RESEARCH 2.

Prediction – Possible consequences of

present events based on existing knowledge;
Research -“reserché “ (middle French), the act Control one’s action and behavior.
of searching closely. 3. Understanding/Explanation – Analyzing
Science – procedural and systematic approach information to find out the causes behind
in gaining knowledge. phenomena.

Importance of Research
Scientific Methods of Research 1. Knowledge is established.
- Systematic collection and investigation of 2. Perceptions are corrected.
data through the scientific method 3. Phenomena are validated.
1. Empirical Approach – Knowledge gained 4. Present solutions are tested for effectivity.
through direct observation and 5. Problems are solved.
experimentation.
Constructs – Mental abstractions derived from
2. Observation – Awareness of your
the combination of concepts, or your mental
environment constitutes your ideas.
representation of the world around you.
3. Questions – Comes from inquiries that are Concept: Age, Sex, Height
answerable. Must be answered through Construct: Age – Young/Old
scientific investigation and generate tangible Sex – Male/Female
proof. Height – Small/Average/Tall
4. Hypothesis – An educated guess, an Variables – Constructs that can be understood
attempt to explain a phenomena. differently because of their differences in
5. Experiments – Hypothesis should assure values; Can be observed directly (tangible) or
testability for the accuracy and reliability of the indirectly.
results; Proof of scientific procedures.
6. Analyses – Data gathered are subjected for Kinds of Variables
analysis through statistical method; Presents - Variables to be used depends on the
numerical evidence. research design you will follow.
7. Conclusion – Making inferences involves 1. Independent variables – Manipulated
concrete data to rule out opinions; Objective variables that cause a change in another
and supported by analysis of data. variable. Ex.: “Peace-loving Learning
8.Replication – Doing the same study to a Environment Reduces Text Anxiety Level of
different set of participants to test obtained Grade School Students”, “Peace-Loving Learning
result. Additional purposes: Environment is the Independent Variable.
A. Establishment of reliability of findings 2. Dependent variables – Affected by
B. Discovery of new knowledge independent variables; responses or effects that
C. Ascertainment of the generalizability of result from the treatment. Ex.: “Test Anxiety” is
results the Dependent Variable
3. Confounding/Extraneous variables –
Goals of Research Usually indicated in an experimental research;
1. Description – How a phenomena being Not included in the study but causes effect on
studied is defined, classified and categorized; the dependent variable. Ex.: Family background
Provide essential information. of a grade school student.
4. Categorical Variables – Characterize and 4. Ratio Scales – Highest level of
describe the quality of data; Classified into measurement; USES ZERO AS BASE POINT.
mutually exclusive categories and extensive Ex.: Height, Weight, Age.
categories. Values are NOT NUMERIC
Major Approaches used in Research
Types of Categorical Variables 1. Qualitative Approach – Provide description
Nominal variables – want to describe into given of characteristics, kind, and quality of a subject,
options. Ex.: Civil Status – Single, Married, while attempting to understand an event.
Widowed or Annulled
2. Quantitative Approach – test hypotheses
Ordinal variables – follow a logical order or
and makes predictions through measured
rank. Ex.: Size – Small, Medium or Large
amounts; Describes events using numerical
5. Continuous variables – Values are based
figures.
on given interval or continuum; RELY ON
3. Mixed Method Approach – Collection and
NUMBERS FOR DESCRIPTION. Ex.: Normal
analysis of data using both quantitative and
temperature ranges from 36°C to 37°C.
qualitative approaches to provide better
6. Quantitative variables – Number or level
understanding of data.
of something. Ex.: Highest number of votes will
win the contest.
7. Qualitative variables – Represent kinds or Types of Quantitative Research
types of objects; Categorized into names, labels, 1. Descriptive Research – Collection of data
or groups. Ex.: Responses such as yes or no, to test hypothesis or describe the variables
few, many, too much, agree or disagree. mentioned in the study; Observe – Write –
Integrate.
Level of Measurement 2. Correlational Research – Determine the
- Association of the values that are linked to a level of relation between two or more
variable. Importance: quantifiable variables.
1. Proper interpretation of data related to the 3. Casual-comparative Research – Establish
variable. cause-effect relationships among the variables
2. Decisions about the proper statistical analysis in the study. Demographic in which it is NOT
to be used. ABLE TO BE IN CONTROL OF. Ex.: Low
Four Levels of Measurement percentage of jobless people (independent)
1. Nominal Scales – Concerned with names reduces the poverty rate of the country
and categories of responses. Ex.: Nationality (dependent).
and hair color. 4. Experimental Research – Also measures
2. Ordinal Scales – Data that intends to be the cause and effect; The researcher CAN
ranked. Ex.: first, second, and third; Good, CONTROL THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
better, and best. (CAUSE).
3. Interval Scales – use units of measurements 5. Quasi-experimental Designs – Alternative
and intervals to know the distance between to determine the cause and effects between
them more than the sequence. DOES NOT USE two variables that cannot be subjected to
ZERO AS BASE POINT. Ex.: Temperature, experimental control. Ex.: Effect of a calamity
Altitude, and IQ. on its victims
Literature Review A REVIEW OF WHAT SHOULD BE IN YOUR
- comprehensive classification and evaluation LITERATURE REVIEW AND HOW IT WOULD BE
ORGANIZED
of what other researchers have written about
1. Remember to select and analyze
your topic.
studies. Choose scholarly literatures
Types of Sources 2. Choose a consisting way of organizing
1. General (Articles, Monographs, Books, Etc.) your literature
2. Primary (Journals) 3. Present how the previous studies
3. Secondary (Textbooks) relate to one another and present
limitations of these researches
LAST 5 YEARS – best literature material 4. Discuss how your own research fits
into the literature and how does your
Materials needed to be reviewed study relate to the previous studies?
1. Undergraduate (20 – 50 Materials) Ex. 1
2. Master’s Thesis (Over 50 Materials) • The above literature is organized
3. Doctoral Dissertation (Over 75 Materials) conceptually.
• Notice that the literature presents the
2 Types of Definitions teaching strategies or approaches, which are
1. Lexical (or Conceptual) – Definitions “concepts/variables”
according to authoritative sources. • Note the use of “few” to present the
argument that there seems to be a lack of study
2. Operational – How the term is or will be
on the topic being explored by the authors.
used in your study.

