Research Daily Life 2

Quantitative Research

Teacher:
ZORAYDA C. GAVINO
 
Kalinga State University
Nature of Inquiry and Research
• Characteristics, strengths, weaknesses,
and kinds of quantitative research
• The importance of quantitative research
across fields
• The nature of variables
Identifying the Inquiry and Stating the
Problem
• The range of research topics in the area of
inquiry
• The value of research in the area of
interest
The specificity and feasibility of the problem

Learning from Others and Reviewing the

Literature
The criteria in selecting, citing, and synthesizing, related literature
The ethical standards in writing related literature
The formulation of conceptual framework
The research hypotheses
The definition of terms as used in the study

Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data

Quantitative research designs
Description of samples
Instrument development
Data collection and analysis procedures such as
survey, interview, and observation
Guidelines in writing research methodology

Finding Answers through Data Collection

Data collection procedures and skills using
varied instruments
Data processing, organizing, and analysis
Reporting and sharing Findings
• Guidelines in making conclusions and
recommendations
• Techniques in listing references
• Finalization of research work

Oral Presentation of written report of

research

LET’S ROCK INTO THE REALM OF RESEARCH

 Research in Daily Life 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHOD

Nature and Inquiry of Research

*Quantitative Research
- is a systematic scientific investigation of data and their relationships
- designs are structurally scientific methods, utilizing deductive reasoning
in forms of hypotheses
- the outcomes measured in a quantitative research design are factual and
based on data-driven information from specific measurement
instrument(s) rather than from perceptions

Overview of Quantitative Research

In a quantitative research design, the researcher poses several

hypotheses to analyze the cause and effects of specific variables in order
to predict and explain certain phenomenon (Crewell, 2009).Designs are
structurally scientific methods, utilizing deductive reasoning in forms of
hypotheses (Price & Oswald, 2009).
• The objective of quantitative research is to develop and employ
mathematical models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to natural
phenomenon.
• Measuring is the key in quantitative research because it shows the
relationship between data and observation
• Characteristics of Research 
1. Empirical - Research based on direct experience or observation by the
researcher.
2. Logical - Research is based on valid procedure and principles.
3. Cyclical - Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem
and ends with problem.
4. Analytical – Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering
data, whether historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.
5. Critical – Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical – Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias
using systematic method and procedures.
7. Reliability – The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to
enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research:

 Strengths:
• Testing and validating already constructed theories about how and why
phenomena occur.
• Testing hypotheses that are constructed before the data are collected
• Can generalize research findings when the data are based on random samples
of sufficient size
• Can generalize a research finding when it has been replicated on many
different populations and subpopulations
• Useful for obtaining data that allow quantitative predictions to be made
• The researcher may construct a situation that eliminates the confounding
influence of many
• Of many variables, allowing one to more credibly established cause-effect
relationships
• Data collection using some quantitative methods is relatively quick
• Provides precise, quantitative, numerical data
• Data analysis is relatively less time consuming (using of statistical
software).
• The research results are relatively independent of the researcher (e.g.
statistical significance)
• It may have higher credibility with many influential people (e.g.
administrators, politicians, people who fund programs).
• It is useful for studying large population of people 

Weaknesses:
• The researchers categories that are used might not reflect local
constituencies’ understandings
• The researcher might miss out on phenomenon occurring because of the
focus on theory or hypothesis testing rather than on theory or hypothesis
generation ( called the confirmation bias)
• Knowledge produced might be too abstract and general for direct
application to specific local situations, contexts, and individuals

Types of Research 
1. Basic Research – This is also called “fundamental research” or “pure
research.” Seeks to discover basic truths or principles. Example: Boyle’s Law,
Charles’ Law, Archimedes’ Principle, Hooke’s Law, Newton’s Law.
2. Applied Research – This type of research involves seeking new applications
of scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as a development
of a new system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve
the problem.
3. Developmental Research - This is a decision-oriented research involving
the application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an
immediate need to improve existing practices.
 
Classification of Research:
 1. Library Research – this is done in the library where answers to specific questions or
problems of the study are available.
2. Field Research – Research is conducted in a natural setting.
3. Laboratory Research – The research is conducted in artificial or controlled condition
by isolating the study in a thoroughly specified area.

Importance of Quantitative Research across the Fields

(different samples of research in different areas of interests)
 
The Art Disciplines
- consist of different fields of fine arts and liberal arts including painting, music, film,
classic literature and music among the most popular ones on which research is
conducted

- Researcher can use empirical approach to conduct surveys of public

opinion; conversely he can use the non-empirical approach to perform
analysis on application and theory of literature, music etc.
 
The Science Discipline
- this include medicine, mechanics, physics, and cellular Biology are just a few
science on which researchers use the empirical modes to perform first hand
research both in the field as well as in the laboratory. Applications of these
areas of sciences are endless and apt for students who prefer to spend time
in labs.

The Discipline of Philosophy 

- It does not have much application in the practical field, yet a person can
create a theoretical dissertation based on analytical thinking, metaphysical
interpretation and several hours of readings. Students. Who prefer to stay
hours on end in a library is suitable for research in this field.

• The Discipline of History

• - Opportunities for a dissertation in this subject are spread far and wide.
Student can create a dissertation through the theoretical approach of
compiling data from archives, public courthouses and from societies of
history. For practical approach, student can participate in archeological
expeditions or interview participants of past battles. Possibilities for this area in
dissertation writing are endless.

