Case: 20-12003 Date Filed: 07/27/2020 Page: 1 of 25

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

_________________________

No. 20-12003-U
_________________________

KELVIN LEON JONES,

BONNIE RAYSOR,
DIANE SHERRILL,
Individually and on behalf of others similarly
situated,
JEFF GRUVER,
EMORY MARQUIS MITCHELL,
MARQ, et al.,

Plaintiffs - Appellees,

ROSEMARY MCCOY,
SHEILA SINGLETON,

Plaintiffs - Appellees - Cross - Appellants,

versus

GOVERNOR OF FLORIDA,
FLORIDA SECRETARY OF STATE,

Defendants - Appellants - Cross Appellees,

__________________________

On Appeal from the United States

District Court for the Northern District of Florida
__________________________

BEFORE: LUCK and LAGOA, Circuit Judges:

Appellees have moved to disqualify us from this case because, as Justices on

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the Florida Supreme Court, we heard oral argument in Advisory Opinion to the

Governor re: Implementation of Amendment 4, the Voting Restoration

Amendment, 288 So. 3d 1070 (Fla. 2020).1 Appellees contend that, having heard

oral argument in Advisory Opinion to the Governor, we must disqualify ourselves:

(1) under Canon 3(C)(1)(e) of the Code of Conduct for United States Judges because,

they argue, we participated in the present “proceeding” in our “previous judicial

position[s]”; and (2) under 28 U.S.C. section 455(a) because, they argue, our

impartiality might reasonably be questioned based on our questioning during oral

argument in the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding and our answers to

the Senate Judiciary Committee during our confirmation. As discussed below,

these two cases involve different kinds of proceedings (advisory opinion vs. Article

III case-and-controversy), in different courts (state supreme court vs. federal court),

with different issues (interpreting state constitution vs. federal constitutional

questions), and different players (“interested persons” vs. parties). And nothing in

this case asks us to review the correctness of the Florida Supreme Court’s decision

in Advisory Opinion to the Governor. For the following reasons, the motion is

denied.

1
Neither of us was a member of the Florida Supreme Court when it issued Advisory
Opinion to the Governor.
2
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Canon 3(C)(1)(e)

Canon 3(C)(1)(e) provides that “[a] judge shall qualify himself or herself in a

proceeding in which the judge’s impartiality might reasonably be questioned,

including but not limited to instances in which . . . the judge has served in

governmental employment and in that capacity participated as a judge (in a previous

judicial position), counsel, advisor, or material witness concerning the proceeding.”

Code of Conduct for United States Judges Canon 3(C)(1)(e) (2019). “[P]roceeding”

is defined to include “pretrial, trial, appellate review, or other stages of litigation.”

Id. Canon 3(C)(3)(d). Appellees argue that two separate cases—the Advisory

Opinion to the Governor proceeding and this case—are stages of the same case and

part of the same “proceeding.” But they are not.

Canon 3(C)(1)(3)’s text and the case law interpreting “proceeding” are clear

that the term refers to the single case before the judge and not a separate, even if

related, proceeding or case. The canons, for obvious reasons, are aimed at

discouraging judges from being involved in the decision of cases in which they’ve

already participated. Because we’ve never participated in the present proceeding

or case as a judge, counsel, advisor, or witness, Canon 3(C)(1)(3) does not compel

our disqualification.

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As to the text of Canon 3(C), “other stages of litigation” of a proceeding, as

used in the Code, must be read as similar in nature to “pretrial, trial,” and “appellate

review.” “[W]here, as here, a more general term follows more specific terms in a

list, the general term is usually understood to embrace only objects similar in nature

to those objects enumerated by the preceding specific words.” Epic Sys. Corp. v.

Lewis, 138 S. Ct. 1612, 1625 (2018) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also

Circuit City Stores, Inc. v. Adams, 532 U.S. 105, 114–15 (2001) (“Where general

words follow specific words in a statutory enumeration, the general words are

construed to embrace only objects similar in nature to those objects enumerated by

the preceding specific words.” (quotation and alteration omitted)).

“Pretrial, trial,” and “appellate review” are major phases in a single lawsuit.

The common feature is that all three are steps in the same litigation. In that light,

“other stages of litigation,” as the general term, must also be read as stages of the

same proceeding that are similar to pretrial, trial, and appellate review. Black’s

Law Dictionary—which defines “proceeding” as the “regular and orderly

progression of a lawsuit, including all acts and events between the time of

commencement and entry of judgment”—lists some helpful examples of “other

stages”:

[T]he term ‘proceeding’ may include – (1) the institution of the action;
(2) the appearance of the defendant; (3) all ancillary and provisional
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steps, such as arrest, attachment of property, garnishment, injunction,

writ of ne exeat; (4) the pleadings; (5) the taking of testimony before
trial; (6) all motions made in the action; (7) the trial; (8) the judgment;
(9) the execution; (10) proceedings supplementary to execution, in code
practice; (11) the taking of the appeal or writ of error; (12) the remitter,
or sending back of the record to the lower court from the appellate or
reviewing court; (13) the enforcement of the judgment, or a new trial,
as may be directed by the court of last resort.

