Ar.

Arthur Cutinho

TOS 1: UNIT 1 Equilibrium

FORCES of
Concurrent

1. To Understand the importance of the

and Non-
study of Applied Mechanics and Know Concurrent
about Forces Forces
2. To study the Equilibrium of Concurrent
Forces
3. To Study the Equilibrium of Non-
Concurrent Forces.
4. To Understand Dead Loads
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TOS 1: Unit 1: Forces

1.1 Applied Mechanics:
Applied Mechanics is considered the backbone of all engineering programs. It deals with the basic
concepts of force, moment and its effect on bodies at rest or in motion. It helps us understand how
different bodies behave under the application of different kinds of loads or forces.
The Branch of Science which deals with the study of different laws of Mechanics as applied to the
Solution of Engineering Problems is called Applied Mechanics.
Mechanics can broadly be classified into two branches
1. Statics i.e. study of bodies at rest.
2. Dynamics i.e. study of bodies in motion.
Mechanics can also be divided as Mechanics of Rigid Bodies (Also known as ENGINEERING
MECHANICS) and Mechanics of Deformable Bodies (Also Known as STRENGTH OF MATERIALS)
Rigid Bodies are those which do
not change their size and shape
under the effects of forces acting
over them.

Deformable Bodies are those

that undergo deformation in size
and shape under the effects of
forces acting over them.

In the Real world no solid body is PERFECTLY RIGID as everybody changes its size and shape under
the effects of forces but many a times the deformation is negligible enough for the body to be
considered Rigid. Good Knowledge of Materials is essential in the study of Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies.

1.2 Effects of different forces on a Building:

Forces may be of many types like
gravitational, magnetic, frictional etc. but we
will herein deal only with Static Forces which
are contact forces, but do not cause relative
acceleration in the bodies in question.

As can be seen the study of Mechanics

begins with the study of Forces.

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1.3 Force: Basically defined as the product of mass and acceleration

A force is also defined as any external effort or agency that causes an object to undergo a certain
change, either concerning its movement, direction, or geometrical construction.
1.3.1 Characteristics of a Force: These are the elements by which a force is fully
represented.
1. A force has magnitude measured in kN. Or N 1kN = 1000N.
2. A force has direction and the direction is measured in angle. Angle is measured with the
Horizontal Zero Degrees in the Standard Co – ordinate system.
3. A force has a point of application.
4. A force has a sense of pull or push.
1.3.2 Effects of a Force
1. A force may cause a body to change its state of motion.
a. A body in motion can be brought to rest.
b. A body in uniform motion may be accelerated or retarded.
c. A body in a state of rest can be made to move.
d. A body may be set into rotational motion. A force causes Moments.
We are dealing with Static Forces, Hence study those forces that are in a state of equilibrium.
2. A force may change the shape of a body.

a. It may cause COMPRESSION on a body.

b. It may cause TENSION in a body
c. It may cause both COMPRESSION and TENSION in a Bending Body
d. It may cause TORSION or Shear in a Body
• The Load on the Bridge causes both compression
and tension in the bridge portion
• The Cables Holding the bridge are in Tension
transferring the load to the
• The Vertical Columns which then go into
Compression

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1.3.3 Principle of Transmissibility of Force

The principle states that when a force acts upon a body, it’s effect is the same whatever point in its
line of action is taken as the point of application provided that the point is connected with the rest of
the body in the same invariable manner.
Effect of the
force on the
body is
unchanged
whether the
point of
application is 1
or 2 or 3.

1.3.4 Principle of Superposition of Forces

The effects of two forces acting simultaneously on a body are the same as the effect of the
two forces acting independently. For a linearly elastic structure the load effects caused by
two or more loads are the sum of the load effects caused by each load independently.
e.g. if a force P moves a body in a the north direction by 1m and another force Q moves it by 2 m in
the same direction when applied independently, when P and Q are applied together the body would
move by 5m in the north direction.
Many a problems are handled in Mechanics actually based on this principle but without most
engineers realizing that this is involved. It is many a times taken for granted.
The principle of superposition states that when two or more forces act on a particle at the
same time the resultant force is the vector sum of the those forces.

