f-1, f0, f1, f2, f3 7

❖ Azimuthal Quantum Numbers:

l sublevel Orbital shape

0 s sharp / sphere

1 p principal

2 d diffused

3 f fundamental

❖ Magnetic Quantum Numbers:

Sublevel l ml

s 0 0

p 1 -1, 0, 1

d 2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

f 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

SUMMARY:
n energy level

l orbital type (s, p, d, f)

m sub l specific orbital

m sub s spin (↑ = ½ ; ↓ = -½ )

➢ Principal Energy Level

- where n specifies the atom’s major energy level
- 1 is the lowest → where atom is in ground state
➢ Energy Sublevels
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- ↑ number of energy sublevels in a principal energy level, as n ↑.

- energy levels related to orbitals farther from the nucleus contain more sublevels

➢ Shapes of Orbital
❏ Sublevels
- labeled as s (spherical), p (dumbell), d, f.
*each orbital can contain at most 2 electrons

Example:
for 3px ↿
N=3 N=3

L = 0,1,2 L= 1

M sub l = m sub l = -1

m sub s = (-½ , ½ ) m sub n = ½

1. For 2s ↿
n=2 N=2

l = 0, 1 L= 0

m sub l = -1, 0, 1 m sub l = 0

m sub s = -½ , ½ m sub s = ½

2. For 2py ⇂
n=2 N= 2

l = 0, 1 , 2 L= 1

m sub l = -1, 0, 1 m sub l = 0

M sub n = -½ , ½ m sub n = -½

3. for 2pz ↿
N= 2 N=2

L = 0, 1 L=1

m sub l = -1, 0, 1 m sub l = 1

m sub s = -½ , ½ m sub s = ½

4. For 3pz ↿
n=3 n=3

L = 0, 1 l=1

m sub l = -1, 0, 1 m sub l = 1

m sub s = -½ , ½ m sub s = ½

5. For 3 sub d -1 ⇂
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n=3 n=3

l = 0, 1, 2, l=2

m sub l = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 m sub l = -1

m sub s = -½ , ½ m sub s = -½

6. Given: 2py ⇂

N=2 N=2

L = 0, 1 L=1

m sub l = -1, 0, 1 m sub l = 0

m sub s = -½ , ½ m sub s = -½

III. Electron Configuration

Set of 3 rules can be used to determine electron
arrangement in an atom

A. Ground-state Electron Configuration

❏ Electron Configuration
- allows to describe the arrangement of electrons in an atom’s using a few specific rules
❏ Electron’s Ground-State Electron Configuration
- most stable, lowest-energy arrangement of the electrons
Three Rules:
➔ Aufbau Principles
- states each electrons occupies the lowest energy orbital available
- comes from the greek word aufbauen which means to build up or arrange
➔ Pauli Exclusion Principles
- proposed by Wolfgang Pauli after observing atoms in excited states
- maximum of the two electrons can occupy a single atomic orbital, but only if the electrons have
opposite spins,
- electrons in orbitals can be represented by arrows in boxes
➔ Hund’s Rule
- states that single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy orbital before
additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals
↑ - clockwise ; ↓ - counter clockwise

B. Electron Arrangement
➢ Orbital Diagram
- pictorial descriptions of the electrons in an atom.
Example: Ground-State Carbon Atom

➢ Electron Configuration Notation

- designates the principal energy level and energy sublevel associated with each of the atom’s
orbitals and includes a superscript representing the number of electrons in the orbital
- number of electrons (atomic number)
- address ; where exactly electrons are located.
group number/valence e-
↗
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row/shell no. ↩1 s 1❑
↪ subshells

Examples: (Electron Configuration Notation)

Element # of -e Electron Configuration Notation

1. H 1
1 s 1❑
2. He 2
1 s 2❑
3. Be 4
1 s 2 2 s 1❑
4. C 6
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p2❑
5. S 16
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2 3 p4❑

Noble-Gas Notation
- method of representing electron configurations of noble gases.
- last column of the periodic table
- uses bracketed symbols [ ]