Black’s Law Dictionary 1457 (11th ed. 2019) (emphasis added). The “other stages

of litigation”—in addition to pretrial, trial, and appellate review—could include

preliminary injunctions and attachments of property, post-judgment litigation,

enforcement of the judgment, and proceedings supplementary. Importantly, these

other stages are different steps in a single case.

Canon 3(C)(1)(e) also describes the proceeding in which the judge must have

participated (in his or her previous job) as “a proceeding” and “the proceeding.”

The articles “a” and “the” are important because they refer to a single and definite

case—the one before the judge—and not other separate and different proceedings.

See Nielsen v. Preap, 139 S. Ct. 954, 965 (2019) (“Because words are to be given

the meaning that proper grammar and usage would assign them, the rules of grammar

govern statutory interpretation unless they contradict legislative intent or purpose.

Here grammar and usage establish that ‘the’ is a function word indicating that a

following noun or noun equivalent is definite or has been previously specified by

context.” (alterations adopted; citations and internal quotation marks omitted));

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Rumsfeld v. Padilla, 542 U.S. 426, 434 (2004) (“The consistent use of the definite

article in reference to the custodian indicates that there is generally only one proper

respondent to a given prisoner’s habeas petition.”); Evanto v. Fed. Nat. Mortg. Ass’n,

814 F.3d 1295, 1298 (11th Cir. 2016) (“We presume that the statute uses the term

‘the disclosure statement’ consistently, especially because sections 1638 and 1641

connote one particular document by using a definite article (‘the’) and a singular

noun (‘disclosure statement’).” (citations omitted)).

The other circuit courts have also read “proceeding” to mean the single case

before the judge and not separate, related cases. Section 455, the “federal

disqualification statute,” United States v, Sciarra, 851 F.2d 621, 634 (3d Cir. 1988),

defines “proceeding” exactly as Canon 3(C)(3)(d) does to include “pretrial, trial,

appellate review, and other stages of litigation.” 28 U.S.C. § 455(d)(1). The

identical language was intentionally used; Congress enacted section 455 “[b]ased

largely on Canon 3C of the ABA Code of Judicial Conduct.” Sciarra, 851 F.2d at

634.

The Seventh Circuit discussed the meaning of “proceeding” in United States

v. Lara-Unzueta, 735 F.3d 954 (7th Cir. 2013). There, the defendant was convicted

of one count of illegal reentry. Id. at 955. On appeal, the defendant argued that

the district judge should have disqualified himself because he was district counsel

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for the Immigration and Naturalization Service when the defendant was originally

removed from the United States. Id. at 957–58. Section 455(b)(3) requires that a

judge disqualify himself “[w]here he has served in governmental employment and

in such capacity participated as counsel, adviser or material witness concerning the

proceeding.” Id. at 958–59 (quoting 28 U.S.C. § 455(b)(3)) (emphasis added).

The Seventh Circuit rejected the disqualification argument, and affirmed the

defendant’s conviction, because the district judge had not served as counsel or

advisor concerning the proceeding:

The proceeding means the current proceeding. This interpretation is

dictated by the text of the statute. On July 21, 2011, Lara was indicted
for the crime that is the subject of this direct appeal. On the day of
Lara’s indictment, Judge Der-Yeghiayan had been a sitting United
States District Judge for over eight years. Judge Der-Yeghiayan was
not involved in the investigation, preparation of the indictment,
presentment of the indictment, or prosecution of the 8 U.S.C. § 1326(a)
conviction that is the subject of the proceeding—this criminal case.
The present appeal of Lara’s criminal proceeding presided over by
Judge Der-Yeghiayan in 2012 is not the same as Lara’s deportation
proceeding from 1997-98.

Id. at 959.2

2
Appellees argue that even if the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding and this
case are not the same “proceeding,” Canon 3(C)(1)(e) requires disqualification in cases
“concerning the proceeding,” which they claim is broader. The Seventh Circuit rejected the same
argument in Lara-Unzueta:

At oral argument, counsel for Lara indicated that he “read the ‘concerning’
language differently.” By “differently” counsel suggested that “concerning”
expands the scope of “the proceeding” to include Lara’s first deportation
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The First Circuit has also read “proceeding” to mean the current case before

the judge. In In re Vazquez-Bolet, 464 F.3d 54 (1st Cir. 2006), the defendant moved

to disqualify the district judge because his wife represented an unindicted co-

conspirator. Id. at 56–57. On behalf of the unindicted co-conspirator, she had

negotiated an immunity deal and her client testified before the grand jury and was a

potential prosecution witness. Id. She also had represented another unrelated

client whom the government considered calling as a “404(b) witness.” Id. On

behalf of this second, unrelated client, the judge’s wife publicly accused the

defendant in the case her husband was presiding over of intimidating her client and

privately threatened to notify the government that the defendant had violated the

conditions of his bond. Id.

