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ELECTRONIC DEVICES

1 BASICS OF SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

1. INTRODUCTION

Since this chapter is primarily an introduction to solid state devices, it would be preferable not
to delay this discussion with subjects such as atomic theory, quantum mechanics, and electron
models. However, the behavior of solid-state devices is directly related to these subjects. For
example, it would be difficult to understand how an electron is transported through a
semiconductor device without some knowledge of the electron and its interaction with the
crystal lattice. Therefore, in this chapter we shall investigate some of the important properties
of electrons, with special emphasis on two points: (1) the electronics structure of atoms, and
(2) the interaction of atoms and electrons with excitation, such as the absorption and emission
of light.
We begin with a review of the basic atomic properties of matter leading to discrete electronic
energy levels in atom. We find that atomic energy levels are spread into energy bands in a
crystal. This band structure allows us to distinguish between an insulator, a semiconductor,
and a metal.

2. THE NATURE OF THE ATOM

In order to explain many phenomena associated with conduction in gases, metals and
semiconductors and the emission of electrons from the surface of a metal, it is necessary to
assume that the atom has loosely bound electrons which can be torn away from it.
Rutherford found that the atom consists of a nucleus of positive charge that contains nearly all
the mass of the atom and hence it will remain substantially immobile. Surrounding this central
positive core are negatively charged electrons. As a specific illustration of this atomic model,
consider the hydrogen atom. This atom consists of a positively charged nucleus (a proton) and
a single electron. The force of attraction between the electron and the proton follows Coulomb’s
law. It can be shown from classical mechanics that the resultant closed path will be a circle or
an ellipse under the action of such a force. This motion is exactly analogous to that of the
planets about the sun, because in both cases the force varies inversely as the square of the
distance between the particles.

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Assume, therefore, that the orbit of the electron in this planetary model of the atom is a circle,
the nucleus being supposed fixed in space. It is a simple matter to calculate its radius in terms
of the total energy W of the electron. The force of attraction between the nucleus and the

electron is e2 4 0 r2 , where the electronic charge e is in Coulombs, the separation r between

the two particles is in meters, the force is in Newtons, and 0 is the permittivity of free space.

By Newtons’s second law of motion, this must be set equal to the product of the electronic

v2
mass m in kilograms and the acceleration toward the nucleus, where v is the speed of the
r
electron in its circular path, in meters per second.

e2 mv2
Then, = ... (i)
40 r2 r

Furthermore, the potential energy of the electron at a distance r from the nucleus is − e2 4 0 r

1
, and its kinetic energy is mv2. Then, according to the conservation of energy.
2

1 e2
W= mv2 – ... (ii)
2 4 0 r

where the energy is in Joules. Combining equation (i) with equation (ii) we get

e2
W=– ... (iii)
8 0 r

which gives the desired relationship between the radius and the energy of the electron. This
equation shows that the total energy of the electron is always negative. The negative sign
arises because the potential energy has been chosen to be zero when r is infinite. This
expression also shows that the energy of the electron becomes smaller (i.e., more negative)
as it approaches closer to the nucleus.
However, an accelerated charge must radiate energy, in accordance with the classical laws of
electromagnetism. If the charge is performing oscillations of a frequency f, the radiated energy
will also be of this frequency. Hence, classically, it must be concluded that the frequency of the
emitted radiation equals the frequency with which the electron is rotating in its circular orbit.
But if the electron is radiating energy, its total energy must decrease by the amount of this
emitted energy. As a result, the radius r of the orbit must decrease, in accordance with Equation
(iii). Consequently, as the atom radiates energy, the electron must move in smaller and smaller
orbits, eventually falling into the nucleus. Since the frequency of oscillation depends upon the
size of the circular orbit, the energy radiated would be of a
gradually changing frequency. Such a conclusion, however, is incompatible with the sharply
defined frequencies of spectral lines.

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2.1. The Bohr Atom

Above difficulty was resolved by Bohr. He postulated the following three fundamental
laws:
i. Not all energies as given by classical mechanics are possible, but the atom can possess
only certain discrete energies. While in states corresponding to these discrete energies,
the electron does not emit radiation, and the electron is said to be in stationary or non-
radiating, state.
ii. In a transition from one stationary state corresponding to a definite energy W 2 to
another stationary state, with an associated energy W 1. radiation will be emitted. The
frequency of this radiant energy is given by
W2 − W1
f=
h ... (iv)
where h is Planck’s constant in Joule-seconds, the W’s are expressed in Joules, and f is
in cycles per second, or Hertz.
iii. A stationary state is determined by the condition that the angular momentum of the
electron in this state is quantized and must be an integral multiple of h/2π. Thus,
nh
mvr = ... (v)
2
where n is an integer.
Combining Eq. (iv) and (v), we obtain the radii of the stationary states, and from Eq. (iii)

me4 1
the energy level in Joules of each state is found to be Wn = − 2
. ... (vi)
8h 20 n2

Example 1:
As the Fermi energy of silver is 8.8 × 10 –19 Joule, then find the velocity of the fastest
electron in silver at 0°K. (Given: Rest mass of electron = 9.1 × 110 –31 kg).
Solution:
1 2E
mv2 = E or v2 =
2 m

2E
v=
m
or,
2  8.8  10−19
=
9.1  10−31

= 1.39 × 106 m/s

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3. ATOMIC ENERGY LEVELS

For each integral value of n in Eq. (vi) a horizontal line is drawn. These lines are vertically in
accordance with the numerical values calculated from Eq. (vi). Such a convenient pictorial
representation is called an energy level diagram and is indicated in figure 1 for hydrogen.
The number to the left of each line gives the energy of this level in electron volts. The number
immediately to the right of a line is the value of n. Theoretically, an infinite number of levels
exist for each atom, but only the first five and the level for n =  are indicated in figure 1.

Figure 1: The lowest five energy levels and the ionization level of hydrogen
The spectrum lines are in angstrom units. It is customary to express the energy value of the
stationary states in electron volts E rather than in Joules W. Also, it is more common to specify
the emitted radiation by its wavelength λ in angstroms rather than by its frequency f (in Hertz).
In these units, Equation (iv) may be rewritten in the form
12, 400
= ... (vii)
E2 − E1
The eV unit of Energy:
The joule (J) is the unit of energy in the MKS system. However, in electronics engineering
problems, the joule is too large a unit. So practical unit for the energy in electronics engineering
is electron volt (eV) and is defined as the energy gained by the electron in moving through
a potential difference of 1V i.e.,
1 eV = |q| × potential difference
= 1.6 × 10–19 (C) × 1 (volt)
= 1.6 × 10-19 (C volt)
1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 (Joule)

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Example 2:
The longest wavelength that can be absorbed by silicon, which has the bandgap 1.12 eV, is 1.1
μm. If the longest wavelength that can be absorbed by another material is 0.87 mm, then find
the bandgap of this material.
Solution:
1.24 1.24
EG = eV = eV = 1.425 eV
 ( m) 0.87 m

3.1. The Photon Nature of Light

Assume that an atom has been raised from the ground state to an excited level by
electron bombardment. The mean life of an excited state ranges from 10 –7 to 10–10 s, the
excited electron returning to its previous state after the lapse of this time. In this
transition, the atom must lose an amount of energy equal to the difference in energy
between the two states that it has successively occupied, this energy appearing in the
form of radiation.
According to the postulates of Bohr, this energy is emitted in the form of a photon of
light, the frequency of this radiation being given by Eq. (iv), or the wavelength by Eq.
(vii). The term photon denotes an amount of radiate energy equal to the constant h times
of the frequency.

4. ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF THE ELEMENTS

The inner-shell electrons are very strongly bound to an atom and cannot be easily removed.
That is, the electrons closest to the nucleus are the most tightly bound, and so have the lowest
energy. Also, atoms for which the electrons exist in closed shells form very stable
configurations. For example, the inert gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe all have either completely
filled shells or, at least, completely filled subshells.
Carbon, silicon, germanium, and tin have the electronic configurations indicated in Table 1.
Note that each of these elements has completely filled subshells except for the outermost p
shell, which contains only two of the six possible electrons. Despite this similarity, carbon in
crystalline form (diamond) is an insulator, silicon and germanium solids are Semiconductors,
and tin is a metal.
Table 1: Electronic configuration in Group IVA

Element Atomic Number Configuration

C 6 1s2 2s2 2p2
Si 14 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
Ge 32 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2
Sn 50 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6 4d10 5s2 5p2

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5. IMPORTANT TERMS

5.1. Field Intensity:

• The force experienced by a unit positive charge under the influence of an electric field
is known as the electric field intensity at that point.
• If a charge of q coulomb is kept in an electric field at a point and the force experienced
by the charge, is F (Newtons) then the electric field intensity at that point is given by:
F
E=
q
(N / C )
Or, F = qE
5.2. Potential:
Potential, V(volts) of a point B with respect to point A is the work done against the field
in taking a unit positive charge from A to B.
x


• Consider if A is at x0 and B is at an arbitrary distance x, if follows that V = − E  dx
x0

Differentiating above equation gives

dV
E=
dx

From above equation it is obvious that unit of electric field intensity is/ “volts/meter”.
• The negative sign shows here that the electric field is directed from the region of higher
potential to the region of lower potential.
• For the three-dimensional field,

E = −V

Where  V denotes “Gradient of the potential”.

• Electric field intensity is a vector quantity while potential is a scalar quantity.
5.3. Energy:
• By definition, the potential energy U(joules) equals the potential multiplied by the
charge q under consideration, or
U = qV
• If an electron is under consideration, q is by – q (where q = 1.6 × 10–19 C) and U has
same shape as V but is inverted.
• If mass of the particle is m (kilograms) and it is moving with a velocity v (m/s) in an
electric field of intensity E (V/m); then kinetic energy is given by

1
K.E. = mv2
2

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• The final speed attained by particle in the conservative system can be calculated as
below under the condition of equilibrium:
K.E. = P.E.
1
mv2 = qV
2

2qV
∴ v= meters/sec
m

Example 3:
Considering a uniform semiconductor bar (Rectangular shape).

Figure 2
Calculate the field at the centre of the bar?
Solution:
At the centre of the bar
x = 0.5 μm, V = 1 V.
Hence,
Vc
E=
xc
1V
E=
0.5m
E = 2  106 V
m

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6. THERMAL VOLTAGE VT OR VTH

“Volt-equivalent of temperature”

kT
VT =
q

or VT = kT

k = qk
since,
 k = 1.6  10−19 k

T
or VT = volts
11600

where, T = Temperature in kelvin

k and k ⇒ Boltzman’s constant
k = 8.62 × 10–5 eV/°K
k = 1.38 × 10–23 J/°K
As standard room temperature is T = 300°K
At T = 300°K.
300
VT = = 0.0256 volts
11600
or, VT ~ 26 mV
Hence, the standard room temperature corresponds to a voltage of 26 mV.
⇒ Temperature in Kelvin(°K) = Temp. in °C + 273
[Note: All the properties of semiconductor must be specified at room temperature (i.e. at
300°K).]

7. THE ENERGY-BAND THEORY OF CRYSTALS

X-ray and other studies reveal that most metals and semiconductors are crystalline in structure.
A crystal consists of a space array of atoms or molecules (strictly speaking, ions) built up by
regular repetition in three dimensions of some fundamental structural unit. The electronic
energy levels discussed for a single free atom (as in a gas, where the atoms are sufficiently far
apart not to exert any influence on one another) do not apply to the same atom in a crystal.
When atoms form crystals it is found that the energy levels of the inner-shell electrons are not
affected appreciably by the presence of the neighboring atoms. However, the levels of the
outer-shell electrons are changed considerably since these electrons are shared by more than
one atom in the crystal. The new energy levels of the outer electrons can be determined by
means of quantum mechanics, and it is found that coupling between the outer-shell electrons
of the atoms results in a band of closely spaced energy states instead of the widely separated
energy levels of the isolated atom as shown in figure 3. A qualitative discussion of this energy-
band structure follows.

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Figure 3: Illustrating how the energy levels of isolated atoms are spilt into energy
bands when these atoms are brought into close proximity to form a crystal
Consider a crystal consisting of N atoms of one of the elements in Table 1. Imagine that it is
possible to vary the spacing between atoms without altering the type of fundamental crystal
structure. If the atoms are so far apart that the Integration between them is negligible, the
energy levels will coincide with those of the isolated atom. The outer two subshells for each
element in Table 1 contain two s electrons and two p electrons. Hence, if we ignore the inner-
shell levels, then, as indicated to the extreme right in figure 3(a), there are 2N electrons
completely filling the 2N possible s levels, all at the same energy. Since the p atomic subshell
has six possible states, our imaginary crystal of widely spaced atoms has 2N electrons, which
fill only one-third of the 6N possible p states, all at the same level.
If we now decrease the interatomic spacing of our imaginary crystal (moving from right to left
in figure 3(a)), an atom will exert an electric force on its neighbors. Because of this coupling
between atoms, the atomic-wave functions overlap, and the crystal becomes an electronic
system which must obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Hence the 2N degenerate s states must
spread out in energy. The separation between levels is small, but since N is very large (~ 10 23
cm-3), the total spread between the minimum and maximum energy may be several electron
volts if the interatomic distance is decreased sufficiently. This large number of discrete but
closely spaced energy levels is called an energy band and is indicated schematically by the
lower shaded region in figure 3(a). The 2N states in this band are completely filed with 2N
electrons. Similarly, the upper shaded region in figure 3(a) is a band of 6N states which has
only 2N of its levels occupied by electrons.
Note that there is an energy gap (a forbidden band) between the two bands discussed above
and that this gap decreases as the atomic spacing decreases. For small enough distance (not
indicated in figure 3(a) but shown in figure 3(b)) these bands will overlap. Under such

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circumstances the 6N upper states merge with the 2N lower states, giving a total of 8N levels,
half of which are occupied by the 2N + 2N = 4 N available electrons. At this spacing each atom
has given up four electrons to the band; these electrons can no longer be said to orbit in s or
p subshells of an isolated atom, but rather they belong to the crystal as a whole. In this sense
the elements in Table 1 are tetravalent, since they contribute four electrons each to the crystal.
The band these electrons occupy is called the valence band.
If the spacing between atoms is decreased below the distance at which the bands overlap, the
interaction between atoms is indeed large. The energy-band structure then depends upon the
orientation of the atoms relative to one another in space (the crystal structure) and upon the
atomic number, which determines the electrical constitution of each atom. Solutions of
Schrodinger’s equation are complicated, and have been obtained
approximately for only relatively few crystals These solutions lead us to expect an energy-band
diagram somewhat as pictured in figure 3(b). At the crystal-lattice spacing (the dashed vertical
line), we find the valence band filled with 4N electrons separated by a forbidden band (no
allowed energy states) of extent EG from an empty band consisting of 4N additional states.
This upper vacant band is called the conduction band.