Elements of a Noble-gas:
➔ He - [he]lium
➔ Ne - [ne]on
➔ Kr - krypton
➔ Xe - [xe]non
➔ Rn - radon
Examples: (Noble-Gas)
Element E.C. Notation Noble-gas

Be = 4
1 s 2 2 s 2❑ [He] 2 s 2❑

Na = 11
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 1❑ [Ne] 3 s 1❑

K = 19
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2 3 p6 4 s1❑[Ar] 4 s 1❑
Ne = 10 2 2 6❑ 2 2 6❑
1s 2s 2 p 1s 2s 2 p
Ar = 18
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2 3 p6❑ [Ne] 3 s 2 3 p6❑
O=8
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p4❑ [He] 2 s 2 s p4❑
Cl = 17
1 s 2❑ 2 s 2❑ 2 p 6 3 s2 3 p 5❑ [Ne] 3 s 2 3 p5❑
F=9
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p5❑ [He] 2 s 2 2 p5❑
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❏ Representative Elements

Columns: groups
Rows: periods

Examples: (Representative Elements)

Element E.C. Notation Group Period

He = 2 VIII A 1
1 s 2❑
Be = 4 II A 3
1 s 2 2 s 2❑
B=5 III A 3
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p1❑
Cl = 17
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2 3 p5❑ VII A 1

H=1 IA 1
1 s 1❑
Li = 3 IA 2
1 s 2 2 s 1❑
Na = 11 IA 1
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 1❑
Mg = 12 II A 2
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p6 3 s 2❑
F=9 VII A 2
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p5❑

❏ Valence Electron
- determine the chemical properties of an element.
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- electron’s to the atom’s outermost orbitals-generally those orbitals associated with the atom’s highest
principal energy level
- Involved in forming chemical bonds
- Numbers in columns
● Electron-dot Structure
- consists of the element’s symbol, (which represents the atomic nucleus and inner-
level electrons), surrounded by dots (representing all the atom’s valence electrons).
- devised by G. N. Lewis

Examples: (Valence Electron)

Element E.C. Notation Valence E- dot structure
Electron

H 1 H
1 s 1❑
Be 2 Be
1 s 2 2 s ❑2❑
B 3 B
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p1❑
C 4 C
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p2❑
N 5 N
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p4❑
O 6 O
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p4❑
F 7 F
1 s 2 2 s 2 2 p5❑
Ne 8 Ne
1 s 2 2 s 2 26❑
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Periodic Table & Trends

Section 1: Development of Modern Periodic Table & History
The Periodic Table evolved over time as scientists discovered
more useful ways to compare and organize elements,

A. Development of Periodic Table

❏ Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
- French chemist
- contained 33 elements organized in four categories
➢ Gases
- light, heat, dephlogisticated air, phlogisticated gas, inflammable air
➢ Metals
- silver, arsenic, cobalt, copper, tin, mercury, nickel, gold, platina, tungsten, zinc,
antimony, bismuth,
➢ Nonmetals
- Sulphur, phosphorus, pure charcoal, radical muriatique, radical fluorique, radical
boracique
➢ Earths
- chalk, magnesia, barote, clay, siliceous earth

❏ John Newlands (1837-1898)

- English chemist
- proposed an organizational scheme for the elements
- noticed when elements were arranged by increasing atomic mass, their properties repeated
eighth element
- “Law of octaves”
❏ Julius Lothar Meyer (1830-1895)
- German chemist
- demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and the properties of elements
- arranged the element in order of increasing atomic mass
❏ Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
- Russian chemist
- demonstrated a connection between atomic mass and the properties of elements
- arranged the element in order of increasing atomic mass
- predicted the existence and properties of undiscovered elements
❏ Henry Moseley
- English chemist
- discovered atoms contain a unique number of protons called atomic number
- arranged elements in order of increasing atomic number, which resulted in a periodic pattern of
properties
❖ Periodic Law
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- periodic repetition of chemical and physical properties of the elements when they are arranged by
increasing atomic number