The Discipline of Humanities

- The study of this area might start with researching in the library, but its practical
applications are not limited to it. A student has the opportunity to go out in the field and
observe the different cultures and societies, interview people and compile case studies
from real life experience.

Two Types of Research which can be done to develop a research: 

• Practical Research – approach consists of the empirical study of the topic under research
and chiefly consists of hands on approach. Involves first hand research in the form of
questionnaires, surveys, interviews, observations and group discussion

• Theoretical Research – A non-empirical approach to research, this usually involves perusal

of mostly published works like researching through archives of public libraries, court
rooms and published academic journals.

 
• Differentiate Kinds of variables and their Uses
VARIABLES
- These are properties or characteristics of people or things that vary in
quality or magnitude from person to person or object to object (Miller &
Nicholson, 1976).
– Demographic characteristics
– Personality traits
– Communication styles or competencies
– Constructs
*In order to be a variable, a variable must vary, it must take on different
values, levels, intensities, or states
Independent variable
• The variable that is manipulated either by the researcher or by nature or
circumstance
• Independent variables are also called “stimulus” “input” or “predictor”
variables
• Analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect relationship
Dependent Variable
• A variable that is observed or measured, and that is influenced or changed by the
independent variable
• Dependent variables are also known as “response” or “output” or “criterion” variables
Variables and Unit of Analysis
• According to Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias (2008), “the variable whose changes the
researcher wishes to explain is known as the dependent variable, while the variable
the researcher thinks induces or explains the change is the independent variable.

KEY POINTS: Importance and Purpose of Research

simple reason why we conduct research
• To solve problems
• To make a sound decision; is very vital to our everyday decision making
• To obtain academic degrees
• To unveil the truth
• To acquaint with the facts/happening
• The Research Process: 
• Research Steps within the Scientific Method of Inquiry

Step Example
1. Identify the problem or question Childhood Obesity
2. Review the literature Look for similar studies that have been conducted
3. Clarify of the problem or question The purpose of the study is to determine if walking 10,000
steps a day for three days a week improves a person’s
health.
4. Clearly define terms and concepts This is done so that the readers understand exactly what
each term means
5. Define the population Children who are 10 to 12 years old
6. Develop the instrumentation plan Data will be collected on the variables at the beginning of
the program and at the conclusion of the study
7. collect data Collect the data on the specified variables at the first and
last session of the program
8. Analyze the data Compare data gathered from each participant. The first
measurements are compared to the second measurements
to see if there are difference. Report if the results and the
differences if there are any.
Ethics of Research:
• Ethical considerations are to the fore with the development of new
technologies and the new social systems.
• Society is inherently conservative and seeks to set the limits of research
activity.
Ethical Issues:
• Justification for the research
• Access to participants/Privacy
• Informed consent
• Potential harm
The Scope of research ethics:
• Ethical considerations cover all aspect of research but they are fore-
grounded when the subject of the research are humans or animals
• Research involving human subjects in the Medical, social and
Behavioral Sciences poses complex ethical issues
• It requires careful thought and consideration on the part of both
researchers and research participants
• Prospective participants must be given adequate information on both the
possible risks and the potential benefits of their involvement to allow
them to make informed decisions
• Quantitative Research and its Importance in Daily Life
• Quantitative Research refers to the systematic empirical
investigation of social phenomenon via statistical, mathematical or
numerical data or computational techniques Given, 2008).
- is about asking people for their opinions in a structured way so
that we can produce hard facts and statistics for guidance.
- to get reliable statistical results, It is important to survey people in fairly

large number and to make sure they are a representative sample of our

target market.
• Quantitative Research Method
• Experimental and Non experimental Research
- The basic building blocks of quantitative research are variables.
- Variables – (something that takes on different values or categories) are the
opposite of constants (something that cannot vary, such as a single value
or category of a variable).

Example of quantitative Variable

Variable Type Key Characteristics example
Level of Measurement
• Categorical Variable A variable that is made up The variable gender is
different types or cate- made up of the
gories of a phenomenon categories
of male
and female
• Quantitative a variable that varies The variable annual income
Variable in degree or amount varies from zero income to a
of phenomenon very high income level.
• Role Taken by the Variable
Independent Variable a variable that is presumed Amount of studying affects test
(symbolized as IV) to cause changes to occur in grades (DV).
another variable, a causal
variable

Dependent Variable A variable that changes Amount of studying (IV) affects

(symbolized as DV) because of another variable, test grades (DV).
the effect or outcome variable.
 
Mediating Variable A variable that comes in Amount of studying (IV) leads to
(it is also called an between other variables, input and organization of
Intervening variable) helps to delineate the process knowledge in long-term memory
through which variables affect (mediating variables), which
one another affects test grades (DV).