8. INSULATORS, SEMICONDUCTORS AND METALS

Figure 4: Simplified energy band diagram of

(a) Insulator, (b) Semiconductor and (c) Conductor
8.1. Insulators
• An insulating material has an energy band diagram as shown in figure 4(a).
• It has a very wide forbidden-energy gap (~ 6 eV) separating the filled valence band
from the vacant conduction band. Because of this, it is practically impossible for an
electron in the valence band to jump the gap, reach the conduction band.
• At room temperature, an insulator does not conduct. However, it may conduct if its
temperature is very high or if a high voltage is applied across it. This is termed as the
breakdown of the insulator.
• Example: diamond.

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8.2. Semiconductors
• A semiconductor has an energy-band gap as shown in figure 3(b).
• At 0°K semiconductor materials have the same structure as insulators except the
difference in the size of the band gap E G, which is much smaller in semiconductors (E G
~ 1 eV) than in insulators.
• The relatively small band gaps of semiconductors allow for excitation of electrons from
the lower (valence) band to the upper (conduction) band by reasonable amount of
thermal or optical energy.
• The difference between semiconductors and insulators is that the conductivity of
semiconductors can increase greatly by thermal or optical energy.
• Example: Ge and Si.
8.3. Metals
• There is no forbidden energy gap between the valence and conduction bands. The two
bands actually overlap as shown in figure 4(c).
• Without supplying any additional energy such as heat or light, a metal already contains
a large number of free electrons and that is why it works as a good conductor.
• Example: Al. Cu etc.
[Note:
• Conduction band electrons can move along sea of atoms present in the specimen under
consideration while the valence band electrons (restrained electrons) are bound to
parent atom. These conduction band electrons are known as free electrons.
• Since the band-gap energy of a crystal is a function of interatomic spacing, it is not
surprising that EG depends somewhat on temperature. It has been determined
experimentally that EG for silicon decrease with temperature at the rate of 3.60 × 10 –
4
eV/°K.
Hence, for silicon, EG(T) = 1.21 – 3.60 × 10–4 T
And at room temperature (300°K), EG = 1.1 eV
Similarly, for germanium, EG(T) = 0.785 – 2.23 × 10–4 T
And at room temperature, EG = 0.72 eV]

9. SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS: Ge, Si AND GaAs

• Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a good
conductor and that of an insulator.
• Single crystal and compound crystal semiconductor are two ramifications of semiconductor
depending upon, number of constitutional elements. Examples of single crystal
semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) whereas compound semiconductors are
gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS), gallium nitride (GaN) and gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) etc.

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10. INTRINSIC MATERIALS & COVALENT BONDING

• Semiconductor in its purest form (without any impurity) is known as intrinsic semiconductor.
• An intrinsic semiconductor (such as pure Ge or Si), has only four electrons in the outermost
orbit of its atoms. When atoms bond together to form molecules of matter, each atom
attempts to acquire eight electrons in its outermost shell. This is done by sharing one
electron from each of the four neighboring atoms. This sharing of electrons in
semiconductors is known as covalent bonding. Below figure shows covalent bonding of the
silicon atom.

Figure 5: Covalent bonding of the silicon atom

10.1. Charge Carriers in Intrinsic Semiconductor
• At room temperature (say 300°K) sufficient thermal energy is supplied to make a
valence electron of a semiconductor atom to move away from the influence of its of
its nucleus. Thus, a covalent bond is broken. When this happens, the electron
becomes free to move in the crystal. This is shown in figure below.

Figure 6: Generation of electron- hole pair in an intrinsic semiconductor

(a) Crystal structure, (b) Energy-band diagram

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• When an electron breaks a covalent bond and moves away, a vacancy is created in
the broken covalent bond. This vacancy is called a hole.
• Free electrons and holes are always generating in pairs. Therefore, the concentration
of free electrons and holes will always be equal in an intrinsic semiconductor
n = p = ղi
Where ղi is called the intrinsic concentration.
10.2. Effect of Temperature on Conductivity of Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A semiconductor (Ge or Si) at absolute zero, behaves as a perfect insulator. At room
temperature, some electron-hole pairs are generated. Now, if we raise the
temperature further, more electron hole pairs are generated. The higher the
temperature, the higher is the concentration of charge carriers. As more charge
carriers are made available, the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor increases with
temperature. In other words, the resistivity (inverse of conductivity) decreases as
the temperature increases. That is; semiconductor have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
For Intrinsic concentration
 EG 
− 0 
 kT 
n2i = A0 T3 e  

Where, EG0: Energy gap at 0°K in eVs

k: Boltzman’s constant in eV/°K
A0: Material constant independent of temperature

11. EXTRINSIC MATERIALS

• In addition to the intrinsic carriers generated thermally, it is possible to create carriers in

semiconductors by purposely introducing impurities into the crystal. This process is called
doping. It is the most common technique for varying the conductivity of semiconductors.
• When a crystal is doped such that the equilibrium carrier concentrations n 0 and p0 are
different from the intrinsic carrier concentration ղi the material is said to be extrinsic.
11.1. n-type Semiconductor
• An n-type semiconductor is created by introducing impurity elements that have five
valence electrons (pentavalent), such as antimony, arsenic and phosphorus.
• The effect of such impurity elements is indicated in figure below. Note that the four
covalent bonds are still present. There is, however an additional fifth electron due to
the impurity atom, which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond. This
remaining electron loosely bound to its parent atom (antimony) atom, is relatively
free to move within the newly formed n-type material.

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• Since the inserted impurity atom has donated a relatively “free electron to the
structure; so diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.

Figure 7: Antimony impurity in n-type material

• When impurities or lattice defects are introduced into an otherwise perfect crystal,
additional levels are created in the energy band structure, usually within the band
gap. For example, an impurity from column V of the periodic table (P, As and Sb)
introduces an energy level very near the conduction band in Ge or Si. Such an
impurity level is called a donor level. In case of germanium, the distance of new
discrete allowable energy level is only 0.01 eV ( 0.05 eV in silicon) below the
conduction band, and therefore at room temperature almost all the “fifth” electrons
of the donor material are raised into the conduction band.

Figure 8: Energy-band diagram of n-type semiconductor

[Note: n-type material is as a whole electrically neutral since ideally the number of
positively charged protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting
negatively charged electrons in the structure.]

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11.2. p-type Semiconductor

• The p-type semiconductor is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal
with impurity atoms having three valence electrons (trivalent). The elements most
frequently used for this purpose are boron, gallium and indium.

Figure 9: Boron impurity in p- type material

• Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete the covalent
bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is
represented by a small circle or a plus sign, indicating the absence of a negative
charge.
• Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a free electron; so, the diffused
impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
• The resulting p-type material is electrically neutral for the same reasons described
for the n-type material.
• Atoms from Column-III (B, Al, Ga arid in) introduce impurity levels in Ge or Si near
the valence band. These levels are empty of electrons at 0K. At low temperatures,
enough thermal energy is available to excite electrons from the valence band into
the impurity level, leaving behind holes in the valence band. Since this type of
impurity level “accepts” electrons from the valence band, it is called an acceptor
level.

Figure 10: Energy-band diagram of p-type semiconductor

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Standard Doping Levels

• Moderate doping: 1 in (106 – 108) : P, N
• Lightly doped: 1 in 1011 : P–, N–
• Highly (heavily) doped: 1 in 103 : P+, N+
[Note: 1: 106 or 1 in 106 or 1/106 is read as “1 impurity atom in 106 atoms”.]