B. Modern Periodic Table

❖ Periodic Table
- period comes from the greek word periodos meaning way around, or circuit
- useful reference for understanding and predicting the properties of the elements and for organizing
knowledge of atomic structure
➔ Groups [18] - series of columns
➔ Periods [7] - rows
➢ Representative Elements
- posses a wide range of physical and chemical properties
- Groups 1-2 [1A-1B], 13-18 [13A-18B]
➢ Transition Elements
- partially filled with orbitals
- groups 3-12 [3B - 12B]
- composed of transition and inner transition elements
Classification of Elements:
❏ Metals
- shiny when smooth and clean, solid at room temperature, good conductors of heat & electricity
- malleable and ductile
- elements that readily form positive ions and has metallic bonds
➔ Physical Properties:
1. Malleable and ductile
2. Lustruous
3. Good conductors of heat and electricity
4. Senerous
5. Form positive ions
6. High melting and boiling point
7. Solids at room temperature [exept mercury]
● Alkali Metals
- group 1 elements (except for Hydrogen)
- reactive
- usually exist as compounds with other elements
- ex: Na and Li
● Alkaline Metals
- group 2 elements
- highly reactive
- ex: Ca and Mg
● Transition & Inner Transition Metals
- Lanthanide first row inner transition metals
- Actinide second row inner transition metals
❏ Nonmetals
- upper right side elements
- elements that generally gases or brittle, dull-looking solids
- poor conductors of heat
- do not exhibit the characteristics and properties of metals
➔ Physical Properties:
1. Brittle
2. Dull
3. Insulators of heat and electricity [except carbon]
4. Dull sound
5. Form negative ions
6. Low melting and boiling point
7. Solid, liquid, and gas at room temp.
● Halogens
- group 17
- comprised of highly reactive elements
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- often part of compound [ex: toothpaste]

● Noble Gases
- extremely unreactive; group 18 elements
- used in lasers, variety of light bulbs and neon signs
❏ Metalloids
- also knows as sentimetals
- physical and chemical properties of both metals and nonmetals
- Intermediate between those of typical metals and nonmetals
- ex: Si and Ge
➔ Physical Properties
1. Solid at room temp.
2. Silicon and germanium, can’t act as electrical conductors under the right conditions thus, they are called
semi-conductors
3. Can form alloys

TESTING AN ELEMENT:
★ Malleability
- ability of a material to bend
★ Conductivity
- conduct electricity/heat
- Ex: CARBON
Allotrope - each of 2 or more different physical forms which elements exist
a. Graphite - free electrons around the ring; ✔ conductivity
b. Diamond - electrons hold tightly between atoms, aren’t free to remove; ✘ conductivity
c. Charcoal - bad conductor

★ Acid Reaction Test

- 2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2

Section 2: Periodic Trends

Trends among elements in the periodic table
include their sizes and their abilities to lose or
attract electrons.