proceeding in 1997-1998. He argued that if Judge Der-Yeghiayan rules on a

dispositive motion that relies on a deportation order entered when the judge simply
had supervisory responsibility over the INS office prosecuting that first deportation,
then now-Judge Der-Yeghiayan has a role “concerning the proceeding,” subjecting
him to disqualification. Not so. “Concerning” does not expand the scope of this
disqualification statute. “Concerning” appears twice in 28 U.S.C. § 455(b)(3).
Both references confine the proceeding to this proceeding. The particular case in
controversy is this proceeding—an appeal from an indictment returned on July 21,
2011, for which Lara was convicted on August 6, 2012, and sentenced on January
3, 2013. Other than presiding over Lara’s trial, conviction, and sentence, Judge Der-
Yeghiayan had nothing more to do with “the proceeding” that is the subject of this
appeal.

Lara-Unzueta, 735 F.3d at 959 (emphasis added)

.
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The district judge denied a disqualification motion and the First Circuit denied

the ensuing mandamus petition because “[t]he charge that [the judge’s wife] ‘[i]s

acting as a lawyer in the proceeding’ under § 455(b)(5)(ii) does not provide a basis

for mandamus relief.” Id. at 58. The First Circuit explained that the judge’s wife’s

representation of her clients “occurred over ten months before this criminal case was

initiated (the original indictment was returned on April 8, 2004).” Id. (emphasis

added). “Even though the word ‘proceeding’ is defined to include ‘pretrial, trial,

appellate review, or other stages of litigation,’ 28 U.S.C. § 455(d)(1), [the district

judge] was not clearly mistaken in confining his attention here ‘to the litigation

encompassed by this indictment.’” Id. (emphasis added); see also United States v.

Sarno, 41 F. App’x 603, 609 (4th Cir. 2002) (affirming denial of disqualification

motion because, although the judge’s son had some involvement in the case early

on, he “was never retained nor appeared as a lawyer of record in this case” (emphasis

added)); Rural Tel. Fin. Coop. v. Prosser, No. Civ. 2004-132, 2005 WL 3077607, at

*5 (D.V.I. Nov. 16, 2005) (denying disqualification motion where the judge’s spouse

appeared on behalf of one of the parties in front of the Public Service Commission

because “the September 10, 2004 PSC hearing was not a proceeding as defined in

section 455(d)(1). . . . Although the examples in section 455(d)(1) do not appear to

be exclusive, the list seems to only include stages of litigation. The September 10,

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2004, PSC hearing was not a part of the Virginia litigation, nor could it be. In fact,

any regulatory issue addressed at the PSC hearing remains separate and distinct from

the default and guarantee proceedings before this Court. The proceeding to which

section 455(d) refers to is the one before this Court (either the default or guarantee

action).” (emphasis added)).

Like section 455(d)(1), “the proceeding” in Canon 3(C)(1)(e) is the single

proceeding currently before the judge. If the judge participated in the same

proceeding or case in his or her prior job, disqualification is required. But if the

judge participated in a different case, even if it’s related, disqualification is not

required.3

Even if “the proceeding” could mean more than the case currently before the

judge, it would not include the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding. That

3
To be sure, disqualification is required in federal habeas cases where, as state trial or
appellate judges, a judge heard the underlying trial, direct appeal, or state post-conviction motion,
although the basis for disqualification is not that they involve the same “proceeding.” A federal
habeas appeal and the underlying state trial and appellate proceedings are more than simply
“related.” Not only are the parties, the issues, and the record substantially the same, unlike the
situation here. But even more significantly, a federal habeas court, in effect, reviews the state
courts’ findings and conclusions on the same federal constitutional issues. Thus, where a federal
habeas appeal would require one of us to review the correctness of our own previous decision in
an underlying state court matter, disqualification is required under 28 U.S.C. § 455(a), even though
the federal habeas appeal and the underlying state court matter are not the same “proceeding.”
See, e.g., Rice v. McKenzie, 581 F.2d 1114 (4th Cir. 1978) (district court judge could not sit on
federal habeas case to review state supreme court’s adjudication of the same claims rendered while
he was a member of that state supreme court). In this case, we are not asked to determine the
correctness of the Florida Supreme Court’s decision in the Advisory Opinion to the Governor
proceeding, and therefore concerns like those that arise in a federal habeas case do not exist.
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proceeding and this case are not the same or even similar types of cases, and do not

have the same or even similar issues.

