.

cfo 6QgS -- wrcrEs o$ e\ernerrt - XIOO

d'lornic mass -- ofo dbovd<tnre x olam(c fnqss Ynqss oF compoun

arrq

MF = Et x n r h= [fo\etu\ar moss / gS rnoss

t/to\gtrr\qr fnqgs = Zx \6}0\11 0Onsifq ' m7Mo\oit[g =

\r}lt=YzMt .
ldome o$ eotoHbn inL Mz vol rh L
w$lew\(r mcssot i lute

=nhi . \ rncVa=tnLu-ra) '

, v1o .o{ e- fi a 3Y,e\I =Lno
ftoo. r.Oqtt+ r,.-']
ort htt

/F\g.u.t- = n. nl17a1< 'hh= QoYrL [as= 5z.r prn) . En= -nu [fr"
-Y1r ( Yrz -rt tt) ryto.oQ
L
aza x a..,1 ! ")=
4xm
e- t- shared e-
b.o- =
t/> no. oP e- in Bilt0 - yro. o9 e- rh AbM0J

hJ irr= - Pav u)rev 3 ^2'101rgf to$ v0/y; . AU=ntN . H:U+PV

3t{- r 4H= 4U+61 ang) " AS-a/T . a,C4= Afr-TAS .4q---Z-qoLW
= c.AT . C4-c-v=A
 1t cn#

Clerk Mo'xrl}€ft ts of Etuttt) I dncrcctertsHss

hdue bcd^l .c dl:ottovl
' itr oto et-ecfric e€Ccc''t-

DkrnsE.s Quonturn-Iheong lS ' Du at bdnouiout^ oPl tght .

tolt. ,
, t'5'+ a'S' trrhg is lrh? eFd- fv'gtrprnr
Contl!oo0US
$,ag?.ckrL[dl
{\€ynerat-e dtgr bg 6pedyoScopg [tte) . \\5orogt-vr ttntapcchtmn ...41=l towtsg

p6grulales oFBohr(S , i)sheus ii)stotiovrorletqtes kt)clrvrir E iul -Pvg1' v) an?dar

'H tdce
ratt6rns rn : i) hodt\ts ii)evrergg oS stottohorgsta\t iii)e,vtengY hr
ercptarha+bn oF rnre 6per.from L *ltnte $ertuOttbnS I nf > ni ? .,hi> n+

limi{dhors : i)funs qr/u/rrvth i01estamn/5tarf 1,1;gtlgmf&i.lbodj N) \lvr?g€c 6WWAnfi6

Dual le.hauta-rr oF wrotler 'Uncer{ainfi, stghiftcance 'De-brog'Ae a (tmderir)

p'inu.
tole orbi B orbttcrt 2-D-4D r ho. ole- , ghctpes! wcrvgc-h)
V2=? upE? . rvro.of q, vto'( {q' \o S?er,t't{ 6n tJrbi$a,l , e-7 " PQN, AeNr}ag}.L16
tcLd,r'cd
Douvedarg gun+oce dtagrorns . Nodg

it(lj '
 *s;)'',.ilffit"iffi

STRUCTURE OF ATOM

Atomic number,Z : lt is the number of protons present in the nucleus of an atom or number
of
electrons present in a neutral atom'
of an atom'
Mass number,A: lt is the sum of protons and neutrons(nucleons)present in the nucleus
numbers are
lsotopes : are defined as atoms of same element having same Z, but A. Different mass
are Protium,
due to the difference in number of neutrons.Eg. lsotopes of Hydrog€r 1H1, 1H2 and ,H3
Deuterium and Tritium respectively'
same number
All the isotopes of a given element show same chemical behaviour: as they have the
of electrons.

lsobars : are atoms of different elements with different Z ,but A. Eg' uc'o and 7N1a'
3', o0
lsotones: are atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons. Eg:
K and ca'

DEVELOPMENTS LEADING TO THE BOHRIS MODEL OF ATOM

Tyvo developments played a major role in the formulation of Boh/s model of atom.

l]i::":r' ff:ff:1.il:i;':',;1rilil'i::1T:'
t ffi P X[.'ff"T;*,, Larzr{e rf u rrc.,-,..i ''"'iL-1
,.,-

ao) iau-,r,t-l c.^p\iL" 1\t.t-,r'.1 ii,twr c.Gtrn

Electromagnetic Waves Theory - James ClSrk Maxwell
magnetic
when an electrically charged particle moves under acceleration, alternating electrical and
These waves
fields are produced and transmitted. These fields are transmitted in the form of waves.
are called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation,

Properties of electromagnetic waves:

particles are
1. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced by oscillating charged
perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
i)

2. Electromagnetic waves do not require any medium and can move in vacuum' I

3.ln vacuum they travel with the velocity of light ,3 x 108 m/sec'

Characteristics of a Wave

1. Wavelength (I) : lt is the distance between two consecutive crests or troughs. lt is expressed in m.
-e -"
!pm= 10 , , 14' = 10 m
-10
Note: tnm = 10 m ,
2. Frequency (v) : lt is the number of waves passing through a given point in one second or number
of oscillations per second.The unit frequency is hertz or cycle per second'
period or time period :Time taken for one complete oscillation. v = Uf
3.Wave number ([):ft is defined as the number of waves present per unit length of wave.lt is
reciprocal of wavelength. V = 1/ I' lt is expressed in m-1
in m/s.
4. Velocity( c):is defined as the distance travelled by the wave in 1 second. lt is expressed

Relation between Speed of light, wavelength and Frequency is given by c = vI where =

c 3 X108 m/s'
 5' Amplitude:Amptitudeof awaveistheheightof
thecrestorthedepthof thetrough.
Electromagnetic spectrum: when
Electromagnetic radiations are arranged
decreasing y' the complete spectrum in order of increasing tr or
obtained is known as electromagnetic
spectrum.
o" . ,10* 1o," lotb: 1g" l

10,. ,tO", 10", 1j1_,o, .,b" i., rO" ,b. Um)

Electromagnetic wave theory could
exptain diffraction and interference,
Blackbody radiation, photoerectric effect but failed to explain
and Line spectrum of atom.
Black body radiation: The ideal body
which emits and absorbs all the frequencies
and the radiation emitted by such body is called Black body
is catled Black body radiation. Eg.carbon black
l< At a given temperature, intensity of radiation
emitted increases with the increase of
maximum value at a given l' and then )\, reaches a
starts decreasing with further increase
explained satisfactoriry on the basis of l,.This could not be
of the wave theo{ of right.