*** The organization of the periodic table tells us about the behavior of many of the elements.
❖ Periodic Trends
- specific patterns that are present in the periodic table that illustrate different aspects of a
certain element, including its size and its electronic properties.
❖ Atomic Size
- Influenced by electron configuration
❖ Electron Cloud
- surrounding a nucleus does not have a clearly defined edge
- the outer limit is defined as the spherical surface within which there is a probability of finding an
electron
Major Periodic Trends:
➢ Atomic Radius
❏ Period
- decreases as you go from left to right across a period.
- proton number increase
- effective nuclear charge increase
- stronger attraction between nucleus and valence electron
❏ Group
- atomic radius increases
- energy level increase
- shielding effect increase
- weaker attraction between nucleus and valence electron
➢ Ionic Radius
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● Ions
- atom or a bonded group of atoms that has a positive and negative charge; charged particles
- smaller = positive ions
- larger = negative ions
❏ Period
- decreases
- metals forming cations, as the metals lose their outer electron orbitals
❏ Group
- increases
- additional layers of electrons are being added
➢ Ionization Energy
- energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom
● Energy - needed to overcome the attraction between the positive charge of the nucleus and negative
charge of the electron
➔ High Ionization Energy
- indicates atom has a strong hold on its electrons
➔ Low Ionization Energy
- atom easily loses an outer electron; forms positive ions
❏ Period
- increases
- proton number increase
- shielding effect increase
- stronger attraction between nucleus and valence electron
- atomic radius decrease
- more difficult to remove valence electro
❏ Group
- decreases
- energy level increase
- shielding effect increase
- weaker attraction between nucleus and valence electron
- atomic radius increase
- easier to remove valence electron
➢ Electronegativity
- relative ability of its atoms to attract in a chemical bond
❏ Period
- increases
- proton number increase
- shielding effect increase
- stronger attraction between nucleus and valence electron
- atomic radius decrease
- greater ability to attract the bonding electron itself
❏ Group
- decreases
- energy level increase
- shielding effect increase
- weaker attraction between nucleus and valence electron
- Atomic radius increase
- weaker ability to attract the bonding electron itself
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SUMMARY:
Periodic Trends Period Group

Atomic Radius decreases increases

Ionic Radius decreases increases

Ionization Energy increases decreases

Electronegativity increase decreases

Summary of Periodic Table Trends

Atomic Radius
Period - atomic radius decreases as you go from left to right across a period. Why? Stronger attractive forces in
atoms (as you go from left to right) between the opposite charges in the nucleus and electron cloud cause the
atom to be 'sucked' together a little tighter.
Group - atomic radius increases as you go down a group. Why? There is a significant jump in the size of the
nucleus (protons + neutrons) each time you move from period to period down a group. Additionally, new energy
levels of elections clouds are added to the atom as you move from period to period down a group, making the
each atom significantly more massive, both is mass and volume.
Ionization Energy
Ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the outmost electron. It is closely related to
electronegativity
Period - ionization energy increases as you go from left to right across a period. Why? Elements on the right of
the chart want to take others atom's electron (not given them up) because they are close to achieving the octet.
The means it will require more energy to remove the outer most electron. Elements on the left of the chart would
prefer to give up their electrons so it is easy to remove them, requiring less energy (low ionization energy).
Group - ionization energy decreases as you go down a group. Why? The shielding affect makes it easier to
remove the outer most electrons from those atoms that have many electrons (those near the bottom of the chart).
Electronegativity
Electronegativity is an atom's 'desire' to grab another atom's electrons Period- electronegativity increases as you
go from left to right across a period. Why? Elements on the left of the period table have 1 -2 valence electrons
and would rather give those few valence electrons away (to achieve the octet in a lower energy level) than grab
another atom's electrons. As a result, they have low electronegativity. Elements on the right side of the period
table only need a few electrons to complete the octet, so they have strong desire to grab another atom's
electrons.
Group - electronegativity decreases as you go down a group. Why? Elements near the top of the period table
have few electrons to begin with; every electron is a big deal. They have a stronger desire to acquire more
electrons. Elements near the bottom of the chart have so many electrons that losing or acquiring an electron is
not as big a deal. This is due to the shielding affect where electrons in lower energy levels shield the positive
S.Y. 2017-2018: S.M.R.M.

charge of the nucleus from outer electrons resulting in those outer electrons not being as tightly bound to the
atom.
http://wiki.ubc.ca/Summary_Of_Periodic_Table_Trends_(Atomic_Radius,_Ionization_Energy,_Electronegativity)
The ionic radius of the elements exhibits trends in the periodic table. In general:
Ionic radius increases as you move from top to bottom on the periodic table.
Ionic radius decreases as you move across the periodic table, from left to right.
Although ionic radius and atomic radius do not mean exactly the same thing, the trend applies to atomic radius
as well as to ionic radius.
IONIC RADIUS AND GROUP
Why does radius increase with higher atomic numbers in a group?
As you move down a group in the periodic table, additional layers of electrons are being added, which naturally
causes the ionic radius to increase as you move down the periodic table.
IONIC RADIUS AND PERIOD
It might seem counterintuitive that the size of an ion would decrease as you add more protons, neutrons, and
electrons in a period, yet, there's an explanation for this. As you move across a row of period of the periodic
table, the ionic radius decreases for metals forming cations, as the metals lose their outer electron orbitals. The
ionic radius increases for nonmetals as the effective nuclear charge decreases due to the number of electrons
exceeding the number of protons.