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Ex. 2

Notice from the previous excerpts the usage of
Theory – How facts are related; System of phrases ‘’likewise”, “in another related work”,
ideas intended to explain a phenomenon. and “similarly” to denote how these different
Hypothesis – Proposed explanation about a works related to each other.
phenomenon made on the basis of limited
evidence; Temporary answer to your problem. Ex. 3
Two types of Hypothesis Notice how the authors presented conflicting
Null Hypothesis – Represents the traditional results. They used words and phrases to show
approach; Prediction that there is no that the studies on test anxiety have contrasting
relationship or significant difference between results. You may also use words and phrases
such as “on the contrary”, “however”, “on the
two variables.
other hand” or “alternatively”.
Alternative Hypothesis – popular in journal
articles; First type is directional hypothesis, the
Chronologically Organized
researcher makes a prediction based on prior
• early studies about the topic are presented
literature review. first followed by the most recent ones.
TITLES SHOULD BE 10-12 WORDS ONLY
Ex. 1
Writing a Literature Review The way hypothesis are written depends on
- Literature review is one whole essay with its the style and manner of writing the entire
manuscript. The same is true with the
own introduction, body, and conclusion.
theoretical and conceptual framework.
Citation, Referencing, and Different Styles of Citation and
Bibliography Referencing
Citation – Process of acknowledging the
Citation Style Field of Study
sources of information that is used in your
American Psychology,
manuscript. Ex.: Castillo, 2013
Psychological Education, and other
Referencing – Process of organizing the Association (APA) Social Sciences
written works cited in your text; Found at the
Modern Language Literature, Arts, and
end of the document.
Association (MLA) Humanities
Bibliography - Complete listings of resources
Chicago Manual of Arts and Humanities
conferred with in relation to the study being
Style /Turabian Style
conducted. Turabian Literature, History,
and Arts
Ways of Citing a Source Material
1. Direct Quote (Author’s last names, date and
page number after the quoted text). You can
directly lift or copy a statement or a paragraph.
2. Paraphrase (Author’s last names, year).
Transform its idea using your own words based
on your own understanding.
3. Summary (Author’s last name, year). Clearly
point out the main idea of the author’s
research.

Ways of Referencing Source

Materials
1. In-text Citation – Insert the source of the
information enclosed in a parenthesis within or
after the information you have included.
a. Direct Quotation – Author’s surname, title of
the material, date of publication, page number
b. Paraphrased Text – Author’s Surname, date
of publication
c. Summarized Text/Content

2. Reference List – Includes full publication of

details of all your cited works in your study; Last
section of the research, in alphabetical order.