Y Photoetectric effect :The phenomenon

of ejection of electrons from the surface
of metal when light
of suitabre frequency strikes on it is cailed photoerectric
effect.
oBSERVATIoNS: x' Electrons are emitted
as soon as light fails on metarwithout
time rag.
2'The number of electrons emitted
depends on intensity or brightness
of incident light.
3' The KE of ejected etectrons depends
on the frequency of right used.
According to laws of classical physics,
the energy content of the beam of light
brightness of the light' i'e, number depends upon the
of electrons ejected and KE assbciated
on the brightness of light' But it was with them shourd depend
observed th;t thou;; th" nrrber of
depend upon the brightness of light, erectrons ejected does
the kinetic energy or ar'" ejected erectrons
Einstein in (1905) gave an explanation does not.(Later
for photoelectric effect using planck,s quantum
theory.)
Planck's quantum theory:1'Energy
cannot be absorbed or released continuously
released in the form of small packets but it is emitted or
called quanta.rn case of right this quantum
is known as photori.
2. Energy of the photon is directly proportional
constant, value is 6.626 x 10-3a Js
to frequency. E o< v, E=hv, where h is planck,s

3' A body can emit or absorb integrar

murtipres of quantum E= nhv n=1,2,3......
,
Dual behaviour of electromagnetic
radiation: Light possesses both particle
i'e'' light has dual behavior' whenever and wave like properties,
radiation interacts with matter, it displays
properties' (Black body radiation particle like
and photoelectric effect) wave rike properties
are exhibited when

Spectrum:when a ray of white light is passed

through a prism, light is spread out into
coloured bands (VIBGYOR)called spectrum.such a series of
a spectrum is called continuous
continuous because vioret merges into spectrum.
blue, brue into green and so on.
AToMlc SPECTRUM: The spectrum obtained
from the atoms are discontinuous andappear
discrete definite lines. There are two as
types of atomic spectra,
Emission Spectra:The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed energy is
called an emission spectrum.When the substance whose emission spectrum to be obtained is heated
in an electric arc or in a Bunsen flame, light is emitted. lf this light is passed through a prism, a line
spectrum will be obtained which consist of bright lines separated by dark spaces.Line spectrum is
colled os the finger print of on otom :becouse it is the characteristic of thot atom ond no two atoms
can hove the some line sPectrum.

Elements like rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs)thallium (Tl), indium (ln), gallium (Ga) and scandium (Sc)
were discovered from their minerals by spectroscopic methods. The element helium (He) was
discovered in the sun by spectroscopic method. \\&-&4$wt 1
\ t\A ![d4 \\ 0]\.t'$A.!&'svl i &^l'r0rst' fie''Lrtt

Absorption spectra: When white light is passed through a gas and the transmitted light is analysed
we get a spectrum consisting of dark lines in the otherwise continuous spectrum. The dark lines
exactly appear at the same place where the lines in emission spectrum appear.

Line Spectrum of Hydrogen:When electric discharge is passed through H2$as enclosed in discharge
tube under low pressure, and the emitted light is analysed by a spectroscope, a spectrum consists of
large number of lines was obtained.The complete spectrum is known as hydrogen spectrum'

On the basis of experimental observations, Johannes Rydberg noted that all series of lines in the
hydrogen spectrum could be described in terms of wave number.
E
[ = L09,6n--.lt 1l -1
l-..:;--]lcm-'
ni
Ln; J .where fit=L,2........ and n2 = 11* 1, n1+ 2"""

rhe varue tos,677 cm-'is caned th" Rllb.ggrg:r"{,#r$[ffiiir,

uu qxu,[h,,r.t-
The first 5 series of lines that correspond to frt= L,2,3, 4, s are kiowil ai Ly"n' Balmer'Paschen'
Bracket and Pfund series, respectively.

Spcctrel Reglorr
1 2.3-'.-.
2 3,r+..-.
3 4.5.-..
4 5,6...,
5 o,t -.,-

Bohr Mode! for Hydrogen Atom using Planck's concept of quantisation:

1. The electron in H atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and energy.
These paths are called orbits or shells or energy levels. These are numbered as 1, 2t3.-. or K, L, M ....

2. The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time. As long as electron remains in a
particular orbit, it does not lose or gain energy. Therefore these orbits are called "stationary states".

3. When energy is supplied to electron, it jumps to higher level and when energy is released it jumps
back to the lower level. ln doing so it emits energy.

4. The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted ,when transition occurs between two stationary
states that differ in energy by AE, is given by:

AE E,-E,,
---=-=-
'hh
 5. An electron can move only in those
orbits for which its angular momentum is integral
rnultipte of
h/2n. That mea ns a nguta r momentu m is q ua ntised.

h
tTlev r =rL6 n = 1,2,8.....