Procedurally, Advisory Opinion to the Governor is a unique type of

proceeding under Florida law, with no federal equivalent. The Florida Constitution

allows the governor to “request in writing the opinion of the justices of the supreme

court as to the interpretation of any portion of this constitution upon any question

affecting the governor’s executive powers and duties.” Fla. Const. Art. IV, § 1(c).

The request is an original proceeding. There is no trial or intermediate appeal. No

facts are developed for the record—there is no record. The opinion of the state

supreme court, as the name suggests, is advisory only.

This case, by contrast, is not an advisory proceeding. Federal courts don’t

issue advisory opinions. See Golden v. Zwickler, 394 U.S. 103, 108 (1969) (“The

federal courts established pursuant to Article III of the Constitution do not render

advisory opinions.” (alteration adopted; internal quotation marks omitted)). This

case began not with a member of the executive branch sending the court a letter

asking for advice, but, as court cases traditionally do, with the plaintiffs suing the

defendants. The plaintiffs and defendants exchanged discovery, had motion

practice, and developed a record at trial; the district court held a trial, made findings

of fact and conclusions of law that bind the class, and entered a judgment; and the

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losing parties appealed. None of that happened in the Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding—nor, as explained above, could it have.

This case has parties—not just interested persons, but parties. There are

plaintiffs and defendants; appellants and appellees. The Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding had no parties—no plaintiffs, no defendants, no appellants,

and no appellees. The Florida Constitution permits “interested persons to be heard

on the questions presented” when the governor requests an advisory opinion. Fla.

Const. Art. IV, § 1(c); Fla. R. App. P. 9.500(b)(2) (“[T]he court shall permit, subject

to its rules of procedure, interested persons to be heard on the questions presented

through briefs, oral argument, or both.”). And the Florida Supreme Court did hear

from a wide range of “interested persons,” including the Florida Association of

Criminal Defense Lawyers, the Florida House of Representatives, the Florida Senate,

and one South Florida appellate attorney, Adam Richardson, who wanted to be heard

on the question. Advisory Opinion to the Governor, 288 So. 3d at 1071. None of

these “interested persons” are parties in this case. Not a single one. While the

Florida Supreme Court’s advisory opinion is publicly available, it is addressed only

to the governor, not to any of the “interested persons” who provided that court with

input on the issue.

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Finally, the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding and this case were

filed in, and to be decided by, different judicial systems. Our system of federalism

rests upon the guarantee that our federal and state governments retain their separate

sovereign identities, and the state court systems are no more part of the federal court

system than the state legislatures are part of Congress. The suggestion that the

Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding and this case are the same

“proceeding” misapprehends this basic premise of our national constitutional

structure.4

In addition to the procedural distinctions between the two proceedings, the

issues in the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding were different from the

issues in this case. The narrow—and only—issue in the Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding was “whether the phrase ‘all terms of sentence’ [in

Amendment 4] encompasse[d] legal financial obligations (LFOs)—fines, restitution,

costs, and fees—ordered by the sentencing court.” Id. at 1072. The governor, in

his request for an advisory opinion, specifically said that he did “not ask [the] Court

to address any issues regarding . . . the United States Constitution.” Id. at 1074.

The Florida Supreme Court took the Governor at his word, noting that “[d]uring oral

4
Indeed, it is relatively common for separate, related cases to be pending simultaneously
in the federal and state court systems, or to be pending simultaneously in different state court
systems. Even though those cases often involve the same parties and issues, they are not the same
“proceeding” for purposes of Canon 3(C).
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argument, counsel for the Governor made clear that the Governor requests advice

solely as to the narrow question of whether the phrase ‘all terms of sentence’

includes LFOs ordered by the sentencing court. We answer only that question.”

Id. at 1074–75 (emphasis added). That’s all that the proceeding involved and all

the Florida Supreme Court decided. Its advisory opinion said not one word about

any federal constitutional issue.5

In the present case, by contrast, the meaning of “completion of all terms of

sentence” is not an issue. Before the Governor requested an advisory opinion from