12. THE MASS-ACTION LAW

In a semiconductor under thermal equilibrium (constant temperature) the product of electrons

and holes concentrations is always a constant and is equal to the square of intrinsic
concentration.

np = 2i

The intrinsic concentration ղi is a function of temperature.

For a p-type semiconductor,

2i
np =
pp

For an n-type semiconductor,

2i
pn =
nn

2i
or, Minority carrier concentration =
Majority carrier concentration
but, Majority carrier concentration  Doping concentration.
1
so, Minority carrier concentration 
Doping concentration

or, Minority carrier concentration × Doping concentration = 2i

In a semiconductor, if majority carrier concentration increases the minority carrier

concentration decreases this is due to the recombination.
Example 4:
The electron concentration in silicon at T = 300 K is n 0 = 5 × 104 cm-3.
i. What will be the hole concentration (in cm-3) in silicon?
ii. Find the nature of material.
Solution:
(i) At T = 300 K the electron concentration is
n0 = 5 × 104 cm-3
At T = 300 K intrinsic carrier concentration for silicon is
ղi = 1.5 × 1010

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By using mass action law, we obtain the hole concentration as

n0p0 = i2
2
or, p0 = i
n0

(1.5  1010 )2
=
5  104
= 4.5  1015 cm−3
(ii) We have the electron and hole concentrations for the silicon as
n0 = 5  104 cm−3
and p0 = 4.5  1015 cm−3

So, we conclude that

p0  n0

i.e. the concentration of hole is greater the concentration of electron. It means hole are in
majority in this material, hence it is p-type material.

13. DIRECT & INDIRECT SEMICONDUCTORS

Let us assume that a single electron travel through a perfectly periodic lattice. The wave
function of the electron is assumed to be in the form of a plane wave moving, for example, in
the x-direction with propagation constant k, also called a wave vector as shown below in the
figure.

Figure 11: Direct Transition with accompanying photon

Figure 12: Indirect transition via a defect level

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The band structure of GaAs has a minimum in the conduction band a maximum in the valence
band for the same k value (k = 0). On the other hand, Si has its valence band maximum at
different value of k than its Conduction band minimum. Thus an electron making a smallest-
energy transition from the conduction band to the valence band in GaAs can do so without a
change in k value; on the other hand, a transition from the minimum point in the Si conduction
band to the maximum point of the valence band requires some change in k.
Thus, there are two classes of semiconductor energy bands:
i. Direct band gap semiconductor and
ii. Indirect band gap semiconductor.
Comparison between these two classes of semiconductors is given below:
13.1. Direct Band Gap Semiconductor
• During recombination’s energy is dissipated in the form of light.
• When electron is falling from conduction band to valence band, the falling electron
directly dissipates energy in the form of light.
• Used for microwave devices and in fabrication of LEDs and LASERs.
13.2. Indirect Band Gap Semiconductor
• During recombination’s energy is dissipated the form of heat.
• When free electron is falling from conduction band to valence band, with the crystals
of the atom and the crystals will be absorbing the energy from the falling electron
and they become heated up and the energy is released in the form of heat.
• Used in all other applications.

14. TRANSPORT PHENOMENA IN SEMICONDUCTORS

The only current contributing particle in case of metals are free electrons. Electrically,
semiconductors on the other hand have both holes and electrons giving rise to the net current.
Where we can enhance one’s (holes/electrons) contribution in comparison to another
(electrons/holes) choosing a trivalent or pentavalent impurity atom for doping purpose. The
transport of the charges in a crystal under the influence of an electric field (a drift current),
and also as a result of a nonuniform concentration gradient (a diffusion current), is
investigated.
14.1. Mobility
If a constant electric field, say E(Volts/m) is applied. As a result of electrostatic force,
the electrons would be accelerated and the velocity would increase indefinite with time,
were it not for the collisions with the ions. However, at each inelastic collision with an
ion, an electron losses energy, and a steady state condition is reached where finite value
of drift speed v is attained. This drift velocity is in the direction opposite to that of the

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dE
electric field. The speed at time t between collision is at, where a = is the
m
acceleration. Hence the average speed v is proportional to E.
Thus, v = μE
where μ (square meters per volt-second) is called the mobility of the electrons.
as v = at

qE qE
⇒ v= t a=
m m

 qt 
⇒ v = E
m

qt
∴ =
m

Where, q is electronic charge (1.6 × 10–19C) and m is the mass of the electron (9.1 ×
10–31 kg).
Important point:
• Mobility of charge carrier is the ability of the charge carrier to move from one place
to another i.e. how fast the charge carrier can move from one place to another.
• Mobility is defined as:
drift velocity
=
fieldintencity

vd m2 cm2
Also,  = → unit or
E V − sec V − sec
• Mobility denotes how quick is the electron or the hole is moving from one place to
another place.
• Drift velocity is the velocity of charge carrier under field intensity.
• Drift velocity is the average velocity of charge carriers.
vmax + vmin
vdrift =
2
• In a semiconductor, mobility of change carriers depends on:
i. Temperature
ii. Doping concentration
• Mobility of charge carriers is a measure of how quick electron (or hole) move from
one place to another.
• Electron mobility is always greater than hole mobility and therefore the electron can
travel fast and contributes more current than a hole.

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Example 5:
A DC voltage of 10V is applied across a N Type silicon bar having rectangular cross
section and a length of 1cm as shown in the fig?

Figure 13
The Doping concentration ND and mobility of electrons are 1016/cm3 and 1000 cm2/V-
sec respectively. The average time in μs taken by the electron to move from one end to
another end of the bar is……….?
Solution:
vd
=
E
10V
Vd = 1000  = 10000 cm2 / sec
1 cm

dis tan ce  cm
so, time = =
speed 10000 cm / sec
100
t = 10−4 sec = 10−4 
100
t = 100 s

Mobility versus Temperature graph:

• In a semiconductor, mobility of charge carriers reduces with the temperature (by
neglecting scattering effects).

Figure 14: Variation between mobility and temperature

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Mathematically,

  T −m  decrease as non-linear variation.

Where, m= material constant

• Mobility decreases as a non-linear variation with the Temperature.

• By considering SCATTERING EFFECTS, the mobility of charge carriers, firstly

increases and then decreases with the temperature.

Figure 15: Variation between mobility and temperature

• By keeping impurity atoms as constant and if temperature is varying then mobility

v/s temperature curve will be

Figure 16: Variation of mobility and temperature

• By keeping TEMPERATURE as constant and varying impurity atoms in

semiconductors, the mobility v/s impurity atoms curve will be:

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Figure 17
Example 6:
Assume that mobility of electrons in silicon at T=300 K is μ n =1300 cm2 /V-sec. Also
assume that the mobility is limited by thermal motion of atoms and varies with
temperature. Then the electron mobility (in cm2/V-sec) at T = 400K is ________.
(approximate value)
Solution:
The lattice scattering is related to the thermal motion of atoms.
∴ Mobility varies as T –3/2

∴μ∝T –3/2

Given at T1 = 300K, μn1 = 1300 cm2/V–s

At T2 = 400K, μn2 = ?
−3/2
n1  T1 
= 
n2  T2 
−3/2
1300  300 
= 
n2  400 
1300
n2 =
1.5396
= 844.375
= 844 cm2/V- sec.
Mobility versus E graph:

Figure 18: Mobility versus E graph

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• For larger electric field intensities, the mobility of charge carriers be very small and
therefore, the drift velocity of charge carriers will remain almost a constant.
• Mobility of charge car decreases with temperature

  T −m

Where, for Ge: m =1.66 for e and 2.33 for hole

for Si: m = 2.5 for e– and 2.7 for hole
Table 2:

Parameter Ge Si GaAs

Electron mobility (μn) 3800 cm2/V-s 1300 cm2/V-s 5800 cm2/V-s

Hole mobility (μp) 1800 cm2/V-s 500 cm2/V-s 400 cm2/V-s

 
Ratio  n  2.1: 1 2.6: 1 14.5: 1
 p 
 

• Higher the mobility more is the material suitable for high frequency applications.
• If n p is greater then, material will offer minimum switching time.