IONIC RADIUS AND ATOMIC RADIUS

The ionic radius is different from the atomic radius of an element. Positive ions are smaller than their uncharged
atoms. Negative ions are larger than their atoms.

https://www.thoughtco.com/ionic-radius-trends-in-the-periodic-table-60878

Ionic compounds
Ionic compounds are held together by chemical bonds
formed by the attraction of oppositely charged ions.

Section 1: Ion Formation

❖ Chemical Bond
- force that holds two atoms together
- can form by the attraction between the positive nucleus of one atom and negative electrons of
another atom
❖ Electron-Dot Structure
- diagram used to keep track of valence electrons
- used to illustrate the formation of chemical bonds
➢ Positive Ion Formation
❏ Cation (+)
- positively charged ion
- forms when an atom loses or gain more valence electrons in order to attain a
noble gas configuration
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- metal group
➢ Negative ion Formation
❏ Anion (-)
- negatively charged ion
- nonmetal group
Section 2: Ionic Bonds and Compound
❖ Ionic Bond
- electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in an ionic compound
❖ Ionic Compound
- compounds that contain ionic bonds
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

+1 +2 +3 +/- 4 -3 -2 -1

Section 2: Formulas for Ionic Compound

❖ Formula Unit
- chemical formula for an ionic compound
- represents the simplest ratio of the ions involved
Formation of Ions
➢ Monatomic Ions
- one atom
- metals (+) or nonmetals (-)
Gr. 1 Gr. 2 Gr. 3 Gr. 15 Gr. 16 Gr. 17

H+ Be+2 Sc+3 N-3 O-2 F-

Li+ Mg+2 Y+3 P-3 S-2 Cl-

Na+ Ca+2 La+3 As-3 Se-2 Br-

K+ Sr+2 Ac+# Sb-3 Te-2 I-

➢ Binary Ionic Compound

- contain only two different elements
- contain a metallic (+) cation and nonmetallic (-) anion
example:
1. NaCl ⟶ [Na]+ [Cl]-
2. MgO ⟶ [Mg]+2 [O]-2
3. MgCl2 ⟶ [Cl]-1 [Mg]+2 [Cl]-1
4. LiO2 ⟶ [Li]+ [Li]+ [O]-2

➢ Polyatomic Ionic Compound

- ions made up of more than two atoms
- acts as an individual ion in a compound and its charges applies to the entire group of
atoms
examples:
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Section 3: Naming Ionic Compound

1. Cation (+) first then, anion (-)
2. For monatomic cations (+), use the element name
3. For monatomic anion (-), add the suffix -ide
Examples:
a) Be3N2 = Beryllium Nitroxide
b) NaBr = Sodium Bromide
c) MgO = Magnesium Oxide
d) CaS = Calcium Sulfide
4. Multiple oxidation numbers, use roman numeral in parenthesis.

examples:
1. Copper Nitrate
Cu(NO3 )2 ⟶ [Cu]+2 [NO]-3
2. Sodium Sulfate
[NH4]+1 [S]-2 ⟶ (NH4)2S
3. Copper (II) Sulfate
CuSO4 ⟶ [Cu]+ [SO4]-
4. Iron (III) Oxide
Fe2O3 ⟶ [Fe]+3 [O]-2
5. Iron (II) Oxide
FeO ⟶ [Fe]+2 [O]-2

pp. 223 (Chemistry book)

Name the ff:
28. NaBr = Sodium Bromide
29. CaCl = Calcium Chloride
30. KOH = Potassium Hydroxide
31. Cu(NO3)2 = Copper Nitrate
32. Ag2CrO4 = Silver Bromide
33. NH4Cl04 = Ammonium Perchlorate