6t[,tll*,L
APPLICATIoNS:1' The radii of the stationary
state orbit is given by Rn = .0.n, wh"r" n is the orbit
number and as =52.9 pm

2. The energy of the stationary state is given

by

'' = j"
*h"r.
*truo1lz6
tm
This negative
,, d-;?" Rs is Rydberg constant and its varue is 2.18x10-18 J.
sign means that the energy of the electron
in the atom is lower than the energy of
free electron at rest. A free etectron at rest a

and is assigned the energy value of zero. As

is an erectron that * #nit;;;;;;;,
the nucteus
the electron gets closer to the nucleus, due to
electrostatic attraction with nucleus, En becomes
more .io ,o." negative. Til;;;;r.gative
energy value is given by n=l which corresponds
to the most stabte rt]t" .rircJ,r"r"o
3.For H like ions (He*, Li2*; Be3*..) ".,".

E" =-2.18 x lo-,s { 4)t -

t"= 52.9(nzt
\n' ) -2-Pr,-
-*un4.,&th depending on the amount of energy absorbed.
:.il.
"Tilo",l:::l'"-':,'-::1T;:,i:,.Xir,H.ltf"H:I"*
The excited electrons when falls back
they emit radiations' The energy released is quantised to ground levet,
and can be calculated as fo[ows.
AE = Ef - Ei

o,=(-?l
{}l _ Rn(+ +J=''"'ro-";($- #)
,=Ae= =uffiffit+ +j =B.2exro,s(# #)*

ln case of absorption spectrum, nf > ni

and the term in the parenthesis is positive
and energy is
absorbed. On the other hand in case of emission
spectrum ni , nf , A E is negative and energy
released. is

Limitations of Bohr's Moder:1.Faired to exprain

fine spectrum of H.
2' Failed to explain the splitting of spectrat lines
in the presenc'e of magnetic field (Zeeman
an electric field (Stark effect). effect) or

3. lt could not exprain the abirity of atoms

to form motecures by chemicar bonds.
4. Failed to explain the spectrum of atoms
other than hydrogen.

t.t',0tj
lou,r'rd *havftrt e- hwrrr ufizudtnq.Del vnon t)ztar . oiwa.q,e
&t{ --
W Urr nu w,pn ro nue w ^**!
 P[ri0di(/ UilDJ I both sarne' L LatF
(06I cl i t tt{$ tlotot!,xr-C
Ir1-1 \ ow[el!4r
T,ESSON 3: CLASSIFICATION AND PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS Stq lTohvvyt\i{$t-
(u4)
Nhy do we have to clossily the elements?

It is difficutt to study the properties of oll elements

seporotely. So, all the elements ore divided into few groups in
such a woy that the elements in same group have similar properties. So, it is eosy to study them.

Stote the low ol triad with exomple.

Low of triods wos given by Dobereiner in 1829.tt states "when elements ore orronged in increasing order of otomic
masses in o triod,the otomic moss of the middle element of the triad is equal to orithmetic meon of the otomic
mosses of other two elements"

EXAMPLE: ln the triod of 3 elements Li,No,K , the otomic mass of Li ond K are 7 and 39. The otomic mass of sodium is
equol to the meon of the otomic mosses ie 7+39 = 46/2 =23 (atomic moss of No)

Limitation of ldw of triod2 He was able to make only 3 triads at that time.

Newlands law of octaves:

ln 1864 John Newlonds gove this law that stoted" when elements orranged in increosing order of otomic mosses the
properties of eighth element ore the repetition of the properties of the first element like the notes of music". lf we
stort from lithium, we willfind the eighth element sodium has the same properties like lithium.

Limitations of Newlands low of octaves: 7. This low worked wellfor lighter elements that ore up to otomic moss 40
ofter that the properties elements are different. 2.He ossumed only 56 elements existed in noture. But when new
elements were discovered, it didn't fit into law of octoves.

Mendeleev periodic toble:

I9Ri"na"leev Periodic law: tt states thot" The properties of elements ore the periodic function of atomic masses".
:
Criteria of
his classificotion: (a) lncreosing order of otomic mosses (b) formulos of oxides ond hydrides of the
elements. He ploced 63 elements in o tabulor form. Elements with similar properties were kept in some groups.

He is colled the fother of periodic table. The repetition of properties of elements ofter certain intervols is colled
periodicitv. Periodic table is o chort of elements orronoed in sich o wov thot elements hovina similor properties occur
in same aroup or column.

Merits of Mendeleev periodic table:

L. He was able to arrange allthe 63 elements in the table. The horizontal rows were called periods and vertical
columns were called groups. There were 7 periods and 8 groups. Last group had 9 elements arranged as a triad of 3
2. He left gaps for the future elements to be discovered. He even predicted the properties of future elements
3. He called the predicted future elements by adding the prefix Eka meaning f. in Sanskrit.
lfn t 6rf,e elements discovered by Mendele ev arelEkd- boronllgl
qr Eko Aluminium(Gallium),
- ,r, - silicon (Germonium)
tTilm
5. When noble gases were discovered they were placed separately in the table without
disturbing other elements.
Limitations of Mendeleev periodic table:
(i) Position of hydrogen: He placed hydrogen in group I as it resembles the properties of alkali metals. But it also
resembles the halogens in many properties. So he did not justify the position of hydrogen.
 tPeriod', YtDitihon [rrurironta) \ g'ou] tutrHot)
;

(ii) Position of lsotopes: lsotopes are the atoms of the same elements that have same atomic number but
different atomic mass. As Mendeleev's classification is based on atomic mass, the isotopes have to be placed in
different groups of periodic tables. For example, Cl-35 and Cl-37 were having atomic mass 35 and 37. The
placing of these isotopes of chlorine in the same group cannot be explained by Mendeleev's periodic law.
(iii) Wrong order of atomic mass of some elements: Few heavier elements were placed before the lighter
elements to match the chemical properties of the group. Example Cobalt with atomic mass 58.9.was placed
before Nickel with atomic mass 58.7. This anomaly was not explained by Mendeleev.
MODERN PERIODICTABLE