Drift velocity versus electric field curve:

In a semiconductor, as field intensities are gradually increasing, the drift velocity:
i. First, linearly increases
ii. Then, sub linearly increases
Enters into saturation

Figure 19
[NOTE:
• In a semiconductor, the mobility of charge carriers depends on various type of
SCATTERING such as:
1. LATTICE scattering
2. IMPURITY scattering
3. SURFACE scattering

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• Due to this, the resultant mobility of charge carriers is given by μ and the mathematical
formula is given by:
1 1 1 1
= + + ,
 1 2 3

taken one at a time keeping others as constant.

• As a result, the resultant mobility reduces, and it is always equal to or less than the
least value of mobility given.]

15. CURRENT DENSITY

If N electrons are contained in a length L of a conductor as shown in figure below. If T is time

taken to traverse distance L, the total number of electrons passing through any cross-section
of wire in per unit time is N/T.

Figure 20
Therefore,
Nq Nqv  L
l= =  v=
T I  T 

l Nqv
∴ Current density = =
A LA

 N 
⇒ J = qv   [Unit of J = amp/m2]
 LA 

N
since, = n(electron concentration in electrons per cubic meter).
LA
∴ J = nqv = ρv
where, ρ = nq is the charge density in coulombs/m3 and v in m/s.
15.1. Conductivity
From the above discussion
J = nqv = nqμE = σE
The above equation is recognized as ohm’s law.
Where, σ = nqμ is the conductivity of the metal in (ohm-meter)–1.
With the effect of applied electric-field, as a result of collisions of electrons with the
lattice ions, electron power is dissipated within the metal and is given by
JE = σE2 Watts/m3

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• Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.

• Conductivity denotes current carrying capacity of the material or device.
i. For semiconductors conductivity
σ = nqμn + pqμp
ii. For intrinsic semiconductor

(
i =  i n + p q )
iii. For n-type semiconductor
n >> p
∴ n n q n

but, n ~ ND

so, n ND qn

iv. For p-type semiconductor

p >> n
p pq p

but, p ~ NA

so, p NA qp

It is clear that conductivity of semiconductor increases with increase in doping

concentration.
15.2. Conductivity Vs Temperature
• As we know that in metals, resistivity of metal increases with increase in temperature.
So, conductivity of metals decreases with increase in temperature.
• In pure semiconductors conductivity mainly depends upon number of charge carriers.
So, in a semiconductor conductivity increases with temperature.
• For 1°C increase in temperature, conductivity of Ge increases by 6% while in Si it
increases by 8%.
• Conductivity of extrinsic semiconductor decreases above normal temperature with
temperature.
15.3. Conductivity of Different Elements
i. Conductivity of metals
σmetals = 107 – 105 – m

ii. Conductivity of semiconductors

σsc = 1 m – 10–6 m

iii. Conductivity of insulator

σinsulator = 10–19 m

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[Note:
• In an intrinsic semiconductor conductivity increases with temperature.
• In a lightly doped semiconductor conductivity increases with temperature but in a
heavily doped semiconductor conductivity decreases with increase in temperature.
• Heavily doped semiconductor has metal like properties.
15.4. Law of Electrical Neutrality
As we know that semiconductor as a whole is electrically neutral. So, in a semiconductor
Total positive charge = Total negative charge
ND + p = NA + n
or, ND – NA = n – p
i. In intrinsic semiconductor,
NA = 0 = ND
∴ n=p
ii. In n-type semiconductor
NA = 0
ND + p = n
but, n >> p
∴ n ~ ND
iii. In p-type semiconductor
NA = 0
p = NA + n
but, n >> p
∴ p ~ NA
Example 7:
Consider a homogeneous gallium arsenide semiconductor at T = 300 K with the following
parameters:
Donor concentration: ND = 1016 cm-3,
Electron mobility: (μn) = 7500 cm2/V-s
Intrinsic concentration: ղi = 1.8 × 106 cm-3
i. Find the thermal equilibrium value of hole concentration in the material.
ii. If an electric field of 10V/cm is applied to the material then, then find the drift current
density
Solution:
(i) For the gallium arsenide semiconductor, we have
Nd = 1016 cm-3
and ղi = 1.8 × 106 cm-3
So, Nd >> ղi

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Therefore, the electron concentration is

n0 = Nd = 1016 cm-3
Hence, using mass action law, we obtain the hole concentration as

i2 (1.8  106 )2

p0 = =
n0 1016

= 3.24 × 10-4 cm-3

(ii) Given the electric field,
E = 10 V/cm
The drift current density is defined as
J = σE
where σ is the conductivity, given as
σ= neμ
= n0eμn + p0 eμp
= n0 eμn (n0 >> p0)
Therefore, we obtain
J = n0eμnE
= 1016 × 1.6 × 10-19 × 7500 × 10
= 120 A/cm2

16. CURRENT

It is defined as the flow of charge per unit time through a conducting medium. In metals current
is carried by only electrons while in case of semiconductors it is carried by both electrons and
holes.
16.1. Drift Current
It is the flow of current through the material or device under the influence of voltage or
field intensity.
16.2. Diffusion Current
When excess carriers are created non-uniformly in a semiconductor, the electron and
hole concentrations vary with position in the sample. Any such spatial variation
(gradient) in n and p calls for a net motion of the carriers from the region of high carrier
concentration to regions of low carrier concentration. This type of motion is called
diffusion and represents an important charge transport process in semiconductors.
The rate of electron flow in the +x-direction per unit area (the electron flux density ϕn)
is given

dn ( x )
n ( x ) = − Dn
dx

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Similarly, hole flux density

dp ( x )
p ( x ) = − Dp
dx

where, Dn = electron diffusion coefficient.