5
Appellees argue that the constitutional avoidance canon of statutory construction was
involved before the Florida Supreme Court, and because it was, the Fourteenth and Twenty-Fourth
Amendment issues in this case were considered in the Advisory Opinion to the Governor
proceeding. The fundamental flaw in that argument is that canon applies only if there are
“competing plausible interpretations of statutory text.” The threshold requirement is that the
language being interpreted is ambiguous. See Iancu v. Brunetti, 139 S. Ct. 2294, 2301 (2019)
(“This Court, of course, may interpret ambiguous statutory language to “avoid serious
constitutional doubts. But that canon of construction applies only when ambiguity exists.” (citation
and internal quotation marks omitted; emphasis added)); F.C.C. v. Fox Tel. Stations, Inc., 556 U.S.
502, 516 (2009) (“The so-called canon of constitutional avoidance is an interpretive tool,
counseling that ambiguous statutory language be construed to avoid serious constitutional doubts.”
(emphasis added)).
The Florida Supreme Court in its advisory opinion did not even mention the
constitutional avoidance canon for the obvious reason, as its opinion makes clear, that it was not
involved or applied. It was not involved or applied because the court unanimously found that the
meaning of the phrase “all terms of sentence” was plain, it was clear, there was no ambiguity.
See Advisory Opinion to the Governor, 288 So. 3d at 1081 (“We conclude that ‘all terms of
sentence’ plainly encompasses not only durational terms but also obligations and therefore
includes all LFOs imposed in conjunction with an adjudication of guilt. As explained next, we
reject as overly technical the arguments advanced by certain Non-State Parties that Amendment 4
encompasses only some LFOs.” (emphasis added)).
Because it found there was no basis for doubt about what that language meant, and because
the Governor’s request expressly excluded any question about any federal constitutional issue, the
Florida Supreme Court did not consider or discuss, directly or indirectly, explicitly or implicitly,
the federal constitutional issues involved in the present case. It had no occasion to do so.
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the Florida Supreme Court, Appellees themselves alleged in their complaint that

Senate Bill 7066 defined the phrase “to include not only any term of imprisonment,

probation, community control or supervision (collectively, ‘carceral supervision’),

but also the full payment of any LFOs, including restitution, fines and fees ‘ordered

by the court as part of the sentence or that are ordered by the court as a condition of

any form of supervision,’ even if those obligations have been converted to civil liens.”

(DE 84 at 16–17.) Thus, this case takes as a given that Florida requires full payment

of LFOs before restoration of voting rights and, assuming that, asks whether this

requirement violates the Fourteenth and Twenty-Fourth Amendments.

Section 455(a) and the Senate Judiciary Committee Questionnaires

Appellees also contend that we’re disqualified under 28 U.S.C. section 455(a)

because of our questioning during oral argument in the Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding and our written answers to questions from the Senate Judiciary

Committee. Section 455(a) requires that a judge “disqualify himself in any

proceeding in which his impartiality might reasonably be questioned.” 28 U.S.C. §

455(a).

“[T]he standard for determining whether a judge should disqualify himself

under [section] 455 is an objective one, whether a reasonable person knowing all the

facts would conclude that the judge’s impartiality might reasonably be questioned.”

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United States v. Greenough, 782 F.2d 1556, 1558 (11th Cir. 1986); see also United

States v. Scrushy, 721 F.3d 1288, 1303 (11th Cir. 2013) (motion to recuse under

section 455(a) is “whether an objective, disinterested lay observer fully informed of

the facts underlying the grounds on which recusal was sought would entertain a

significant doubt about the judge’s impartiality”); United States v. Carlton, 534 F.3d

97, 100 (2d Cir. 2008) (“In determining whether Section 455(a) requires recusal, the

appropriate standard is objective reasonableness—whether ‘an objective,

disinterested observer fully informed of the underlying facts [would] entertain

significant doubts that justice would be done absent recusal.’” (citations omitted)).

Moreover, section 455(a)’s recusal requirement is “commonly limited to those

circumstances in which the alleged partiality ‘stem[s] from an extrajudicial source.’”

Carlton, 534 F.3d at 100 (quoting Liteky v. United States, 510 U.S. 540, 544 (1994)).

Carlton is instructive on the application of that objective standard. In that

case, the defendant had been on a five-year term of supervised release resulting from

a previous bank robbery conviction. The government sought revocation of

supervised release, alleging that the defendant committed another bank robbery

while on supervised release. The district court held a revocation hearing and, after

concluding that the government had proved by a preponderance of the evidence that

the defendant had committed the second robbery, revoked the defendant’s term of

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supervised release and imposed a 30-month term of imprisonment for the previous

bank robbery conviction. Later, the defendant was indicted on three counts relating

to the second bank robbery, and the case was assigned to the same district court

judge who had held the revocation hearing and determined that the defendant had

committed the second bank robbery. The defendant moved to recuse under section

455(a), and the district court denied that motion. The case proceeded to trial and

then appeal, including appeal of the denial of the recusal motion. The Second

Circuit concluded that section 455(a) did not require recusal, holding that “[h]aving

heard evidence and made a determination of defendant’s guilt in a revocation hearing,

a judge may properly preside over the subsequent criminal trial for the same offense.”

Id.

The Second Circuit in Carlton relied on Liteky in reaching its conclusion. In

Liteky, the Supreme Court did not adopt a bright line rule that section 455(a) only

applied to extrajudicial conduct, but stated that “it would be better to speak of the

existence of a significant (and often determinative) ‘extrajudicial source’ factor, than

of an ‘extrajudicial source’ doctrine, in recusal jurisprudence.” 510 U.S. at 554–55.