Moderator Variable a variable that delineates Perhaps the relationship

How a relationship of interest between studying and test
grades changes according to the
different levels of use of a drug
such as Ritalin (moderator).
• Two Major Types of Quantitative Research
Experimental Research
- the purpose is to study cause and effect relationships.
- its defining characteristics is active manipulation of an independent variable
(i.e., it is only in experimental research that “manipulation” is present). Also,
random assignment (which creates “equivalent” groups) is used in the strongest
experimental research designs.
• Example of an experiment:
Pretest Treatment Posttest
01 XE O2
01 XC O2
Where:
E stands for the experimental group (e.g., new teaching approach)
C stands for the control or comparison group (e.g., the old or standard teaching
approach)
Because the best way to make the two groups similar in the above research
design is to randomly assign the participants to the experimental and control
groups, let’s assume that assume that we  have a convenience sample
of 50 people and that we randomly assign them to the two groups in our
experiment.
Non-Experimental Research
- The defining characteristic of experimental research is manipulation of the
IV. In non-experimental research there is no manipulation of the independent
variable. There is no random assignment of participants to groups.
 What this means is that if you ever see a relationship between two
variables in non-experimental research you cannot jump to a conclusion of
cause and effect because there will be too many other alternative
explanations for the relationship.
-Example: Gender (IV) and class performance (DV)
- You would look for the relationship by comparing the male and

female average performance levels.

 Research Problem and Topic

• Research problem is an educational issue or problem in the study.
• Research topic is a detailed and insightful analysis of a research problem. It should not be
more than 50 letters.
• Research topic reflects three components:
1. The independent variable
2. The dependent variable
3. The population under study
• The dependent variable is the problem variable while the independent variable is that whose
influence to the problem variable is to be established, which brings desirable changes on the
dependent variable.

OUTCOMES BASED OUTPUT:

- Create a research proposal with topic and format

Based from these guidelines: Writing A Research Proposal Title

- Should be short sharp, and describe what your research is about: it may also be working title
that you will revise as your project develops.
 
• Abstract
- Write 200-250 word summary of the proposed research, including the key ideas: what, why,
how and when. Include a brief description of the aims of the study, the research population of
subject matter, the methods to be used and the time
frame. Indicate also why this research is needed, and its uses. (This will be the last
thing you write)
• Aims & Objectives
- This section answers the question why this research is being done. Outline the
aims and objectives of the research questions. Define any specialized terms you
may use and indicate why the aims and objectives are appropriate.
• Timespan
• - Prepare a brief breakdown of how long the study is expected to take, and its
various stages . Consider such items as:
Any further planning and approvals
Ethical approval
Literature search and review
Pretests or pilot trials
Collection of data
Analysis/synthesis of data
Writing up: including drafts and revisions
You may also wish to indicate further stages such as dissemination of
information, participation in policy formation etc.
• Background
There are two aspects:
1. Who is undertaking this research and for whom (where applicable)? Why
choose this topic? Who is going to gain from this research?
2. Write a brief history of the research question, indicating other work in the
field and a summary of previous conclusions. Include a brief literature review
indicating where you gained your information and any personal references
such as discussions with people, conference papers, policy documents,
memos, etc. This section sets your proposal within the wider context.
• Research Design
This section sets out the theoretical concepts that have been chosen from the
literature review as the basis for developing and carrying out the project. It
answers the question, why is it being done in this particular way? Indicate the
general steps of the project and justify them using the literature to argue for
the appropriateness of the particular methods you have chosen. You may also
wish to briefly describe the ideal approach and why you have chosen to
deviate from this.
• Methodology
• This is where you set out the details of the specific methodologies and
techniques you will use. Consider the following:
How is the study to be done?
What are your sources of data?
What data will be collected?
What kind of methods and instruments will be used for data collection?
Who is included (excluded) from your research population or sample
and why?
How to intend to ensure reliability and validity?
In what contexts will your results be interpreted and understood?
The methodology section is not a repetition of the Design section. The latter
gives a broad overview, while the former deals with the practical specifics, of
what, how, who, and where.
• Significance
This is where you state the anticipated outcomes of the project in relation to
theory, practice, social policy, and personal learning.
• Costing
Estimate the actual costs to you for doing the research, such as;
• Bibliography
List all the books, journal articles, reports, Acts, and submissions that you have
referred to in your proposal, in alphabetical order.

• Learning from others and Reviewing the Literature

 
A literature review
Surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations,
conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or
theory.
Provide a short description and critical evaluation of work critical to the topic.
Offers an overview of significant literature published on a topic. (Lyons,2005)
Literature Reviews are conducted for various reasons:
• For a review paper
• For the introduction (and discussion) of a research paper, master’s thesis
or dissertation
• To embark on a new area of research
• For a research proposal
Conducting a literature review will help you:
• Determine if proposed research is actually needed.
• Even if similar research published, researchers might suggest a need for
similar studies or replication.
• Narrow down a problem
• It can be overwhelming getting into the literature of a field of study. A
literature review can help you understand where you need to focus your
efforts.
• Generate hypotheses or questions for further studies.
• Background knowledge of the field of inquiry
• Facts, eminent scholars, parameters of the field, the most important ideas,
theories,
• Questions, and hypotheses
• Knowledge of the methodologies common to the field and a feeling for their
usefulness and appropriateness in various settings. 
Outline of Review Process
• Formulate a problem – which topic or field is being examined and what
are its component issues?
• Search the literature for materials relevant to the subject being
explored.
• Searching the literature involves reading and refining your problem.
•  EVALUATE the DATA – determine which literature makes a significant
contribution to the understanding of the topic
• ANALYZE and INTERPRET – discuss the findings and conclusions of
pertinent literature
• FORMAT and CREATE BIBLIOGRAPHY
How to Write a Literature Review
• Process of Review Development
Formulate a problem

Search

Refine topic

Analyze

Construct Review
Tips on Formulating a Problem
• Select a topic you are interested in
• You want to be fascinated throughout the process and less likely to lose
motivation.
• Choose a topic with a feasible focus.
Keep the focus clear and defined and it will be easier to complete than
something huge like “headaches”
• You may want to start out with a general idea, review the literature of the
area, and then refine your problem based on what you have found.