Modern, PeriodiC law: ln 1913 Henry Moseley stated the law "the properties ol the element ore the
periodic lunctions ol its atomic numberu^J^at
drolyl& qw,vt\
btJ.P\fiq tsSfiirlt 0{q{.reil"?a'^r'g'cLlo{rr
Featuresof Modernperiodictable: ;\"11r]k,-,Iro": elun,LnI,r

t. The vertical columns are called groups and horizontal rows are called periods. There are 7 periods
and 18 Groups.
Z. All the elements in a group have same number of valence electrons and hence show similar
chemical properties
3. The number of elements in a period is fixed, based on the maximum number of electrons fiiling
an orbita.l
Number of elements in periodic table:

This for justification of number of eiements in each period -+ *totu ttr,e .^^0' et dlarhiL srt'jiru u4 {t^A} tx[tod '

Period number Orbitals being filled up Total No of electrons in filled No of elements in

(n) orbitals period
First l5 L L
Second LS tu) 7--C I
Third 3< t-(n 1-L E
Fourth Qs 9 lrl \-tlrr L t A - to tq
ritfr 5s e-trd tbl q - t0 - A rq
Sixth 6* L rra+uF t-6b , - tr).ltt ,6 3L
Seventh tr< s, (d q. h d,v+o 2, lD 1 tQr 6 31

Classilicotion of elements in periodic tablez

Elements are classified into s block p block d and f block based on the type of orbitals that receives the last
electron' Stp btotlc+ R-lffir,turr,rrthuo g)tsll€rdc ffaariafirp eler,rcrub
cnaracteristics ot s utoc* etements: ( extreme bn side o'perioiic toiieJ''ig'
') oukermoE{ ['C'

The qroup l elements are called alkali metals and sroup 2 are called alkaline earth metals. The incoming
electron enters the s orbitals of these elements.
Cha racteristics:

L. The general electronic configuration is ns 1-2 soft reactive metals.

2. They are
3. Have low melting point and boiling points 4. Most metals impart colour to the flame.
5. They are strong reducing agents with low ionization energy. t{\$,ot$x^c}\rrt, &m d,t.hatfuro 9,114$,lellrr)
6. They form ionic compounds except beryllium q' \:tt^'trrl'l
7. The group 1 elements show +L and group 2 elements show+2 oxidation state.
oo)
. P ttlock elements:( riaht side of periodic table)

Groups t3 L415 16 L7 L8 fall into this block the incoming electrons enter the p orbitals.
Cha racteristics:
!. General electronic configuration is ns2 np1'6 2. Most of the elements form covalent compounds.
3. They have high ionization energy. 4. They form acidic oxides
- 5. Most of the elements are electronegaiive and exhibit variable oxidation state
coM Mo N NAM ES : Group rs: insrt qal / n0he qhs.
ffifi ,11',[tlJ,'sh,
d- block elements: (middle portion of periodictoblel
These elements are considered as transition between the alkaline elements (metals) and the non-metals. lt
includes the groups from 3 to LZ.The incoming electron goes to the d orbital.
Characteristics:
t.Generalelectronic configuration is (n-1) dl'ilns 1-2
2. Most of the hard metals with high melting point. 3. They exhibit variable oxidation state.
4..Most of the form coloured ions and complexes. S.They form many useful alloys. * s:tlalh* FIr*T{"dr{^
t s[Ao{ tUatXitr
f block elements { bottbm of the periodictablel
These elements are called inner transition elements due to the filling of the inner orbitals. There are two
series of f block elements namely lanthanides and actinoides.
Characteristics:'
L. General electronic configuration is (n-2) 1t-tn(n-1) 6lotJ15z
2. Lanthanides: lncoming electron goes to the 4f orbitals this includes the elements with atomic
numbers 58 to 71
3. Actinoids: lncoming electron goes to 5f orbitals. lt includes elements from atomic numbers 90 to
103.
4. They all are heavy metals with high boiling and melting point. Most of the actinoids are used in
nuclear reactions and are radioactive in nature.

Prediction of group and period: This is bised on electronic configuration (E.C)

(a) Period of element is the highest principal quantum number in E.C
(b) Block of element is the subshell that receives the last electron.
(c) Group is predicted from block
(i) For s block group number is equal to valence ns electrons
(ii) For p block group number is equal to 1O + number of valence electrons (ns and np)
(iii) For d block group number is equal to number of (n-1) d electrons+ ns electrons
(iv) Allf block elements belong to group 3.
Refer class work for questions.
Period i c,t":f,?rllgl tsr q e*re...
f,t,$:i-."g. nrr)er rlndrqcr
Atomic sLe: Atom is assumed as a sp.here and its radius is measured as its atomic size.

Atomic rodius: lt is defined as the distance fro.m centre of nucleus of atom to outermost shell of electron.
However, it is not easy to precisely finA tfre#ffirs of atoms due to small size of atom and electron cloud
around the atom has no sharp boundary. So, the atomic size is expressed in different types of radii.
 Covolent rodius:lt is defined as one half the distance between the nuclei of two
similar atoms bonded by a

single covalent bond

ln case of homo nuclear atoms covalent radius = % internuclear distance between the
two bonded atoms
Note: covalent radii of atoms having double or triple bonds are shorter than sinele bond.
tl1--alprvr (;'tt|

*Vander waols radius: lt is defined as half the internuclear distance between the two adjacent atoms of
in solid state.
same element belonging to two nearest neighbour in molecules of same substance
overlapping of orbitals'
Note: covalent radius is smaller than Van der waals radius because it is formed by

Metallic lt is applicable to metals only. lt is defined as half the internuclear distance between two
radius:
because metallic
adjacent atoms in metallic lattice. Metallic radius of atom is larger than covalent radius
bond is weaker than covalent bond.