1.3.5 Representation of a Force

Vector Representation: Bow’s Notation:

A force can be represented graphically by a A force can be designated by two capital letters
vector as shown above. Hence the force is written one on either side of the force as shown
Force AB of 60 N @ 45˚ upward above. So force P2 is Force CD and force P1 is Force
AB

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1.3.6 Force Systems.

When a number of forces are acting together we call them a system of forces.
a. Coplanar Force Systems: When a
system of forces is such that all forces lie
in one plane then it is called a Coplanar
Force System.
A.1. Collinear force system: Forces in this
system lie along a single line. These forces
could be in the same direction or opposite
direction. Forces S, U, V
A.2. Concurrent force system: Forces in
this system intersect at a single point.
Forces P, Q, R, S
A.3. Non Concurrent Parallel force system:
Forces parallel to each other. These could
be like parallel forces or unlike parallel
forces. Forces P, T, W
A.4. Non Concurrent Non Parallel force
system: Forces are coplanar bur not
parallel. Forces P, Q, R, T, W

B. Non Coplanar Force Systems: When forces in a system do not lie in one plane.
B.1. Concurrent force system: Forces in this system intersect at one point.
B.1. Non Concurrent force system: Forces in this system do not intersect at one point.

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1.3.7 Composition of Forces: A Resultant force is a single force which can replace two or more
forces and produce the same effect on the body as the forces. Many forces can be composed
into one single Resultant Force and this is known as Composition of forces.
When a single force acts on a body which is free to move, the body moves in the direction of the
force and the distance travelled by the body in unit time is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the force. So when many forces are acting on the body, the body moves in a direction of the
Resultant and the distance travelled is proportional to the magnitude of the Resultant.

1.3.8 Resolution of a Force: As many forces can be composed into one single Resultant, so can a
single Force be replaced by two forces acting in directions which will produce the same effect as
the single force. The breaking of a single force into two forces whose combined effect is the
same as that of the single force is called the Resolution of a Force
A Force can be resolved into
1. Two mutually perpendicular components.
2. Two non-perpendicular components.
When the force is resolved into two mutually perpendicular components, generally the two
components are horizontal and vertical. The Horizontal component is denoted by FH and Vertical
component is denoted by FV.

As seen the following figure


  
FH (Horizontal Component) =F Cos θ = F x 
and


  
FV (Vertical Component) =F Sin θ = F x

And other way round, Given FV and FH Composition of Vertical and Horizontal Component:

R = Resultant =   ²


  = and θ = Tan-1(FV/FH)


Sign Convention: As per Standard Co-ordinate System

Note1: The Vertical Component of a Horizontal Force is 0
Note1: The Horizontal Component of a Vertical Force is 0

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Problem 1 Resolve the following forces into their vertical and horizontal components.
Note: Please measure the angle with the horizontal (Value between 0 and 90°)

Angle with the horizontal = 55°

FV = +10 x Sin55 = +8.19kN
FH = +10 x cos55 = +5.73kN

Angle with the horizontal = 60°

FV = +6 x Sin60 =+5.20kN
FH = -6 x cos60 =-3.0kN

Angle with the horizontal = 70°

FV = -8 x Sin70 =-7.51kN
FH = +8 x cos70 =+2.73kN

Angle with the horizontal = 45°

FV = +5 x Sin45 =+3.54kN
FH = +5 x cos45 =+3.54kN

Note1: The vertical component as well as

the horizontal is to be given the appropriate positive or negative sign.
Note2: Instead of resolving graphically one may measure the angle with respect to Zero Degrees and
then write the component directly. The sine and cosine of the angle will give the sign
So Force P3 is at an angle of 290°
Sin 290 = -0.93
Cos 290= +0.34
So one gets the sign of the Vertical and Horizontal Component
automatically without graphical resolution
FV = 8 x Sin70 = 8 x -0.93 = -7.51kN
FH = +8 x cos70 =8 x +0.34 = +3.53kN

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2. 1 Equilibrium of Forces: When a large number of forces acting on a body are such that they
do not cause the body to move then the forces are said to be in Equilibrium.