The Supreme Court then described judicial conduct that would not require recusal

under section 455(a). “First, judicial rulings alone almost never constitute a valid

basis for a bias or partiality motion. In and of themselves (i.e., apart from

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surrounding comments or accompanying opinion), they cannot possibly show

reliance upon an extrajudicial source, and can only in the rarest circumstances

evidence the degree of favoritism or antagonism required . . . when no extrajudicial

source is involved.” Id. at 555. The Supreme Court continued: “Second,

opinions formed by the judge on the basis of facts introduced or events occurring in

the course of the current proceedings, or of prior proceedings, do not constitute a

basis for a bias or partiality motion unless they display a deep-seated favoritism or

antagonism that would make fair judgment impossible. Thus, judicial remarks

during the course of a trial that are critical or disapproving of, or even hostile to,

counsel, the parties, or their cases, ordinarily do not support a bias or partiality

challenge.” Id.

The Supreme Court then turned to Berger v. United States, 255 U.S. 22 (1921)

as an example of judicial remarks that would constitute “high degree of favoritism

or antagonism that would make fair judgment impossible.” Berger involved a

World War I espionage case against German-American defendants. During the trial,

the district court allegedly said: “‘One must have a very judicial mind, indeed, not

[to be] prejudiced against the German Americans’ because their ‘hearts are reeking

with disloyalty.’” Liteky, 510 U.S. at 555 (quoting Berger, 255 U.S. at 28). Thus,

to the extent that Appellees argue that our questions at oral argument in Advisory

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Opinion to the Governor in and of themselves form a basis for disqualification under

section 455(a), having reviewed the questions cited in Appellees’ brief and using the

objective standard required by section 455(a), those questions fail to meet the

standard for recusal.

Turning to the substance of our written statements to the Senate Judiciary

Committee, in our written answers to the Committee, we explained how we would

resolve potential disqualification issues. Judge Luck wrote:

The impartiality of judges, and the appearance of impartiality, are

important for ensuring public confidence in our federal courts. If
confirmed, I would carefully evaluate every case to determine whether
recusal is warranted. In making these determinations, I will consult 28
U.S.C. § 455 and the Code of Conduct for United States Judges, as well
as other applicable rules or guidance. I will also, as necessary and
appropriate, consult with colleagues and ethics officials within the court
system. I anticipate that there will be matters from which I will need
to recuse myself, most notably cases on which I served as a lawyer, or
as a trial or appellate judge. In every case, I will carefully consider
whether recusal is necessary.

Similarly, Judge Lagoa wrote:

The impartiality of judges, and the appearance of impartiality, are key

to ensuring public confidence in our courts. A judge must recuse
herself where her impartiality “might reasonably be questioned.” 28
U.S.C. § 455(a); Canon 3(C)(1), Code of Judicial Conduct for United
States Judges. If confirmed, I would conscientiously review and
follow the standards for judicial recusal set forth in 28 U.S.C. § 455(a)
and the Code of Conduct for United States Judges, as well as any other
applicable rules or guidance. As necessary and appropriate, I would
also consult with colleagues and ethics officials within the federal court
system.
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In terms of specific examples of the types of cases I would recuse from

if confirmed, I would recuse from cases in which my husband or his
law firm appeared, as well as cases involving either the Supreme Court
of Florida or the Florida Third District Court of Appeals while I was a
member of either court. In addition, and as described in my responses
to the Committee’s Questionnaire, I currently conduct a review of each
case assigned to me and apply the standards for judicial recusal under
the Florida standard to determine whether I should recuse myself from
a particular case. During my over 13 years on the bench, I have
occasionally recused myself from cases based on that case-by-case
review, for example where I knew a party or witness involved. If
confirmed to the Eleventh Circuit, I would continue to conduct a review
of each case assigned to me and apply the standards for judicial recusal
in determining whether to recuse myself.

This is exactly what we have done. We’ve reviewed the Code of Conduct for

United States Judges and 28 U.S.C. section 455. We have also consulted with

experienced colleagues. We have carefully considered whether disqualification is

legally required, and because we did not serve as lawyers or trial or appellate judges

in this case, we’ve concluded that it is not.