Note: Van der Waals radius > metallic radius > covalent radius

rrto F, I vr,ltD-ER wAAL's

Variation ol atomic rodii in periodictable:

Variation in period: Atomic rodii decredse dcross the period with increase in atomic
number

by one unit and additional

Reoson;on movins from left_te-rrghkerg$llg rcnod nuclear charge increases
towards the nucleus and
electron goes to same principal shell, as a result the electron cloud is Pulled closer
eff e ct i v e n u c Ie a r g-hgg-e-Pgf 9!e qggil I g93l-! d
-at
o m c
i
s i 29- q9
9 I93:S'
variotion in o aroup: Atomic rodii increose from toP to boftom within a group
outermost electron
Reason:on going down the group the nuclear charge increases but the distance of the
level as a
from the nucleus also increases, this is because the incoming electron enters the higher energy
result effective nuclear charge per electron decrease and atomic size increase.
point up to which it
lonic rodius ond ionic size: lt is defined as a distance from the nucleus of the ion to the
has an influence in ionic bond.

Variation in ionic size: Sfue of cation is smoller than porent atom

formed by loss of one or more electrons. The nuclear charge remains the same but the
Reoson: cations are
and the size
number of electrons is less. As a result, the effective nuclear charge per electron increase
decrease

Radius of anion is larger thon parent atom

Reason: Anions are formed by gain of one or more electrons. Though the nuclear charge is same as parent
per electron decreases and
atom, the number of electrons has increased. So, the effective nuclear charge
ionic size increases.

pg. 4
lso?lectronic ions: lons having same number electrons but different magnitude of nuclear charge. Eg Mg*'
< Na* <F'< O-,. All these have same number of electrons differ in size
*-i i;ffi#;3i,ri^-,$* sr^i',r,ir{"tf^ir, aMw,tl,u^ln*.t}tl0 0,alr s*olbqlW.
?*ru
No!e: Size of isoelectronic lons decreases with increase in magnitude of nuclear charge. More charge on
pogitive ion size is less.

Question 3.11: Name a species that will be isoelectronic with each of the following atoms or ions.
- er - (iii)Me* N0 it{at
(i) F Nlrr (ii) cQ. (iv)Rb'

Question 3.12: Consider the following species: N3-, 02-, F-, Na*, MgI and AllArrange them in the order of
increasing ionic radii. Ans:

lonization energy or ionization enthalpy (lE):

Definition: lt is defined as amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from
isolated gaseous atom. A,r, + Energy (1.8) + A*,r, + e- lE is expressed in KJ/ mol

Successive ionizotion eneraies

Once the first electron is removed from the gaseous atom it is difficult to remove the second and the
successive elecfon from positive ions one after the another.

Amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from unipositive dipositive,
tripositive ions are called second third and fourth !E and collectively called as second ionization energies.
Mqr ----i Hr. I c- tI'
Note: lE3 > !Er> tEl rtt rlrt -? HF e- r ,i,
r.^4tt,cl ---->V{!+ t€- lt:
Reason: After the removal of first electron the atom changes into mono positive ion. ln the ion the number
of electrons will be less but the nuclear charge remains the same as parent atom. So, the effective nuclear
charge per electron increase causing the other electrons to be tightly pulled by the nucleus. So, more
energy is needed to remove the second electron, successive ionization energies are larger values.

Factgrs affectina ionizotion enerav :

Atomic size: lE inversely proportionalto atomic size

Reason: As size increases outermost electrons are loosely bound so it is easy to remove it, hence lE value
decrease.
Mognitude ol nuclear chorge: lE directly proportionalto nuclear charge
Reason: As nuclear charge increases electrons are closely pull towards the nucleus, so more energy is
needed to remove the electron

Screening eftect of inner electrons: lonisation energy is inversely proportional to screening effect.
Reason: Outermost electrons are shielded or screened from the nucleus by the inner shells filled with
electrons this is known as screening effect. lf there are rnore electrons in the inner shells than the
screening effect increases and the outermost electrons are looiely bound and lE values decrease.

Penetrotion effect ol electrons: lE values directly proportional to penetration effect of electrons.

Re-ason: s electrons are closer to the nucleus or penetrating towards nucleus than p electrons the order of
decreasing penetrating power is s >p >d >f . lf the electrons are closer to the nucleus they are tightly bound
and the lE values increases, it is always easier to remove a p electron then s electron.
Electronic configurotion; Half-filled orbitals or completely filled orbitals have less tendency to lose
electrons so lE values increase.

Variation of ionization energy across the period: !E values increases across the period

Reason: Decrease in atomic size, increase in nuclear charge

Exceptions: Questions ond Answers )

L. There is a decrease in lE from beryllium to boron. Why?

Be o: Ls'2s2 Bs = ls' 2s'2P'
.X 'Br , ?s is tottq {i11g6 ,ttnus NL ars d(tNrbryr\q
-/ fy- has comgeWq |it\ed Eubiball c fe.rnoual 0 P s- e\eclrorn hee{t*i"u'-'to
elofe l. E.
-- l gL tsr LP3
2. There is a decrease fn the IE value from nitrogen to oxygen. Why? N
O = lS? 1-s'Zp"l
. Nrivogr,rr tnos hotF hrteO p-orfrrol thql- hos yyoYe stdo\ttt-U. * hatp t lle.O or ht-als ore-
llul r tt \&lrue irwrore. niqvrq gkaL\€

Variation of IE values in group: IE values decreases down the group.