2. 2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Forces: As Defined earlier coplanar forces intersecting

at one point are called Concurrent Forces.

If an object subjected to a number of concurrent forces is in Equilibrium then it means that there is
nil force acting on it. This also means that the sum of Horizontal Components of all forces and sum of
Vertical components is equal to Zero. Under this condition it will move in neither direction

Hence the conditions of Equilibrium of a System of Concurrent Forces is

1. ΣFV = 0
2. ΣFH = 0

Problem 2 Find whether the following system of forces is in equilibrium

1. First modify the sketch to show angles of each force with the Horizontal. Show Vertical and
Horizontal Component of each force with the appropriate sign

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2. Fill in the following table

Sign of Sign of the
Vertical Horizontal
No Force Mag Angle Component Fv= F sinθ Component FH= F cosθ
1 P1 10 55 1 8.19 1 5.74
2 P2 6 60 1 5.20 -1 -3.00
3 P3 8 0 0 0.00 -1 -8.00
4 P4 5 45 1 3.54 1 3.54
ΣFV = 16.92 ΣFH = -1.73

3. As ΣFV ≠ 0 and ΣFH ≠ 0, the given system of forces is not in equilibrium.

Problem 3 Find the resultant of the above system of forces

1. Solve and do the first two steps as in

Problem 2
ΣFV = 16.92kN, ΣFH = -1.73kN,
2. R = √(FV)² + (FH)²
= √ (16.92)² + (-1.73)²
= 17.01kN
3. Θ = tan-1(FV/FH)
= tan-1(16.92/-1.73)
= -84.2⁰
4. The point of application is the point of
concurrence

(Remember a force is defined by its Magnitude, Direction and point of application)

2. 3 Resultant and Equilibrant of a system of Concurrent Forces:

• A Resultant of a system of Concurrent force system is a single force which can replace all
the forces of the system and produce the same effect. Obviously the Resultant of a system of
concurrent forces passes through the point of concurrence.

• An Equilibrant of a system of concurrent forces is a force which will bring the system into
equilibrium. Obviously it is a Force equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the Resultant.

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Problem 4 Find the resultant and equilibrant of the above system of forces

1. First modify the sketch to show angles of each force with the Horizontal. Show Vertical and
Horizontal Component of each force with the appropriate sign

2. Fill in the following table

Sign of Sign of the
Vertical Horizontal
No Force Mag Angle Component Fv= F sinθ Component FH= F cosθ
1 P1 16 90 1 16.00 0 0.00
2 P2 18 45 -1 -12.73 1 12.73
3 P3 20 79 -1 -19.63 -1 -3.82
4 P4 22 56 -1 -18.24 1 12.30
ΣFV = -34.60 ΣFH = 21.21
3. Find the Resultant.
1. R = √(FV)² + (FH) = √(-34.60)² + (21.21)² = 40.59kN = Resultant
2. Θ = tan-1(FV/FH) = tan-1(-34.60/21.21) = -58.5⁰ = Angle with the Horizontal
3. The Point of application is the point of concurrence
4. Find The Equilibrant

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The Equilibrant is as per the following sketch

Problem 5 If the Following system of forces is in equilibrium calculate Force P1 and Force P2

1. First modify the sketch to show angles of each force with the Horizontal. Show Vertical and
Horizontal Component of each force with the appropriate sign

2. Write the following equations

1. ΣFV = 0 will give +P1 + P2Sin60 – 20Sin45 - 12Sin30 = 0
+P1 + 0.86P2 – 14.14 – 6 = 0
+P1 + 0.86P2 = 20.14 ……………….1
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2. ΣFH = 0 will give -0.5P2 – 20Cos45 + 12Cos30 = 0

-0.5P2 – 14.14 + 10.39 = 0
-0.5P2 = 3.75 Hence P2 = -7.5kN……2
Solving simultaneously 1 and 2 P2 = - 7.5kN and P1 = + 26.59kN