• REVIEW OF LITERATURE
• Introduction
It’s about how are you going to arrange the materials in it. Here the researcher
present and critically analyze the empirical experiences of other researchers
who had tried to contribute solution to problems similar or related to his/her
problem. 
• Literature Review
The research framework is built on previous literature and strengthened with
new and emerging knowledge.
• Reviewing Literature
The most important skill for efficient review of literature is the ability to read
fast, comprehend and summarize material quickly
and put it in a form that can easily be retrieved and used in the future.
• Summary of Literature Reviewed and Justification of the Study
-Provide a comprehension summary of the reviewed materials. How you are going
to use them in your study. What is the place of the reviewed materials in your study.
-State the gaps, inconsistencies, inadequacies or deficiencies in existing literature
which are trying to fill or correct through study.

Cites related literature using standard style

• APA ( American Psychological Association) style for literature reviews
Citation in the Text
 
ONE WORK BY SINGLE AUTHOR:
Smith (1993) compared reaction times
In a recent study of reaction times it was found that (Smith, 1993)
In 1993, Smith compared reaction times

ONE WORK BY THREE OR MORE

Cite all authors the first time the reference occurs; in subsequent citations include
only the  
 surname of the first author followed by “et al.” ( not
underlined and with no period after “et”) and the year.

Citations apart of the text, use and, when citing in

parentheses use & symbol.Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner, and
Torringon (1984) found (first citation)
Researchers (Williams, Jones, Smith, Bradner &Torringon,
1984) found (first citation) Williams et al. (1983) found (subsequent
citation)

CITING MULTIPLE ARTICLES AT ONE TIME

Separate two more citations with semicolon, and list in
alphabetical order. Several studies have shown that monozygotic
twins (identical twins) tend to be more similar than dizygotic twins
(fraternal twins) on this dimension (Dunn & Plomin, 198; Plomin, DeFries,
& Fulker, 1988)
• INCLUDING A PAGE NUMBER WHEN YOU ARE GOING TO QUOTE
As Rose (199) stated how genetic effects are modulated (p. 27).
Temperament, defined as constitutionally based individual differences in
reactivity and selfregulation (Rothbart & ahadi, 1994, p. 55).

• REFERENCING A STUDY READ IN ANOTHER SOURCE

You should attempt to obtain any study that you are referencing, as
descriptions of studies may be interpreted differently person to person. In
the case that you are unable (or do not need) to get the original source,

then the citation should include both sources (one referring was found).

Example:
Consequently, experts can devote more working memory capacity to using
recalled information to reason and solve problems (Bjorklund & Douglas,
1997), as cited in Berk, 2003). In the references you would only list Berk, 2003,
not the original paper.
• References at the end of the paper
Arrange entries in alphabetical order by last name of the first author.
General format: Author: last name, first initial (year). Title. Journal, issue,
pages. Use a hanging indent for 2nd line of Reference
(format>paragraph>Special select hanging).

When your reference list contains multiple works by the same author:
• Single author entries precede multiple author entries beginning with the same
last name.
• References with the same first author and different second or third authors are
arranged alphabetically by the last name of the second author, etc.
• References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by year of
publication, earliest first.
Examples of References
JOURNAL ARTICLE, ONE AUTHOR
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of
preschool behavior Genetic Psychology Monographs, 7 (1), 43-88.
 JOURNAL ARTICLE, MULTIPLE AUTHORS
Ahadi, S. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Ye, R. (1993). Children’s
temperament in the US and China: Similarities and differences.
European Journal of Personality, 7(5), 359-377.

ENTIRE BOOK
Harris, J. R. (1998). The nurture Assumption: Why children
turn out the way they do.
New York: The Free Press.

ARTICLE OR CHAPTER IN EDITED BOOK

LeVine, R.A. (1988). Human parental care: Universal goals,
cultural strategies, individual behavior. In R.A. LeVine & P. M. Miller &
M. M. West (Eds.), Parental behavior in diverse: societies (pp. 3-12). San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
 WEBSITE
Try to use the format above with the information available on the website. If you do not
have an author, use website name
at the beginning.

Example:
Babycenter.com (2007). Back up childcare plans. https://www.babycenter.com/refcap/baby
/
babychildcare/4938.html

Write a Synthesis of Related Literature

The related literature section is not a list of article summaries. It be a flowing, well-structured narrative
that begins with variables you established in your problem and ends with a question begging to be
answered.

• Study each key word grouping. How do the various authors define and use the concept? Do they speak
for or against the concept? Can you group the authors by differing opinions concerning the concept?
Write out, in narrative form, a clear description of how these authors use this particular concept.

Once each of the key word groupings have been analyzed and refined into a narrative,
determine what order the key word narratives should take in the Related Literature
section.
Writing Coherent review of literature:
A literature review summarizes, interprets, and critically evaluates existing
“literature” (or published material) in order to establish current knowledge of
a subject. The purpose for doing so relates to establish the need for
additional research, and/or define a topic of inquiry. The purpose of a
literature review is to establish current knowledge on an aspect that relates
to legal and ethical issues within the practices of professional nursing. The
literature review is a “stand-alone” review.