Reason: Increase in atomic size increase in shielding effect.

Question 3.19:The first ionization enthalpy values (in kJmol-,) of group 13 elements are : How
would explarn deviation lrom
this devtatton
lain thrs th qen eral trend?
from tne
B AI Ga In TI
801 577 579 558 589
It
, tovrr Al to Ae .flzrersis Ah f htrea{c r,'t \E becaosq Et orhlcth lf
hal boor shi€tdotq e$Pect shletdrt4q
. frovn tn ro Tt ttaere tg c\t/t \ v\Lrzhce th 19 bevrt:se6t1trP orblrals vloile aPoot-
e- t\ ct'dr'Lrf -i" +t" i:1'
?-(fgtl, n {lfcfuc,': ,'",N3 rr'ii'i : {i'rr 'rr'r
r i *.{1 sa,-ry"

Electron gain enthalpy (EGE):

Electron gain enthalpy may be defined as the enthalpy change taking place when an isolated gaseous atom
accepts an electron from monovalent gaseous anion. X ,r, + e- ) X-rr

The nragnitude of electron gain enthalpy is a measure of the tightness with which an atom can withhold
the incoming electron. Larger negative value of electron gain enthalpy reflects the greater tendency of an
atom to accept electron. Unit: KJ/ mol

Factors affectino electron oain enthalpv:

Nuclear chorge: Greater the magnitude of nuclear charge larger will be the negative value of electron gain
enthalpy.

Atomic size: Larger the size of an atom smaller will be the negative value of electron gain enthalpy.

DO. 6
 LESSON 3: CLASSIFICATION AND PERIODtC PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS (CONTD)

Electronic configurotion; Stable electronic configuration of an atom will show lesser tendency to accept
electron. Hence the values will be positive.

Variation of EGE:

Across the period: EGE becomes more negative across the period

Reason: Decrease in atomic size increase in nuclear charge

f-1 Exception: Question and onswers

lp
ts
I I
i: I t.f U volues of the group 2,15,78 hove positive volues.
l: / ''lroup1 h0(emplehetq +ined torbitol :Qroup \8h0( (omP\eRt^i filled S Lp ovbit-all
pstnve'
iH I -'Qloult6 ho,t hoirHlled p orbil.ats.Duel'osrobleE'L.Lhe is
;*
ro HO I
EGE o fluorine is less thon thot of chlorine even though fluorine is the more electronegotive element
iSl

Ans: When an electron is added to fluorine atom the electron goes to a compact second energy level as a

result it experiences significant repulsion from other electrons present in the shell on the other hand in
chlorine atom the incoming electron goes to a third energy level which is relative larger and experiences
less electronic repulsions from other electrons. So EGE value of fluorine atom is less negative.
n
*P) is /ess thon sulphur (Same explanation as above.)
EGE of oxygen

4. Explain why noble gases have positive EGE.

Ans: Noble gases have shells completely filled with electrons hence they do not have any tendency to
accept an electron so large amount of energy has to be supplied to add electron to a noble gas making the
values to be positive.

Electronegativity: lt is defined os the tendency of on atom in o molecule to attroct towards itself the shored
poir of electrons
ppt-
t'N 0( vlon- melallrt
Unit: rating in pauling scale d t7 6qyiadltc WV
Fo cto rs off ecti na e I e ct ro nea at ivitv :

Nuclear chorge: Nuclear charge directly proportional to electronegativity

L

Atomic radius : Inversely proportional to electronegativity.

Variation in electronegativiS:
Acro,v.s the ueriotl: Electronegativitl,' increases across the period

Reason: Increase in nuclear charge and decrease in atomic size

Dou,n the qroup: Electronegativity decreases down the group

Reason: increase in atomic size

ly'ore: Fluorine has the highest value of electronegativity anrong allthe elements

Valencv: lt is a measijre of combining capacity of atoms the electrons present in the outermost level of
atom are called valence electron.
Page 1 of 2
Valencv ond periodic table

Volency across the period: valency of elements increases from 1to 4 and then decreases from 4 to 0

Volency down the groupi valency of elements in a group remains the same because number of valence
electron is same for all the elements in the group.

Chemical reoctivitv and periodic toble:

When electrons from Valence shell is lost to form octet, cations are formed. When electrons are added to
atoms and ions are formed. The ease with which an atom forms ion is reflected from its chemical
reactivity. Size and nuclear charge of atom governs its chemical reactivity'

Chemicol reoctivitv in periodic table

Down the qroup: Chemical reactivity increases down the group

As the atom size increases lE value decreases and the ability to form positive ions increases.

Across the period: Tendency to form cations decrease and formation of anions takes place.

Extreme left side elements form cations and extreme right-side elements form anion. This is because lE
values of elements on left side is least and EGE values of elements on right side is highest. So, elements on
both extreme sides are highly reactive. Noble gases are non-reactive due to stable electronic configuration.

Noture of oxides: The elements at the extreme left of periodic table combined with oxygen to form basic
oxides. The elements at the extreme right form acidic oxides and the elements in the middle form
amphoteric oxides.

Anomalous properties of second period elements:

The first element of each of the group l

and group 2, the first members of the groups L3 to 17 differ in
many respects from their group members. For example, lithium of group L forms compounds that have
more covalent character but the rest of the group members form compounds that have ionic character. lt
is seen that the first member of the group shows similarities with the second member of the next group
placed diagonally to it. This is called diagonal relationship,
{.lw ttJmdrirl
Reason: 7. Smolt size 2. high electronegotivity 3. Absence of d orbitals 4. Lorge/ radfus ratio.