Appellees point out that Judge Luck also wrote that “[i]f confirmed, I will

recuse myself from any case where I ever played any role.” Similarly, they point

out that Judge Lagoa wrote that “I would recuse myself from any case in which I

participated as a justice on the Supreme Court of Florida” and that if confirmed, “I

would recuse from cases . . . involving either the Supreme Court of Florida or the

Florida Third District Court of Appeals while I was a member of either Court.” In

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keeping with our pledge to the Committee, we have recused in those types of cases

and we will continue to do so.6

Our statements to the Committee expressly use the word “case” to refer to a

case pending before this Court. Appellees argue that, because as Justices on the

Florida Supreme Court we heard oral argument in the Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding, we “played a role” or “participated” in this case. Thus,

according to Appellees, if we do not recuse ourselves from this case we are not

honoring our pledges and our impartiality might reasonably be questioned under

section 455(a). Appellees’ reading, however, suffers from the same mistaken

6
For example, both Judge Luck and Judge Lagoa disqualified themselves from Calhoun
v. Sec’y, Dep’t of Corrs., Case No. 19-12331 and Dailey v. Sec’y, Dep’t of Corrs., Case No. 19-
15147, two federal habeas appeals. Additionally, Judge Luck has disqualified himself in Wilson
v. Sec’y, Fla. Dep’t of Corrs., Case No. 20-11089, and Judge Lagoa has disqualified herself in
Rodriguez v. Att’y Gen., et. al, Case No. 18-12699, Sanchez v. Sec’y, Dep’t of Corrs., Case No.
19-12086, and Robinson v. Florida, Case No. 20-10982, all of which are other federal habeas
appeals. While these federal habeas appeals were not the same “proceedings” as the respective
underlying state court cases, they required this Court to review the federal constitutional issues
decided by the state trial and appellate courts, including the appellate court decision in which Judge
Luck and Judge Lagoa served as a member of the panel and rendered a decision. This Court, in
effect, would be reviewing the correctness of the decision of those state courts. In this case, by
contrast, this Court will not be deciding the correctness of anything that the Florida Supreme Court
decided or expressed a view about in Advisory Opinion to the Governor, because it only addressed
and decided state law issues and federal courts are required to accept as state law anything that a
state supreme court decides is state law. See Wilson v. Corcoran, 562 U.S. 1, 5 (2010) (“[I]t is
not the province of a federal habeas court to reexamine state-court determinations on state-law
questions.” (alteration in original)); Waddington v. Sarausad, 555 U.S. 179, 192 (2009) (“[W]e
have repeatedly held that it is not the province of a federal habeas court to reexamine state-court
determinations on state-law questions.” (internal quotation marks omitted)).
Finally, as pledged to the Committee, Judge Lagoa has recused herself from cases where
her husband’s law firm appeared as counsel. See, e.g., Schuh v. American Express Bank, et al.,
Case No. 18-12753.
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premise that we’ve already discussed in connection with Canon 3(C). That is,

Appellees’ argument assumes that the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding

is the same proceeding or case as this case and that as a result we previously played

a role, were involved, or participated in this case. We didn’t.

As we’ve already explained, this case and the Advisory Opinion to the

Governor proceeding are not the same case. We did play a role, we were involved

in, and we did participate in the Advisory Opinion to the Governor proceeding. We

sat during oral argument and we asked questions to the lawyers appearing before

that court. But Advisory Opinion to the Governor was a separate proceeding

involving different persons, different issues, and different courts. Moreover, this

case does not ask this Court to sit in review of or otherwise opine on the correctness

of Advisory Opinion to the Governor—or any other decision by the Florida Supreme

Court for that matter. We were never judges, lawyers, or litigants in this case, and

did not have anything to do with this case, until after we became judges on this Court

and Appellants filed their motion for rehearing en banc in the first appeal (the appeal

from the preliminary injunction).

Appellees have not pointed to either judicial or extrajudicial statements that

meet the legal standard requiring recusal under section 455(a). An objective,

disinterested lay person, knowing that we asked questions in a different proceeding

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(advisory vs. case-and-controversy), in a different court (Florida Supreme Court vs.

federal court), with different issues (interpreting the state constitution vs. federal

constitutional questions), and with different participants (“interested persons” vs.

parties), would not reasonably entertain a significant doubt about our impartiality in

this case.7

Conclusion

“There are twin, and sometimes competing, policies that bear” on the

disqualification decision. Greenough, 782 F.2d at 1558.