Problem 6 If the Following system of forces is in equilibrium calculate Force P1 and Force P4

1. First modify the sketch to show angles of each force with the Horizontal. Show Vertical and
Horizontal Component of each force with the appropriate sign

2. Write the following equations

1. ΣFV = 0 will give +P1Sin75 + 32Sin60 – 40Sin45 - P4Sin45 = 0
Hence 0.96P1 + 27.71 -28.28 - 0.707P4 = 0
0.96P1 - 0.707P4 = 0.57 ………..1
2. ΣFH = 0 will give +P1Cos75 – 32Cos60 – 40Cos45 + P4Cos45= 0
Hence 0.26P1 -16 – 28.28 + 0.707P44 = 0
0.26P1 + 0.707P4 = 44.28………2
Solving 1 and 2 Simultaneously P1 = 36.76kN and P4 = 49kN

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2. 4 Other theorems regarding equilibrium of forces

1. Parallelogram Law of Forces: If two forces can be represented by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram in magnitude and taken away from each other in direction, then the resultant will
be represented by the Diagonal in magnitude and away in direction.

Parallelogram Law of Forces

R²= P²+Q²+2PQCosθ and Tanα = QSinθ/(P+QCosθ)
2. Triangular Law of Forces: If two forces can be represented by the two sides of a triangle in
magnitude and taken in order for direction, then the closing side represents the resultant in
magnitude and opposite in direction.

3. Polygonal law of forces: : If many forces can be represented by the sides of a polygon in
magnitude and taken in order for direction, then the closing side represents the resultant in
magnitude and opposite in direction.
4. Lami’s Theorem: If three concurrent forces are in equilibrium then each force is proportionate
to the sine of the angle between the other two forces

 # %
= =
 ! "  ! $  ! &

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Problem 7 Two forces 40kN and 60kN are acting at an angle 42°. Find the resultant
1. We shall use Parallelogram law of forces P = 40kN Q = 60kN θ = 42°
2. R²= P²+Q²+2PQCOSθ
= 40² + 60² + 2 x 40 x 60 x Cos42 = 1600 +3600 + 3657.1
= 8767.1
R = 93.63kN
3. Tan α = QSinθ/P+QCosθ
Tan α = 60 x Sin 42/40 + (60 x Cos42)
Tan α = 0.47 and α = 25.39° (α = angle between R and P)

Problem 8 A wire ABC supports a load of 60kN from point B. The Point A is fixed to the ceiling and
makes an angle of 45 degrees while the point C is fixed to the wall and makes an angle of
65 degrees with the wall. Find the tension in the strings AB and String BC.

'( (+ -.
= = Hence AB = 57.86kN and BC = 45.14kN
 ! ))*  ! ),*  ! )).
(Note from the above sketch only the l.h.s sketch may be given)
Problem 9 Two loads 1200 kN and W are supported by a cable ABCD from points B and C as shown
below. Find W and the tension in the cable AB, BC and CD

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Let us redraw and find included angles

At Joint C
/+ (+ )0.
= = Hence DC = 163.90kN and BC = 147kN
 ! ).*  ! )0.  ! ),*

At Joint B

'( )21 3
= = Hence AB = 200.83kN and W = 104kN
 ! 1*  ! ),*  ! )*.

3.1 Moment of a Force

One of the effects of a Force is to cause Rotational motion. The force acting at a certain distance has
a Moment. The moment of force means the turning or rotational effect produced by the force acting
on a body with a fixed axis of rotation. It is also referred to as Torque
The turning effect of a force is called as the Moment of a force
Definition of Moment: Moment of a Force about a point is the product of the Magnitude of the
Force and the Perpendicular Distance from the point to the line of direction of the Force.
• Units: Unit of Moment is kNm or Nmm
• Sign Convention: Clockwise Moments are taken as positive and Anti-clockwise Moments are
taken as Negative
• Remark : The Moment of a Force about a point through which it passes is Zero
• Equilibrium: A Moment can be counteracted by an equal and Opposite Moment only.
• Principle of Moments: A body in equilibrium has Anti-clockwise Moments equal to Clockwise
Moments