Compound Structure Formula Name

Unit

Potassium [K]+[F]+ KF Potassium

& Chloride Flouride

Sodium & [Na]+1 Na2O Sodium

Oxygen [O]-2 Oxide

Magnesium [Mg]+2 [I]-1 MgI2 Magnesium

& Iodine Iodide

Ammonium [NH4]+[O]- (NH4)2O Ammonium

2
& Oxygen Oxide
 S.Y. 2017-2018: S.M.R.M.

Barium & [Ba]+2 Ba(MNO4)2 Barium

Permangan [MnO]-4 Permangan
ate ate

Covalent Bonding
Atoms gain stability when they share electrons and
form covalent bonds.

Section 1: Formation of Covalent Bonding

❖ Covalent
- nonmetals
- chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
❖ Molecule
- Formed when two or more atoms bond covalently
❖ Diatomic Molecules
- form when two atoms of each element share electrons
- H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

➢ Single Bond
- two electrons being shared

➢ Double Bond
- two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms
➢ Triple Bond
- three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms

Section 2: Naming Covalent Compounds

1. First element is always named first
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2. Second element is named using its root and adding its suffix -ide
3. Prefixes are used to indicate the number of atoms of each element

Number of Atoms Prefix

1 mono-

2 di-

3 tri-

4 tetra-

5 penta-

6 hexa-

7 hepta-

8 octa-

9 nona-

10 Deca-

Examples:
1. PH3 = Phosphorus Trihydide
2. H2S = Dihydrogen Sulfide
3. HCl = Hydrogen Chloride
4. CCL4 = Carbon Tetrachloride
5. SiH4 = Silicon Tetrahydide
SUMMARY:
S.Y. 2017-2018: S.M.R.M.

Name Ionic or Formula Structure

Covalent Unit

Potassium Ionic KHO [K]+1 [O]-2

Oxide

Nitrogen Covalent NH3

Trihydide

Ammonium Ionic (NH4)2Se [NH4]+1 [Se]-2

Selenium

Carbon Dioxide Covalent CO2

S.Y. 2017-2018: S.M.R.M.

Third Quarter
Molecules - formed when two or more atoms bond covalently
Recall:
❖ Covalent - sharing of valence electrons
❖ Ionic bond - electrostatic force that holds oppositely charged particles together in a ionic compound
I. Molecular Structure
- models used as representations of the molecule

Example: phosphorus trihydride

PH3 Molecular Formula

Lewis Structure

Structural Formula

Space-filling molecular model

Ball-and-stick molecular model

II. Resonance Structure

- Condition that occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be written for a molecule or ion
- Two or more correct Lewis structures that represent a single molecule or ion
- Differ only in the position of the electron pairs, never the atoms position
- Location of lone pairs and bonding pairs differs

III. Molecular Shapes

- determine many of its physical and chemical propeties

❖ VSEPR Model
- Valence shell electron pair model
- Minimizes the repulsion of shaped and unshaped electron pairs around the central atom
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❖ Hybridization
- Molecular compunds (atomic orbital)
- Process in which atomic orbitals mix and form new identical hybrid orbitals

Hybrid Shapes

sp Linear

Trigonal planar
s p 2❑
Tetrahedral
s p 3❑

Example: CN4 (methane molecule)

Central Atom Valence Electron E. Configuration

C 6 1s22s22p2

PS. nakakatamad na i-type check niyo na lang notes niyo kung may laman or search ko kung paano :>

III. Electronegativity and Polarity

*chemical bonds’ character is related to each atom’s attraction for the electrons in the bond.
Recall:
Electronegativity
- Relative ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond
EN differences Bond character
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> 1,7 Mostly ionic

0.4 - 1.7 Polar covalent

< 0.4 Mostly covalent

0 Non-polar covalent

Example: Cl2
3.0 -3.0 = 0 → non polar covalent