Dp = hole diffusion coefficient.
The diffusion current crossing a unit area (the current density) is the particle flux density
multiplied by the charge of the carrier:
dn ( x ) dn ( x )
Jn ( diff ) = − ( − q) Dn = + qDn
dx dx

dp ( x ) dp ( x )
Jp ( diff ) = − ( + q) Dp = − qDp
dx dx
16.3. Diffusion and Drift of Carriers
If an electric field is present in addition to the carrier gradient, the current densities will
each have a drift component and a diffusion component
dn ( x )
Jn ( x ) = qn n ( x ) E(x) + q Dn
dx

Drift Diffusion

dp ( x )
Jp ( x ) = qp p ( x ) E ( x ) − qDp
dx
The total current density is the sum of the contributions due to electrons holes
J(x) = Jn(x) + Jp(x)
Example 8:
In a N type semiconductor, at T=300K, the electron concentration varies linearly from
2 × 1015/cm3 to 5 × 1017/cm3 over a distance of 1.5mm and diffusion current density is
360 A/cm2.Find its electron mobility?
Solution:
From given data:

Figure 21

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dn
Jn diff = (qDn )
dx

5  1017 − 2  1018
360=(1.6×10-19×Dn× )
1.5  10−1

360  1.5  10−1

Dn =
−1.6  10−19  −1.5  1018
Dn = 225cm2/sec
μnVT=225
μn = 8653.846 cm2/V-sec
Example 9:
KT
Assume electronic charge lql=1.6×10-19C, = 25mV, n = 1000cm2 / V sec . If the
q

concentration gradient of electron injected into the semiconductor sample is -

1×1021electrons /cm3/cm. Find the magnitude of electron diffusion current density?
Solution:
dn
Jn diff =+(-q)×Dn× ; Dn=μnVT
dx
=-1.6×10-19×25×-1×1021
=1.6×25×102
400  102
=
10
Jn diff=4000 A/cm2
16.4. Length of Diffusion

Figure 22
Length of diffusion is given as below,

L = D  cm

Where, D = Diffusion constant for charge carrier (cm 2/sec)

 = Carrier life-time or mean life time of minority carriers (sec).

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Example 10:
An n-type silicon sample has diffusion coefficient of electrons 120 cm 2/sec and the
carrier life-time of electron is 30 μsec and the Carrier life time of electron is 30μsec.
Then the diffusion length of the sample (L n) is_____________.
Solution:
Given, diffusion coefficient of electrons
Dn = 120 cm2/sec
Carrier life time of electron,
n = 30 p sec

Diffusion length,

L n = Dn n

= 120  30  10−12
= 60 × 10–6 cm
= 0.6 μm
16.5. Einstein Relationship
Since both diffusion and mobility are statistical thermodynamic phenomena, D and μ
are not independent. The relationship between them is given by the Einstein equation

Dp Dn
= = VT
p n

where VT is the “volt-equivalent of temperature”

Example 11:
A silicon P+N junction has carrier lifetime of holes  p=10 μsec and mobility of holes
μp=3500 cm2/ V-sec. If it is operated at room temperature, then find the ratio of
diffusion coefficients of holes (Dp) to the diffusion length of holes (Lp). (Assume VT= 26
m V at room temperature)
Solution:
Given for silicon P+N junction diode,
carrier lifetime,  p=10 μsec
Mobility, μp=3500 cm2/ V-sec

Dp Dp Dp
= =
Lp Dp p p

p VT
=
p

Dp 3500 X 0.026
 = = 3016 cm / sec
Lp 10 X10−6

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16.6. The Energy Gap

The forbidden region EG in a semiconductor depends upon temperature. Experimentally
it is found that
For silicon,

EG ( T ) = 1.21 − 3.60  10−4 T

For germanium,

EG ( T ) = 0.785 − 2.23  10−4 T

17. THE HALL EFFECT

According to this effect the statements are:

If a specimen (metal or semiconductor) carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic
field B, an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. This
phenomenon, known as the Hall effect, is used to determine whether a semiconductor is n- or
p-type and to find the carrier concentration. Also, by simultaneously measuring the conductivity
σ, the mobility μ can be calculated.
Consider the figure shown below. Here current l is in +x-direction, magnetic field B is in +z
direction then induced electric field will be in –ve y-direction.

Figure 23
Hence a force will be exerted in the negative y-direction on the current carriers.
The current l may be due to holes moving from left to right or to free electrons travelling from
right to left in the semiconductor specimen. Hence, independently of whether the carriers are
holes or electrons, they will be forced downward toward side 1 of above figure.
If the semiconductor is n-type material, so that the current is carried by the electrons, these
electrons will accumulate on side 1, and this surface becomes negativity charged with respect
to side 2. Hence a potential, called the Hall voltage, appears between surface 1 and 2.
Now under the equilibrium condition

qE = Bvq

VH I
But, E= and J= vρ =
d wd

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Combining these relationships, we find

BJd BI
VH = Ed = Bvd = =
 w

Where ρ is the charge density, w is the width of the specimen and d is the distance between

surfaces 1 and 2.

It is customary to introduce the Hall coefficient RH defined by

1
RH =


VHw
Hence, RH =
BI

By hall experiment mobility of charge carriers is given as

8
=  RH
3

or,   RH

⇒ Hall coefficient, RH  Temperature coefficient of resistance of given specimen.

⇒ For metals, σ is larger, VH is small.

⇒For semiconductors, σ is small, VH is large.

Applications:

Hall effect is used in many applications as following:

• measurement of magnetic flux density.

• measurement of displacement.

• measurement of current.

• measurement of power in Electro-magnetic waves.

• determination of mobility of semiconductor material.

[Note: Minority carrier mobility (μ) and diffusion coefficient(D) can be measured

independently with the help of Haynes-Shockley experiment.]

Example 12:

A n type Ge Sample has a donor density ND = 1021 atoms/m3. It is arranged in a Hall experiment

having a magnetic field B =0.2Wb/m2 and current density J = 500A/m2. Find the hall voltage

generated when the thickness of sample is 2mm. Also calculate the field intensity induced in

magnitude.?

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Solution:
BIRH BIRH BJ  w  d  R H
VH = = =
w w w

VH = BJdR H

1
VH = 0.2  500  2  10−3  21
10  −1.6  10−19

 VH = − 1.25 mV

VH
EH =
d
−1.25 mV
EH =
2  10−3

EH = 0.652 V
m

18. COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR

• A semiconductor in which both DONOR & ACCEPTOR IMPURITIES are added is called as
compensated semiconductor.
• When donor impurities are added into the P type Semiconductor or Acceptor Impurities are
added into the N type Semiconductor, we get “COMPENSATED SEMICONDUCTOR”.
• In a semiconductor, doping concentration will play the major role in deciding the properties
and applications of the semiconductor.
18.1. In an intrinsic semiconductor:
1. If NA = ND is applied, then the semiconductor is intrinsic, and it is called as
uncompensated semiconductor.
2. If the ND > NA is applied, then the semiconductor is N type compensated
semiconductor.
3. If NA > ND is applied, then the semiconductor is P type compensated semiconductor.
18.2. N type compensated semi-conductor:
Let ND>NA

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By law of electrical neutrality:

ND + p = NA + n
n2
so,ND + i = NA + n
n
nND + ni2 = NA .n + n2
n2 + (NA − ND )n − ni2 = 0
n2 + (ND − NA )n − ni2 = 0
(ND − NA )  (ND − NA )2 + 4ni2
n=
2
2
(ND − NA )  N − NA  2
n= +  D  + ni  nn
2  2 
nn → majority carriers in N type
semiconductors (compensated)

ni2
So, pn= (minority carrier concentration in N type compensated semiconductor)
nn

18.3. P type compensated semiconductor:

Let, NA > ND
By law of electrical neutrality:
ND + p = NA + n
n2
ND + p = NA + i
p
ND.p + p2 = NA .p + ni2
p2 − (NA − ND )p − ni2 = 0
2
(N − ND )  N − ND  2
p= A +  A  + ni
2  2 
→ pP = majority carriers in P type
semiconductor(compensated)
n2
nP = i
pP
→ min ority carriers in P type
Compensated semiconductor

Example 13:
An N type semi-conductor (Si) containing 1016 Phosphorous atoms/cm3 is doped with
1017 Boron atoms/cm3. Calculate the electron & hole concentration. Assume, ղi
=1010/cm3?
Solution:
NA=1017 atoms/cm3
ND = 1016 atoms/cm3
Since NA>ND
Hence semiconductor is P type Compensated.