Note:

Noble gas- highest first lE value and high positive EGE

Most reactive metal- least first ionization enthalpy and low negative EGE.

Most reactive nonmetal- high first lE value and high negative EGE

Least reactive non metal: high negative EGE and not so high ionization enthalpyvalue.

Alkali metals- low first lE value and high 2"0 I E value

qeottrnf6
* durdq,{,l
(o,rs1^\i.
d*ttlrr
-
t'*?tl twrgn-n^ffiI+)
* 6ileww ds{ t4,t t{^t qfuh$ t"mfiU)

Page2 of 2
 0Fa
Brtg
leEq

Octet theory All atoms lose or gain e- to reach octet configuration

Drawbacks of octet theory r lncomplete octet (c.a. Has less than 8 ej)
BF3. BeH2
o ExpandeC octet (c.a. Has more than 8 e-)
PCIs SF6
o Odd e- nrolecules (c a Has odd no of e-)
NO
o Noble gases
XeF2. XeF6

Formal charge It is the charge that each atom will be getting after it has
shared it's electrons in the molecule

Significance of F.C. It is used to select the lowest energy structure from a

number of lewis structures

Bond length The distance bw the centres of nuclei of two bonded atoms

Bond angle The angle bw orbitals containing bonding e- pairs around

the central atom

Bond enthalpy The amt cf energy req to break one mole of bonds of a
gaseous molecule
Avg B.E" = H1+ll2

Resonance It is the condition when one lewis ciot structure is noi enough
to describe a molecule accurately

Experimental evidence for All the bond lengths in a molecule are same
resonance

Reason for resonance It is due to the movt of e-

Dipole moment It is defined as the product of magnitude of charge and the

distance between the centre of positive and negative charge

Unit of dipole moment Debye

Reason for DM When there is a covalent bond between two atoms, where
one of the atoms is more electronegative than the other, the
electrons are shifted to the more electronegative atom's side
causing polarisation

No polarisation for? Neutral molecules and linear geometry.

Ex. BeH2, CO2, BCL3,

Applications for dipole o it distinguishes bw polar n non polar molecules

moment o if DM=0, shape is linear
o it says that covalent bond has ionic character

Fajan's rule It talks about covalent character in an ionic bond.

Smaller the cation, bigger the anion, more the covalent ch.
More the positive charge on the cation, more the covalent ch
It" bottd
lntermo\eolor l.l- bond \nttromolec,ltor ton t -
hnnttvrq blto H otovn . behrleen troo or more molectrtes ' brtsenF wiHath {he sqme rnolet-.lte
oSone rnoleOute t0l
vol oF sorne ordtQf ccrmgoon d (,
o
. NQatc tt
e-nq atotn of soyn
sovrf $trong -t \..
ot (ttf mo\ecutete . HF r HCI ert . orltnonitvop*reno I ,r*-.f \6
-* Hti-pt:-"' ul! ,3-
\\./\
Polarising power A small cation pulls the external e- of anion towards itself

VSEPR theory o The shape of a molecule depends upon the no. of e-

(bonded or lp) in their valence shell
r The e- in valence shell will maximise their distance to
avoid repulsion
Order of repulsion o The order of repulsion is lpJp> lp-bp> bp-bp

valence bond theory valence shell orbitals of the central atom have to undergo
hybridization to overlap with the orbita$ of bonding atoms
ulo$ oC Ett.
hybridization intermixing of orbitals or same or equivalent energy is called
hybridization t PCtl'u rofii{).
overlapping of orbitals o covalent bonds r formed by overlapping of half filled
atomic orbitals of valence shell
o orbitals with opposite spin will overlap
o strength ofthe bond depends upon the extent of
overlapping
o overlapping decreases enrergy, energy is released

sigma bond formed by head to head overlap of orbitals, overlapping is

maximum

pi bond formed by lateral overlapping of orbitals

formed in addition to sigmabond
extent of overlapping is less
c- ciuuus are i<.:,.rrru aoove ano oeiow {ne ia\A

Hotltl)tAh ohb\TAt \HEoh\ -e4arhs obaJt srabr\iq .,oist o[e- t- ynoqnrrude notue
. A.o. ouertop Fo $rm Mo. b0sed on prlrripte L(AO ttrirear (ovrlbt^cttrrin of Ro)
' A.o.hovtng 6lmrnevq t' Comprrolle eherg'lo\one Can ouRrtqp
. n0 0t Ao o{er\qpptviq = no'oD t\A0\ecutar orb srned
r €- yflor.l be Under.MPoF Vnore thgh Oile n\dei
c:oen$EL
fiddn sP0R0
OnStrtl<*tve tirv9
--^. rls + o13 = clS Bt o

ls HA
Gm[ /-
a
I F. .t.
U
)) t.-n*y
5 ub\rqLh;4 oFoS0 /\" els .-r lS
-\ s - =
= 1'gt'40
d,.rqtodutruc,vc
ts $/ $J
tl' 6 h

8.0.= t7. (no.o$ e- in Suo' ABt4o) r \[ $0=o ={vto bond &rrned

t^.N. = \P \oSL orbflql hot ti) t e- -$rowrogneH0 (repe\\ed) , (rl) ?e- - diornoghetlc (0t$0tl m{)
F Lpr = TrrLpV a'f'2Oz
Mo -tleL -'Lg df ls -T 2+r = f,LPg olDz
{or tJptft Qtg{en:,ls}
{wm Darjqcvt'.
dls -*ls cZS 6+zs *2Pz zrlpv-Irl+y d}p.--tOzpU a}LP:-
 Ii.{T I'{fUiJ INOIAH SCHOOL BAHEA'iT

LS"4 CHEMICAL BOND

hij.rt iiec;*r€ it is an ionic ccmpound and ionic bond: are non-directional.