What format should I use? A literature review is an aspect of formal

academic writing so include: introduction, body, and conclusion.
• In the Introduction
Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing
an appropriate context for reviewing the literature. Point out overall trends in
what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology,
evidence and conclusions; or gaps in research and scholarship; or a single
problem or new perspective of immediate interest. Establish the writer’s
reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be
used in analyzing and comparing literature and the organization of the review
(sequence); and, when necessary, state why certain literature is or is not
Included (scope).
• In the Body
Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical
articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominations such as
qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific
purpose or objective, chronology, etc. summarize individual studies or articles
with as much or as little details as each merits according to its comparative
importance in the literature, remembering that space (length) denotes
significance.

Provide the reader with strong “umbrella” sentences at the beginning of

paragraphs, “signposts” throughout, and brief “so what” summary sentences
at intermediate points in the review to aid in understanding comparisons and
analysis.
 
•  In the conclusion
• Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of
knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.
Evaluate the current “state of the art” for the body of knowledge reviewed,
pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in
theory and findings, and areas of issues pertinent to future study. Conclude by
providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the
literature review and a larger area of study such as a discipline, a scientific
endeavor, or a profession

Questions a literature review will try to answer

1. What do we know about the area of inquiry?
2. What are the relationships between key concepts, factors, variables?
3. What are the current theories?
4. What are the inconsistencies and other shortcoming?
5. What needs further testing because evidence is lacking, inconclusive,
contradictory, limited?
7. What designs or methods are faulty?
8. Why study this question further?
9. What contribution will your work make?

Ethical standard in writing related literature

Fostering scientific advancement requires strict adherence to ethical
guidelines for research and scientific writing. The benefits of research can only
be realized if results of investigations are publishes in the literature for others
to replicate and expand upon. Fostering scientific advancement
requires strict adherence to ethical guidelines for research and scientific
writing of investigations are publishes in the literature for others to replicate
and expand upon. Fostering scientific advancement requires strict adherence
to ethical guidelines for research and scientific writing. Here, we discuss two
issues related to ethics in scientific writing: plagiarism and authorship.
Violations of the ethical principles associated with these issues are considered
as scientific misconduct.
Theoretical framework and Conceptual Model Development
A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a
phenomenon of interest and therefore what variables to measure and the
rationale for relationships between the variables. This will inform what
statistical relationships on which to focus the tests. Theory guides every
aspect of research, from formulation of research question through
operationalization and discussion. Research has two realms: the theory and
observation. Theory is the scientific basis to explain an observed
phenomenon which the researcher applies to gain better understanding of
the phenomenon. On the other hand, observation is what occurs in the real
world or measures. Researchers conduct research on the basis of theory
about what is observed.
A conceptual framework is an illustrated representation of an idea or body of
knowledge based on individual understanding of the relationships between
the variables. The illustration shows the variables and the hypothesized
relationship between them.
• Why Present theoretical Framework and conceptual Model in Research
Project
It is to aid in explaining the underlying assumptions for relationships between
the variables, choice of model and to adequately specify the model
parameters. They build upon existing knowledge and relevant theory; forms
basis for the hypotheses ands choice of research methods. Presenting these
allows for articulation basis for the hypotheses ands choice of research
methods. Presenting these allows for articulation of why and how questions
beyond simply describing a phenomenon observed to generalizing about
various aspects of that phenomenon.

Researchers present these frameworks to identify the limits to the

generalizations made. Their presentation facilitates identification of variables
likely to have most influence on the phenomenon and how those variables
might differ between the different populations.
Describing Theoretical Framework and Conceptual Model
Theoretical framework and conceptual framework model are related
and complements conceptualization of the research regarding the
objectives, hypotheses and research questions, and the independent
and dependent variables. The theoretical basis is founded on known
principles and the variables from literature are used for developing
theoretical framework and conceptual model. Conceptual model is a
mental illustration of how the variables are likely to relate to each
other.
From literature and possibly consultation with experts, identify the theory
that best explains the relationships between the variable regarding the
observed phenomenon and the relevant assumptions. Theory is selected on
the basis of how best it can explain the relationships among the variables and
should reflect a connection between the theoretical framework, conceptual
framework, operationalization and instrument.
• UNDERSTANDING THE DATA
 Quantitative Research Design
1. Exploratory - It is a good starting point sto get familiarized with some
insights and ideas (e.g. identify the dependent and independent variables)
2. Descriptive – the mapping out of circumstance, situation, or set of events
(McNabb)
3. Casual – experimenting (statistically speaking) to assess cause and effect.
For example whether or not a P.A. program is achieving its objectives.
Experiments in the social science take place “naturally” (e.g. The Effectiveness
of Homeland Security to respond to natural or anthropogenic hazards).
Measurement Fundamentals
• A key difference is that normal science deals with concepts that are well
defined and to  great extent standardized measures (e.g. speed, distance,
volume, weight, size etc.)
• On the contrary the social science often uses concepts that are ill defined
and therefore the standardization in terms of how it is measured varies or
there is little agreement (e.g. social class, development, poverty, etc.)
• Statistics cannot be used until we understand “the fundamental nature” of
measurement (McNabb) thus, our goal is that our measurement of the
different concepts are valid or match as much as possible the “real” world.
•  What is a concept?
• A mental construct that represents phenomena in the real world. (Pollock
2005:7)
• The challenge is to transform concepts into concrete terms (preferable that
can be measured)