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So,
2
NA − ND  N − ND 
 + i
2
P= +  D
2  2 
2
1017 − 1016  1017 − 1016  10
= +   + (1  10 )
2  2 
pP = 9  1016 / cm3
 2 1  1020
nP = i =
pP 9  1016
nP = 1.11  103 / cm3

19. MINIMUM CONDUCTIVITY IN SEMI-CONDUCTORS

• The General equation for conductivity of a semiconductor is

 = nqn + PqP ……….(i)
• By Mass Action Law :
ni2
p= …………(ii)
n
considering the semiconductor as N type
Substituting eq (ii) in eq (i) we get:-
ni2
 = nqn + qP
n
d n2
Now, = qn − i2 qP
dn n
again differentiating w.rt n we get
d2 2
2
= + 3 ni2qP  0
dn n
• The condition for minimum conductivity can be obtained by equating d / dn = 0. So,
ni2
qn − qP = 0.
n2
n2
n − i2 P = 0
n
P
n2 = ni2
n
P
n = ni
n

It is the equation to calculate electron concentration in the semiconductor when conductivity is

minimum.)
• Substituting above equation in above equation we get:
ni2
p=
n
ni2
p=
P
ni
n

p = ni n
P

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It is equation to calculate hole concentration in the semiconductor when conductivity is

minimum).
• The minimum conductivity equation can be obtained by substituting, So,
 = nqn + pqP
n 
= niqP  + ni P qn
P n
niq n P + niq n P
 npn = 2niq n P

19.1. Equation for donor concentration for N type semiconductor when  is

MINIMUM:

P 
ND = ni − ni n
n P
  n 
ND = ni  P − 
 n P 

19.2 Equation for acceptor concentration for P type semiconductor when  is

MINIMUM:

n 
NA = ni − np P
P n
  P 
NA = ni  n − 
 P n 

20. THE FERMI LEVEL

• Electrons in solids obey Fermi-Dirac statistics. The distribution of electrons over a range of
allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium is

1
f (E ) =
1+e(E −EF ) /kT

Where k s Boltzmann’s constant (k = 8.62 × 10–5 eV/K = 1.38 × 10–23 J/K).

• The function f(E), the Fermi-Dirac distribution function, gives the probability that an
available energy state of E will be occupied by an electron at absolute temperature T. The
quantity EF is called the Fermi level.
1
• If E = EF then f (E ) = = 0.5 or 50%
2
If E > EF then f(E) < ½
If E > EF then f(E) > ½
• A closer examination of f(E) indicates that at 0 K the distribution takes the simple rectangular
form shown in figure. At temperature higher than 0K, some probability exists for states
above the Fermi level to be filled.

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• For example, at T = T1 in figure there is some probability f(E) that states above E F are filled,
and there is a corresponding probability [1 – f(E)] that states below EF are empty. The Fermi
function is symmetrical about EF for all temperatures; that is, the probability f(EF + ΔE) that
a state ΔE above EF is filled is the same as the probability [1 – f(EF – ΔE)] that a state ΔE
below EF is empty. The symmetry of the distribution of empty and filled states about E F
makes the Fermi level a natural reference point in calculations of electron and hole
concentrations in semiconductors.

Figure 24: The Fermi Dirac distribution function

Figure 25: Schematic band diagram, density of states, Fermi-Dirac distribution and
the carrier concentrations for (a) Intrinsic, (b) n-type and (c) p-type
semiconductors at thermal equilibrium

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20.1. Fermi Level in Intrinsic Semiconductor

In intrinsic semiconductor Fermi level EF is given by

Ec + Ev 1 N 
EF = − kT ln  c 
2 2  Nv 

where, NC = density of states in conduction band

Nv = density of states in valence band
In pure Semiconductor at T = 0K, Fermi level lies in the middle of bandgap.
20.2. Fermi Level in n-type Semiconductor
Fermi level in n-type semiconductor is given by
N 
EF = Ec – kT ln  c 
N 
 D
Where, ND = doping concentration.
• Fermi level in n-type semiconductor depends on temperature as well as on doping
concentration.
• At 0K Fermi level coincides with that of lowest energy level of conduction band.
• As doping increases Fermi level moves towards conduction band.
• Shift in Fermi level in n-type semiconductor with respect to Fermi level of intrinsic
semiconductor is

n 
shift = kT ln  
 i 
 

N 
shift ≅ kT ln  D 
 i 
 
20.3. Fermi Level in p-type Semiconductor
Fermi level in p-type semiconductor is given by

N 
EF = EV + kT ln  V 
NA 
 
• In p-type semiconductor Fermi level depends on both temperature as well as on
doping concentration NA.
• As temperature increases Fermi level moves away from E V i.e. towards middle of
band gap.
• As 0K Fermi level coincides with highest energy level EV of valence band.
• As doping concentration increases Fermi level moves toward E V or away of middle of
band gap
• Shift in Fermi level in p-type semiconductor with respect to Fermi level of intrinsic
semiconductor as

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p 
shift = kT ln  
 i 
 

N 
shift ≅ kT ln  A 
 i 
 
Example 14:
What will be the position of Fermi energy level, E Fi with respect to the centre of the
bandgap in silicon for T = 200 K?
Solution:
The concentration of electrons and holes are defined as

 (E − EF ) 
n0 = Nc exp  − c
 kT 
 (E − Ev ) 
p0 = Nv exp  − F 
 kT 
At Fermi level position, the electron and hole concentration are equal, i.e.
 (E − EF )   (E − Ev ) 
Nc exp  − c  = Nv exp  − F 
 kT   kT 
If we take natural log of both sides, then

1 1 N 
EF = (Ec + Ev ) + kTln  v 
2 2  Nc 
midgap

1 N 
or EF − E midgap = kTln  v  ….(1)
2  Nc 
At T = 300° for silicon, we have
Nc = 2.8  1019
and Nv = 1.04  1019

Therefore, we obtain
Nv 1.04
=
Nc 2.8

Since the does not depend on temperature, so at T = 200, we get

Nv 1.04
=
Nc 2.8

Substituting it in equation (1), we have

1  200   1.04 
EF − Emidgap =  0.0259e   ln  
2  300   2.8 
= −0.0085 eV

Thus, the intrinsic Fermi level is 0.0085 eV below the centre of the bandgap.

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Example 15:
If the Fermi energy in silicon is 0.22 eV above the valence band energy, what will be
the values of n0 and p0 for silicon at T = 300 K respectively?
Solution:
Given that Fermi energy in silicon is 0.22 eV above the valence band energy, i.e.
EF – Ev = 0.22 eV
So, we obtain the hole concentration as

 (E − Ev ) 
p0 = Nv exp  − F
 kT 
 0.22e 
= 1.04  1019 exp  − 
 0.0259e 
= 2.13  1015 cm−3
Now, the energy bandgap for silicon is 1.12 eV, i.e.
Eg = Ec – Ev = 1.12 eV
Therefore, we obtain
Ec − EF + (EF − Ev ) = 1.12eV
or, Ec − EF = 1.12 − 0.22 = 0.90 eV

Hence, the hole concentration is

 (E − EF ) 
n0 = Nc exp  − c
 kT 
 0.90e 
= 2.8  1019 exp  − 
 0.0259e 
4 −3
= 2.27  10 cm

Example 16:
The probability that an energy state is filled at E C + KT, is equal to the probability that
a state is empty at EC + KT. Where is the Fermi level (EF) located?
Solution:
The probability that an energy state is filled at EC + KT is given by
1
f(EC + KT) =
1 + exp (EC + KT − EF ) / KT 
…(1)
The probability that a state is empty at EC + KT is given by
1
1 − f(EC + KT) = 1 −
1 + exp (EC + KT − EF ) / KT 
…(2)
Given that the two probabilities are equal, i.e.
f(EC + KT) = 1 – f(EC + KT)
1 1
(EC +KT −EF )/KT
=1− (EC + KT −EF )/KT
or, 1 + e 1+e

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1 e(EC +KT −EF )/KT

(EC +KT −EF )/KT
=
or, 1 + e 1 + e(EC + KT −EF )/KT

1 1
(EC +KT −EF )/KT
= [EF −(EC + KT)]/KT
or. 1 + e 1+e
EC + KT − EF EF − (EC + KT)
=
or, KT KT
or, 2EF = 2(EC + KT)
Hence, EF = EC + KT

21. OPTICAL ABSORPTION

• When a photon with energy h  ≥ Eg is incident on a semiconductor, it can be absorbed.