1
t;,1' tstti{:{ af d*trt*sing
bond angle ond give reosott NOt, NOl, NOi
;i i:'{r{tr*.r! ar':d henre it is linear. Nor
has one unthared el€ctron and Noz'
,.r] rl,;r-€ r*pul:irn
and less bond angle. NO:r, NO;1, l*Ot-

-i. :: : .,':jtstr, h*|xl*s deereases

t'rom HF ta Hl?
":'';:':trvrty *f halogen atom decreases from F ds I hence tfue polar eharacttr
l!l rJln ent.

4 \t','h',, I'ilr :,, fiyr.?.1,i"1:ri .r;:il $Fr iS triangular planar?

i'ii' h*" i'.ri* li-1t]8;;';rr of electrans and due to repulsion, the bond angle
is reduced from tetrahedral
to i;ir; nr:ri I l. llut 8F; th ere are no lone pa ir of electron s an d has bond angle L20* makingtrianguiar

Arrange the following bonds in the order cf the increasing po!arity p"H H-o
N.H H-F
A,ns: P-H < H-O < N-H < H.F
{More electronegattvity more polarity)

6. Why water is liquid whereas H:S is gas ri roorn temperature?

Oxygen is more elertronegahve than sulphur so water can form intermolecular hydrogen bond and
exist as liquid whereas l{.:5 cannot form hydrogen bond and exist as gas.

Although H:S and H1O are triatomic molecules the bond angle in H:S is g2.l and llr0 is 3.0,4.5. Why?
Oxygen in H:O is highly electronegatiue and smaller than sulphur in H:5. fu S atorn is bigger and less
electronegative the bp- bp repulsion becomes less which pushes the 2-bond pair closer" So, bond
angle ir less in H:5.

The shape of NHr and H;o molecules are distorted tetrahedral but the bond angle in water is less
than that of ammonia. rthy?
NH3 has 1 lone pair and H2O has 2 lone pair electrons. Since lp lp reputslon is more than lp bp
repulsion, lone pair on oxygen push the boad.peifs.io,qpts! ere dos€rdecreasingthe bord angle
in water.

Covalent bonds are directional while ionic bonds are oondlrecdonal. Why?
covalent bonds are fornred by overlapping of atofl+k orbfub hence thdr dircctionel t _

10 Ethyne molecule is linear why?

Ethyoe rnoleeule has sp hybridimlion irehh

11 Waler rnslecule is bent in shape but CO:

ln Watqr rnolecule ha: Oxygcn tmr
directisn of the lsne pair m*kinf tt h*A,t
linsar.
 1::''r"'rr'r: iit'thlrol1'1'r11111'r:,,fldr'rr*J1';htirnr'i{rnc,1rerrqrp:tahrgthaxt,:.whyr
:;-:r.1',]r.t,,ir;,.,r,r:ri1 |,...i-ti?rj. lills.";taihk:l[fa*Xt,thalha:n$*lrfita],iinABM0.
: -:...r.:
ij jjt. ,,.r:ir.i

.,:. .-t ti:tt..\

, : :; .i I ,i ,;1 alr*t*t {l!"hital!.

,'t : 1, .t, ;;1 f:,p

t'".' l:ilelr,.*t ;i * i.;

lree rotation *f it?t;..11 ll tot prllibk a: it ea*ses

bond hreakagr'
, .,ilrr .
nlfr,.,f, The band is pre':,i'rii al*ayt *itil sigm* {rorrd.
,i,i ",ihef
I

BMO
ABMO
by I Anti-bonding molecular orbital is formed b,l j
rir-,rrs,tr rn tlre
re8ion Electron aens;ty ,sG[; ih_ ,,.g* bet*r*
: .-^,...lll,.ln
.ra ,...,-:t., of iltIl
- -:si ator!).
) _.. r. ...._-_,- LYe.*oll-r-l_
1.r i:rr,4 tcrrr in thc orbjtal tendg to ,,, rha h,,.t-; nr+...^
_ _.t.tl"1g.lei ^r^*-
of twgatorns.
fn"iorcei,nti,e".b,trlt;drt"p;;hth";il;;l
rvPuJrrtrleclulll:
I,, ar:.t.,:l\a'l^..r
.1 . . '; ._ uiq, .
_ ---_ lefapart and cause repulsion.
o,.I:-'.::;:':n,*.}Ibltal|qles,tr,anitomic*i^**',ro,*a-;;';i,ffi
lr rr mal oI rllJf not lrave node orbital. lt alw3y5 has a node
_
ffi Give the conditions for the combinarion of atomic o.uit.t,
-.tu'LIi i., rcaffil#i-
a) C*rrrbrnrng atomir orbitals ftrust have samr Gr nearly
the same enerBy.
b1 txtent of overlapping tretyreen the atomic orbitals of 2 atoms
should be large
a) The combining orbita!: musl have seme symmftry about
molecular axis

Conditions lor Hydrogen bond ;

lilFiigh electrc negative atom is bonded to hydrogen. (ii)The electro negative atom should
b€
5ma{1.

LE55ON 6 THLBMOOYNAMICS
i liame the !latc uarrable that remains consrant in are lsobaric and isothermal pmcers.

2. Vv,hen the enrropy of a perfecr crysrilline solld is 0? AlaS lt ahsolute tcrn :,,:i
3" 5trate a rhemical r€aerron in which AH and 8U aru s{U!b?,,,$gdtlesr'
4. What is th* limitafion o{ first law of the rmcdy*amlttrir,1:7:,tl:l.:...:,:'j+iti:
at cannot pr*dirt the dlrectian of the proee*s,

5. A reversible r€a{tion har AGo negahve for

rea(tion. Ans: negattve