Units of Analysis
• Individuals
• People
• Places
• Groups
• Institutions
• Nations
• Programs
• The sample
Describe the resulting sample in details in details in terms of each level of the
independent variables implied in the study. Describe, if possible, the sample
to-population ratio. Evaluate this ratio in terms of the anticipated or desirable
precision of your study.
• Instrumentation
What instrument are you going to use to collect your data for the study. If the
instrument to be used is constructed by you, describe clearly, with accurate
details, how the set of items designed to illicit responses for each variable
were constructed, or how you came by the set of items
Instrument - a tool used to collect data
Test – a formal, systematic procedure for gathering information
Assessment – the general process of collecting, synthesizing, and
interpreting information.
Measurement – the process of quantifying or scoring a subject’s
performance
• What about Validity?
• Stability to which that items represent the larger domain
• Evidence based on the contrasting groups
• Whether groups that should be different are different
• Examine the difference between the groups
• Evidence based on response processes
• Examine the respondent explanations and response patterns
• Evidence based on internal structure
• Extent of the items measuring the same trait
• Evidence based on relationships to other variables
• Correlate the measures of other measures of the same trait and the
measures of different traits
• Validity implies proper interpretation
• Trust study – make generalizations from other studies
What about Reliability?
• Stability
• Consistency of stable characteristics over time
• Administer the same test to the same individuals over time
• Equivalence and stability
• Comparability of two measure of the same trait given at the same time
and administer different forms to the same individuals at the same time
(at about)
• Internal consistency
• Split half, KR, Cronbach alpha, Comparability of halves of a measure to
assess a single trait or dimension, administer one test and correlate the
items to each other
• Agreement
• Consistency of ratings or observations
• Two or more people rate or observe
Data Collection
• How the research data been collected and under what conditions?
• What special precautions, instructions did you take or give during the administration
of the instrument or review during the observation to minimize the data-collector
effect on the result of the data collection procedure?

Finding Answers Through Data Collection and Analyzing the Meaning of Data and
Drawing Conclusions
• Ethical Consideration
• What type of Ethical considerations and how does each ethical issue likely to
manifest during the study.
• What are the consequences of each of these to the subject?
• What procedures have you put in place to address each of these issues and their
probable consequences. For example, what precautions and safeguards have you
incorporated in the study design to protect the rights of human subjects.

 
• Data Preparation
Describe how you will score, in respect of each variable, the responses by the
subjects to each item of your data collection instrument.
•  Operational Definition of Research Variables
Give meaning of your variables by spelling out what you did and how you did
it to measure or manipulate it. This can be through experimentation or
through measurement.
Procedure for Testing Hypotheses: or Answering Research Questions
• Introduction
Data analysis is a means of determining and testing for the extent of
convergence, commonality or divergence among data collected during the
study, and hence the relationship among variables in these data.
• General Description of Data
Give a general descriptive analysis including the number of cases, mean and
standard deviation for each dependent variable given each of the
independent variables in your study
• This is a descriptive summary of the data and should be presented in
tabular and figural forms.
• Answering Research Questions
For those research questions that were not convertible to hypothesis
answers, must sought through descriptive analyses including determining the
relationship among relevant variables. The results of descriptive data analysis
should be presented in appropriate tables and figures. Tables must be
numbered and given titles.
• Summary of Findings
Summarize all the findings in a paragraph, and with it, prepare the reader’s
mind for the ensuring discussion of the findings that follows.
•  DISCUSSION, SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
• Discussion
All discussions should be done in the light of the limitations to the study.
Discussion is a means of ideas from the findings of study, the findings from
the literature reviewed, and from the theories that underlie the problem
under consideration.
 
• Implications
What are the implications of the findings of the study? What do the findings of the
study suggest or what do evidences from the study suggest. What are theoretical,
practical and policy implications of the findings of the study.

• Conclusion
Conclusion serve two purposes: to summarize and bring together your thoughts. 
• Recommendations
Be very clear, specific and practical in your recommendations. Specifically, to whom
are you directing each recommendation?
• Suggestions for Further Studies
• What other related studies should be carried out in order to add to the
contribution to the solution to the problem.

• In Quantitative Data Processing:

Quantitative data collected with questionnaires or other methods containing a
structured set of open and closed questions or observations are easier to process.
Prior to processing the data, variables which are being measured have to be listed.

 
• Listing References

• General Guidelines for Listing authors (print and online)

In APA style, all authors’ names are inverted (the last name comes first), and
initials only are used for all first and middle names.
• NAME AND DATE CITED IN TEXT
Duncan (2008) has reported that …

• BEGINNING OF ENTRY IN THE LIST OF REFERENCES

Duncan, B. (2008). 
1. Single author 
Egeland, J. (2008), A Billion Lives: An Eyewitness Report from the
Frontlines of Humanity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
*Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author), year,
title of the book, place of publication, publisher)
2. Multiple Authors
• List to seven authors by last names followed by initials. Use an ampersand
(&) before the name of the last author. If there are more than seven
authors, list the first six followed by three ellipsis dots and the last
author’s name.