Since the valence band contains many electrons and the conduction band has many empty
states into which the electrons may be excited, the probability of photon absorption is high.
• As figure 26 indicates an electron excited to the conduction band by optical absorption may
initially have more energy than is common for conduction band electrons.
• Thus, the excited electron loses energy to the lattice in scattering events until its velocity
reaches the thermal equilibrium velocity of the other conduction band electrons.
• The electron and hole created by this absorption process are excess carriers; since they
are out of balance with their environment, they must eventually recombine.
• While the excess carriers exist in their respective bands, however, they are free to contribute
to the conductivity of the material.

Figure 26: Optical absorption of a photon with h  > E0: (a) An EHP is created during
photon absorption, (b) the excited electron gives up energy to the lattice by scattering
events, (c) the electron recombines with a hole in the valence
• A photon with energy less than E g is unable to excite an electron from the valence band to
the conduction band. Thus, in a pure semiconductor, there is negligible absorption of
photons with h  < Eg.

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• If a beam of photons with h  > Eg falls on a semiconductor, there will be some predictable
amount of absorption, determined by the properties of the material. To calculate this, let us
assume that a photon beam of intensity l0 (photons/cm2 -s) is directed at a sample of
thickness l. The beam contains only of wavelength λ. Since a photon which has survived to
x without absorption has no memory of how far it has travelled, its probability of absorption

dl ( x )
in any dx is constant. Thus, the degradation of the intensity − is proportional to the
dx
intensity remaining at x:

dl ( x )
− = l ( x )
dx
The solution to this equation is

l ( x ) = l0 e− x

and the intensity of light transmitted through the sample thickness l is

lt = l0 e− l

• The coefficient a is called the absorption coefficient and has units of cm–1. This coefficient
will of course vary with the photon wavelength and with the material.
• Figure 27 indicates the band gap energies of some of the common semiconductors, relative
to the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet portions of the spectrum. We observe that GaAs, Si,
Ge and lnSb lie outside the visible region, in the infrared. Other semiconductors, such as
GaP and CdS, have band gaps wide enough to pass photons in the visible range.

Figure 27: Band gaps of some common semiconductors relative

to the optical spectrum
Luminescence:
When electron-hole pairs are generated in a semiconductor, or when carriers are excited into
higher impurity levels from which they fall to their equilibrium states, light can be given off
by the material. Many of the semiconductors are well suited for light emission, particularly
the compound semiconductors with direct band gaps. The general property of light emission
is called luminescence.

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This overall category can be subdivided according to the excitation mechanism: If carriers are
excited by photon absorption, of the radiation resulting from the recombination of the excited
carriers is called photoluminescence; if the excited carriers are created by high-energy
electron bombardment of the material, the mechanism is called cathodoluminescence; if
the excitation occurs by the introduction of current into the sample, the resulting
luminescence is called electroluminescence.
Photoluminescence:
For steady state excitation, the recombination of EHPs occurs at the same rate as the
generation, and one photon is emitted for each photon absorbed.
Direct recombination is a fast process; the mean lifetime of the EHP is usually on the order of
10–8 s or less. Thus, the emission of photons stops within approximately 10 –8 s after the
excitation is turned off. Such last luminescent processes are often referred to as
fluorescence.
In some material, however, emission continues for periods up to seconds or minutes after the
excitation is removed. These slow processes are called phosphorescence, and the materials
are called phosphors.

Electroluminescence:
There are many ways by which electrical energy can be used to generate photon emission in
a solid. In LEDs an electric current causes the injection of minority carries into regions of the
crystal where they can recombine with majority carriers, resulting in the emission of
recombination radiation.
Photoconductivity:
When excess electrons and holes are created in a semiconductor, there is a corresponding
increase in the conductivity of the sample. If the excess carrier arises from optical
luminescence, the resulting increases in conductivity is called photoconductivity
Direct Recombination of Electrons and Holes:
The electrons in the conduction band of a semiconductor may make transitions to the valence
band (i.e. recombine with holes in the valence band) either directly or indirectly.
In direct recombination an excess population of electrons and holes decays by electrons falling
from the conduction band to empty states (holes) in the valence band. Energy lost by an
electron in making the transition is given up as a photon.
Direct recombination occurs spontaneously; that is, the probability that an electron and a hole
will combine is constant in time.

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Indirect Recombination; Trapping:

The vast majority of the recombination events in indirect materials occur via recombination
levels within the band gap, and the resulting energy loss by recombining electrons is usually
given up to the lattice as heat rather than by the emission of photons.
Any impurity or lattice defect can serve as a recombination center if it is capable of receiving
a carrier of one type and subsequently capturing the opposite type of carrier, thereby
annihilating the pair.
For example, figure 28 illustrates a recombination level E r which is below EF at equilibrium
and therefore is substantially filled with electrons.
When excess electrons and holes are created in this material, each EHP recombines at E r in
two steps:
(a) hole capture and
(b) electron capture.

Figure 28: Capture processes at a recombination level:

(a) hole capture at a filled recombination centre
(b) electron capture at an empty centre
Since the recombination centres in figure () are filled at equilibrium, the first event in the
recombination process is hole capture. It is important to note that this event is equivalent to
an electron at Er falling to the valence band, leaving behind an empty state in the
recombination level. Thus, in hole capture, energy is given up as heat to the lattice.
Similarly, energy is given up when a conduction band electron subsequently falls to the empty
state in Er. When both of these events have occurred, the recombination centre is back to its
original state (filled with an electron), but an EHP is missing.
Thus, one EHP recombination has taken place, and the centre is ready to participate in another
recombination event by capturing a hole.

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CONVENTIONAL PRACTICE PROBLEM

1. In an experiment, it is desired to obtain equal electron and hole drift currents. How should the
carries densities be chosen?
2. Consider a material with Fermi energy of 6.25 eV and that the electrons in the material follow the
Fermi – Dirac distribution function. Calculate the temperature at which there is a 1% probability
that a state 0.30 eV below the Fermi level is empty.
[Ans. 758.2K]
3. A silicon sample is doped with 1014 boron atoms per cm3. If the effective mass of hole to effective
mass of electron ratio is ‘9’, then find the ratio of effective density of state in valance band to
effective density of state in conduction band. (Assume room temperature)
[Ans. 27]
4. The probability that an energy state is filled at E c +KT is equal to the probability that a state is
empty at Ec + KT, then find the position of Fermi level.

****

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