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Parallel Forces: Forces that are non-concurrent, their lines of action are not the same and they are
parallel to each other are called Parallel Forces.
E.G. 1. Children sitting on a See-Saw. Their weights acting in the downward direction are parallel
forces.
E.G. 2. Many People standing on a floor are also examples of Parallel Forces

Couple: Two Forces equal in magnitude, non-collinear and opposite in direction and parallel to each
other form a Couple. The perpendicular distance between the two forces is called Arm of the
Couple.
E.G. 1. The Two Forces applied when opening the cap of a bottle
E.G. 2. Operating a Steering Wheel When driving a Car

Properties: Consider a Couple acting on a Body,

1. Linear Motion: The net resulting force of the Couple is Zero. Hence it does not cause
Translational Motion of the body
2. Rotational Motion: The couple will cause the Body to rotate
3. Counteraction: The action of a Couple can be counteracted by only another couple

3.2 Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Forces:

Consider the following body.
• ΣFV = 0
• ΣFH = 0
But is it in equilibrium? No. That is because it is acted on by a Moment causing it to rotate.
Hence only if ΣFM is also equal to Zero will it be in equilibrium

Hence the conditions of Equilibrium of a System of Concurrent Forces is

1. ΣFV = 0
2. ΣFH = 0
3. ΣM = 0

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3.3 Some Interesting Observations about Moment of a Force

1. In the example shown below if F1 = F2
and if the distance of these forces from point A is
the same the F1 and F2 are in equilibrium.
The Clockwise Moment will equalize the Anti-
Clockwise Moment

2. If the Forces are unequal, that is let us

say F1>F2 then to achieve equilibrium F1 is to be
applied at a much smaller distance from A so that
Moment of F1 is equal to the Moment of F2

3. This concept of moment equilibrium is

very commonly used in cranes for construction.

3.4 Varignon’s Principle of Moments: The theorem states that for a given system of forces
the Algebraic sum of the Moments of all forces about any point is equal to the Moment of the
Resultant about the same point
OR The Principle of Moments, also known as Varignon's Theorem, states that the moment of
any force is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the components of that force.

R is the resultant of Forces F1, F2, F3 and F4. I have split F4 and R into its component Forces
Note that if we were to take Moments about point A, forces F1, F4H and RH will pass through A
And hence their perpendicular distance from A is Zero
(F1 x 0) + (F2 x a) + (F3 x b) +(F4V x c) + (F4H x 0) = (RV x y) + (RH x 0)
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Problem 10 Find the Resultant of the following System of forces in Magnitude, Direction and Point of
application of Resultant from point A

1. Redraw the force diagram showing components, signs, and distances from A
Vertical Component of Force 8kN = 8Sin45 = 5.65kN
Horizontal Component of Force 8kN = 8Cos45 = 5.65kN

2. Write ΣFV and ΣFH and Find R and θ

ΣFV = -12 -10 – 20 – 5.65 = 47.65kN
ΣFH = -5.65kN
R = √(-47.65²) + (-5.65²) = 47.98kN
Θ = tan-1 (-47.65/-5.65) = 83.23⁰
3. Find Sum of Moments of all forces from A ( Anti-clockwise Moments are negative)
ΣM = 12 x 0 + 10 x 2 + 20 x 4 + 5.65 x 5 + 5.65 x 0 = 128.25kNm
4. Assume the Distance of the resultant from A as y, Find its moment from A and Equate with ΣM
128.25 = 47.65 x y + 5.65 x 0
y = 2.69m
The Sketch shows
both the Resultant
and its components
which could be
slightly misleading

Resultant is a Force of 47.98kN acting at an angle of 83.23⁰ at a distance of 2.69m from A

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Problem 11 Find the Resultant of the following System of forces in Magnitude, Direction and Point of
application of Resultant from point A

1. Redraw the force diagram showing components, signs, and distances from A
Vertical Component of Force 12kN = 8Sin60 = 10.39kN
Horizontal Component of Force 8kN = 8cos45 = 6kN