7
Of note, Eleventh Circuit Rule 26.1-1 requires parties to file a Certificate of Interested
Persons and Corporate Disclosure Statement at the outset of a case. The purpose of this filing is
to alert judges to possible recusal issues. See, e.g., United States v. Dilullo, No. 2:07CV-0321-
KJD-PAL, 2007 WL 3124544, at *2 (D. Nev. Oct. 23, 2007) (stating that the certificate “is
necessary to enable the judges who have been assigned to this case to evaluate possible recusal”).
To that end, Rule 26.1-2(a) requires the party to list all “persons . . . who have an interest in the
outcome of the particular case or appeal” in their Certificate. The Certificate is filed by appellants
and appellees early in the life of an appeal, Rule 26.1-1(a), and well before any party knows which
member of this Court will be assigned to the panel or sitting en banc in their case.
This case has come before this Court twice, once after the district court granted the
preliminary injunction and now after the trial. Each time en banc consideration by this Court has
been requested. To the extent Appellees believed that we already had played a role in this case,
each Certificate of Interested Persons was their opportunity to alert us of their belief. Indeed, it
is common practice for attorneys in federal habeas appeals to list all of the state trial and appellate
judges involved in the underlying state court trial and post-conviction proceedings. For example,
the Certificates of Interested Persons filed in the federal habeas appeals discussed in footnote 6 did
just that—they listed all of the state trial and appellate judges in the underlying state court
proceedings, including Judge Luck and Judge Lagoa, who sat as members of the appellate panels
that rendered decisions in the underlying state court actions. Significantly, Appellees did not list
us—or any of the Florida Supreme Court Justices who participated in the Advisory Opinion to the
Governor proceeding—on any of their Certificates. While the Certificate is not itself dispositive,
as judges retain their own responsibility to review cases for potential disqualification issues, it
confirms our conclusion that an objective, disinterested person knowing all of the facts and
circumstances would not reasonably question our impartiality in this case.
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The first is that courts must not only be, but must seem to be, free of
bias or prejudice. . . . A second policy is that a judge, having been
assigned to a case, should not recuse himself on unsupported, irrational,
or highly tenuous speculation. If this occurred the price of maintaining
the purity of the appearance of justice would be the power of litigants
or third parties to exercise a veto over the assignment of judges.

Because there exists this second policy, our inquiry cannot

stop with the questions: have a number of people thought
or said that a judge should not preside over a given case?
has the judge’s failure to recuse himself been a subject of
unfavorable comment in the media? or, would the judge
have avoided controversy and the need for appellate
review had he stepped aside?

Id. (quoting In re United States, 666 F.2d 690, 694 (1st Cir. 1981)). Or, as our Court

has explained, “there is as much obligation for a judge not to recuse when there is

no occasion for him to do so as there is for him to do so when there is.” In re Moody,

755 F.3d 891, 895 (11th Cir. 2014) (internal quotation marks omitted). Having

reviewed Appellees’ motion, the Code of Conduct for United States Judges, section

455, the case law interpreting these provisions, Appellants’ response, and Appellees’

reply, we conclude that there is no occasion for us to recuse and we deny the

disqualification motion.8

8
Appellants argue that the motion to recuse should be denied on untimeliness grounds
because Appellees delayed in filing it. Although there is no explicit timeliness requirement in
section 455, the general rule is that if a party knows of circumstances that could lead a reasonable
person to question the judge’s impartiality, but does not make a motion for disqualification within
a reasonable time after discovering these facts, that party may forfeit any available relief under
section 455.
There is substantial authority supporting the Appellants’ position that the motion could be
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denied because it was not promptly filed. See, e.g., Summers v. Singletary, 119 F.3d 917, 921
(11th Cir. 1997); Phillips v. Amoco Oil Co., 799 F.2d 1464, 1472 (11th Cir. 1986) (“Counsel,
knowing the facts claimed to support a [section] 455(a) recusal for appearance of partiality may
not lie in wait . . . .”); United States v. Sykes, 7 F.3d 1331, 1339 (7th Cir. 1993) (denying a section
144 motion to recuse, in part, because filing the motion “[t]wo months after the allegedly
prejudicial statement is certainly not ‘at the earliest possible moment’ after discovery of the
prejudice”); see also Richard E. Flamm, Recusal and Disqualification of Judges: For Cause
Motions, Peremptory Challenges and Appeals 189 (2018) (“Title 28 U.S.C. § 455 has often been
interpreted in such a way as to require that a motion to disqualify a judge must be made in a timely
fashion.”); id. at 192 (“Most of the courts that have had an opportunity to consider the matter have
ruled that a [section] 144 challenge [seeking recusal] that is not made in a timely fashion is subject
to being rejected on that basis”); id. at 191 (“Courts have often refused to entertain objections [to
a judge sitting] that have been lodged in an insufficiently prompt manner. Judges have been
particularly reluctant to entertain [section] 144 motions that are not filed until after a substantive
motion in the case has been made.”).
Here, the motion was not filed until July 15, 2020, which was 140 days after the petition
for rehearing en banc was filed on February 26, 2020 in the appeal from the grant of the preliminary
injunction, and 34 days after the petition for hearing en banc was filed in this case seeking review
of the grant of the permanent injunction. See Pet. Reh’g En Banc, Jones v. Governor of Fla., 950
F.3d 795 (11th Cir. 2020) (No. 19-14551); Pet. Initial Hr’g En Banc, Jones v. Governor of Fla.,
No. 20-12003 (11th Cir. June 11, 2020).
Nonetheless, it is not necessary to decide whether the motion to disqualify should be denied
as untimely because it is denied for the reasons we have already explained.

25