Musick., M. A., & Wilson, J. (2007). Volunteers: A social profile,

Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
* Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author),
year, title of the book, c)

Diessner, R., Solom, R.C., Frost, N. K., Parsons,L., & Davidson, J. (2008).
Engagement with Beauty: Natural, Artistic, and Moral Beauty. The
Journal of Psychology, 142, 303-329.
* Author’s name (family name + Initial of the first name of the author),
year, title of the topic, journal title, volume/page range)
Eight more Authors
Mullvaney, S. A., Mudasiru, E., Schlundt, D. G., BaA.ughman, C. L., Fleming, M.
VanderWoude, A., . . . Rothman, R. (2008). Self-management in Type 2
diabetes: The Adolescent Perspective. The Diabetes Educator, 34, 118-127.
3. Organization as author
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
 If the publisher is not the same as the author, give the publisher’s name as
you would for any other source.
4. Unknown author begin in the entry with the work’s title.
New concise world atlas, (2007). New York, NY: Oxford University
Press. Order in the jungle. (2008, March 1). The Economist,
38(871), 83-85.
*title, year, place of publication, publisher, title of article, year and date,
journal title, number issue, page range)
5. Two or more works by the same author
Use the author’s name for all entries. List the entries by year, the earliest
first.
Barry, P. (2007, December 8). Putting tumors on pause. Science News, 172,
365.
Barry, P. (2008, august 2). Finding the golden genes. Science News, 174, 1321.
6. Two or more works by the same author in the same year
List the works alphabetically by title. In the parentheses, following the year
add “a,” “b,” and so on.
Elkind, D. (2008a, Spring). Can we play? Greater Good, 4(4), 14-17.
Elkind, D. (2008b, June 27). The price of hurrying children [Web log post].
Retrieved from http://blogs/pscchologytoday.com/blog/digital-children
7. Article in a journal
Zhang, L,-F. (2008). Teacher’s styles of thinking: an exploratory study. The
Journal of Psychology, 142, 37-55.
* author, year, article title, journal title, volume, page range.
8. Article in a magazine Cite as journal article, but give the year and the month for
monthly magazines; add the day for the weekly magazines.
Mckibben, B. (2007,October). Carbon’s new math. National Geographic, 212(4), 32-37.
9. Article in a newspaper
Swoboda, E. (2008, October 21). Deep in the forest, stalking the next pandemic. The
New York Times, p.D5.
*Give the year, month, and day for daily and weekly newspaper. Use “p.” or “pp.”
before page numbers.
10.Article with three to seven authors
Ungar, M. Brown, M., Liebenberg,L., Othman, R., Kwong, W.M., Armstrong, M., & Gilgun,
J. (2007). Unique pathways to resilience across cultures. Adolescence, 42, 287-310.
11. Article with 8 or more authors
List the first six authors followed by three ellipsis dots and the last author.

Krippner, G., Granovetter, M., Block, F., Biggart, N., Beamish , T., Hsing, Y., . . .
O’Rain, S. (2004). Polanyi Symposium: A conversation on embeddedness. Socio
Economic Review, 2, 109-135.
 

 
12. Abstract of a journal article
 Lahm, K. (2008). Inmate-on-inmate assault: A multilevel examination of prison
violence. [Abstract]. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(1), 120- 137.
13. Letter to the editor
Letters to the editor appear in journals, magazines, and newspapers. Follow the
appropriate model and insert the words. “Letter to the editor” in brackets after
the title of the letter. If the letter has no title, use the bracketed words as the
title.
Park, T. (2008, August). Defining the line [Letter to the editor]. Scientific
American, 299(2), 10.
14. Editorial or other unsigned article
The global justice movement [Editorial]. (2005). Multinational Monitor, 28(7/8),
7.
15. Newsletter Article
Setting the stage for remembering. (2006, September). Mind, Mood, and
Memory, 2(9), 4-5.
 

 
16. Review
Give the author and the title of review (if any) and, in brackets, the type of work, the title, and
the author for a book or the year for a motion picture. If the dreview has no author or title, use
the material in brackets as the title.

Applebaum, A. (2008, February 14). A movie that matters [Review of the motion picture
Katyn,2007].

17. Basic format for a Book

Mckenzie, F. (2008): Theory and Practice with adolescents: An applied approach. Chicago,
IL: Lyceum Books.

18. Book with an author and an editor

Aronson, J., & Aronson E. (Eds.). (2008). Readings about the social animal (10th ed.). New
ork, NY: worth.
 
*The abbreviation “Eds.” Is for multiple editors. If the book has one editor, use “Ed.”
 
19. Book with an author and an editor
Mcluhan, M. (2003). Understanding me: Lectures and interviews (S. Mcluhan
& D. Staine, Eds.). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: McCtelland & Stewart.
20. Edition other than the first
O’Brien, J.A. (Ed.). (2007). The Production of Reality: Essays and readings on
social interaction (4th ed.) Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
21. Introduction, preface, foreward, or an anthology
Gore, A. (2000). Foreword. In B. Katz (Ed.), Reflections on regionalism (pp.ixx).
Washington, DC:Brookings Institution Press.
22. Dictionary or other references
Leong, F.T.L. (Ed.). (2008). Encyclopedia of counseling (Vols. 1-4). Thousand
Oaks, CA:Sage.
 