2. Write ΣFV and ΣFH and Find R and θ

ΣFV = -22 -10.39 + 32 – 22 = -22.39kN
ΣFH = -6kN
R = √(-22.39²) + (-6²) = 23.17kN
Θ = tan-1 (-22.39/-6) = 74.9⁰
3. Find Sum of Moments of all forces from A ( Anti-clockwise Moments are negative)
ΣM = 22 x 0 + 10.39 x 2 + 6 x 0 - 32 x 5 + 22 x 7.5 = 25.78kNm
4. Assume the Distance of the resultant from A as y, Find its moment from A and Equate with ΣM

22.39 x y = 25.78
y = 1.15m
Resultant is a Force of 23.17kN acting at an angle of 74.90⁰ at a distance of 1.15m from A

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4. Dead Loads: As explained in 1.2 there are various forces acting upon a building. These are
also better known as loads. We shall get acquainted with two of these loads which act on a
building
4.1 Dead Loads: These loads are due to the weight of the structure, i.e. weight of the walls, floors,
beams, columns, partition walls, doors, windows etc.
4.2 Live Loads: These loads are due to the humans occupying the building and the furniture
associated with this occupancy, e.g. Humans living in a house, wardrobes, sofa-sets, beds etc.

Before we try to quantify the dead loads that is expected from us in this unit let us understand two
more terms
4.3 Point Load: Load acting at one point is called Point Load, e.g. The weight of a Human Being
Let us assume a Human of weight 80kg approximately 800N or 0.8kN. The Live load due to this
human would be in the form of a point load of 0.8kN when the human is standing.

4.4 Uniformly Distributed load (U.D.L): Imagine the same human being of let us say of height 2m
(for simplicity sake) lying down, his weight of 800N is spread over an length on 2m. This is an
U.D.L of 0.4kN/m (0.8kN/2m).

4.5 Calculating Dead Loads: To calculate dead loads we need to know the densities of materials.
Volume x Density = Weight
Material Density in kN/m³
Wood 7 to 12
Water 10
Cement 14.4
Earth 16
Brick 19
Cement Concrete Plain 23
Cement Concrete Reinforced 25
Steel 78.5

Problem 12 Find the total dead load and also load per running meter

Volume of brick work = 0.23 x 2.6 x 7 = 4.186m3

Volume of Concrete = 0.23 x 0.4 x 7 = 0.644m3

Weight of Brick work = 4.186m3 x 19kN/m3 = 79.53kN

Weight of Concrete = 0.644m3 x 25kN/m3 = 16.10kN
Total Weight =95.63kN

Weight per running meter = 95.63/7 = 13.66kN/m

Alternative Calculations
Brick work = 0.23m x 2.6m x 19kN/m3 = 11.36kN/m
Conc. w.t = 0.23m x 0.4m x 25kN/m3 = 2.30kN/m
Total Weight per running meter = 13.66kN/m
Total weight = 13.66kN/m x 7m = 95.63kN

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Suggested Theory Questions: Unit 1

1. Explain the importance of study of Applied Mechanics

2. Define Force and state its effects with sketches
3. Define a Force System and Explain the different Systems of Forces
4. Explain the Characteristics of a Force
5. Explain Vector Representation of a Force and Bow’s Notation.
6. State the Law of Transmissibility of Forces and Super Position of Forces
7. Explain the Terms Composition of Forces and Resolution of Forces
8. Define
a. Collinear Forces
b. Parallel Forces
c. Concurrent Forces and the conditions of their Equilibrium
d. Non Concurrent Forces and the conditions of their Equilibrium
e. Parallelogram Law of Forces
f. Triangular law of Forces
g. Polygonal Law of Forces
h. Lami’s Theorem
i. Moment and its properties
j. Couple and its properties
k. Varignon’s Principle of Moments
9. Explain Moment of a Force and how it can be counteracted.
10. Explain in one line each Dead loads and Live Loads

Unit 1 Forces Compiled by Ar. Arthur Cutinho