Online Resources
When citing an online article, include publication information as for a print
periodical and add information about the online version.
Online articles and books sometimes include a DOJ (digital object identifier).
APA uses the DOI, when available, in place of URL in reference list entries.
Uses a retrieval data for an online source only if the content is likely to
change. Most of the examples in this section do not show a retrieval date
because the content of the sources is stable; if you are unsure about whether to
use a retrieval date, include the data or consult your instructor.
If you must break a DOI or a URL at the end of a line, break it after a double
slash or before any other mark or punctuation; do not add a hyphen. Do not put
a period at the end of the entry.

23. Article in an online journal

Whitmeyer, J. M. (2000) . Power through appointment. Social Science
Research. 29, 434-555. Doe:10,1006/ssre.2000.080
* If there is no DOI, include the URL for the journal’s home page.
Ashe, D.D., & McCutcheon, L.E., (2001). Shyness, loneliness, and attitude toward
celebrities. Current Research in Social Psychology. 6, 124-133. Retrieved from
http://www.uiowa.edu/-grpproc/crip/crisp.html.
24. Article in an online magazine
Treat as an article in a print magazine (see item 8), adding whatever publication
information is available. Give the URL for the magazine’s home page.

Rupley, S. (2010, February 2). The myth of the benign monopoly. Salon Retrieved
from http://www.salon.com/
25. Article in an online newspaper
Treat an article in a print newspaper (see item 9), adding the URL for the
newspaper’s home page.

Watson, P. (2008, October 19). Biofuel boom endangers orangutan habitat. Los
Angeles Times. Retrieved from http://www.latimes.comm/
26. Article published only online
If an article a journal, magazine, or newspaper appears only online, give whatever
 publication information is available in the source and add the
description “Supplemental material” in brackets following the article title.

Samuel, T. (2009, March 27). Mind the wage gap [Supplement material]. The
American Prospect. Retrieved from http://www.prospect.org/
27. Article from a database
Start with the publication information for the source (see item 7-16). If the data
entry includes a DOI for the article, use the DOI number at the end.
 
Eskritt, M. , & Mcleod K. (2008). Children note taking as mnemonic tool.
Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 101, 42-74, doi:
10,1016/jecp.2008,007

If there is no DOI, include the URL for the home page of the Journal.

• Howard, K. R. (2007). Childhood overweight: Parental perceptions and

readiness for change. The Journal of School Nursing ,23,73-79. Retrieved
from http://jsn. Sagepub.com/
28. Abstract for an online article
Brockerhoff, E. G., Jactel, H., Parrotra, J.A., Quine, C.P., & Sayer, J. (2008).
Plantation forests and biodiversity: Oxymoron or opportunity? [Abstract].
Biodiversity and Conversation, 17, 925-91. Doi:10.1007/s1031-008-9380-X
 
29. Online Book

Adams, B. (2007). The theory of social revolutions. Retrieved from

http://www. Gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=44092
(Original work published 1913)
30. Chapter in an online book
Clinton, S. J. (2004). What can be done to prevent childhood Obesity? In
Understanding childhood Obesity (pp 81-98). Retrieved from http
://www.questia.com
31. Online reference work
Swain, C.M. (2005). Sociology of affirmative action. In N.J. Smelser &P.B.
Baltes (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social and behavioral sciences.
Retrieved from
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/referenceworks/978008043078
 
Use a retrieval date only if the content of the work is likely to change.
32. Document from a Web site
List as many of the following elements as are available: author’s
Name, publication date (or “n.d.” if there is no date), title (in italics), and URL.
Give your retrieval date only if the content of the source is likely to change.

Source with date

 
Cain, A., & Burris, M. (1999, April). Investigation of the use of mobile phones
while driving. Retrieved from http://www.cut.usf.edu/pdf/mobile_phone.PDF
 
Source with no date
Archer, D. (n.d.). Exploring nonverbal communication. Retrieved
from http:/nonverbal.ucsc.edu

• Source with author

If a source has no author, begin with the title and follow it with
the date in parentheses.

What causes Alzheimer’s disease? (2008). Retrieved from

http://www.memorystudy.org/alzheimers_causes.htm
33. Section in a Web document
 
National Institute on Media and the Family. (2009). Mobile networking.
In Guide to social networking:Risks Retrieved from http://www media
family.org/network_pdf/MediaWise_Guide_to_Social_Networking_Ris
ks_09.pdf
 
34. Document from a university Web site or government agency
Name the organization or agency in your retrieval statement.
 
PROPOSAL
Basic Information (First Page)
Research Title
Researcher (s)
Second Page
1. Title – it should be catchy, reflects the problem
2. Introduction
- primary goal is to catch the attention of the readers and to get them
“turned on” about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your
topic in perspective. It contains dramatic and general statement about the
need to study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When
writing the introduction put yourself in your reader’s position… Would you
continue reading?
(a. Background of the Study, b. Statement of the Art, c. Analysis of the
Problem)
 - Statement of the Problem and Hypothesis (focal point of research)
*what are the attitudes of…
Is there a significant difference between..
There is no significant difference between
- Objective of the Study (Purpose which is a single statement that
explains what the study intends to accomplish)
-Significance of the study (points out how your study relates to the
larger issue and uses a persuasive rationale to justify the reason for
your study. The significance of the study answers the following
questions:
Why is your study important?
To whom is it important?
What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
-
- Scope and Delimitation of the Study
3. Review of Related Literature
4. Theoretical Framework/Conceptual Framework
Paradigm of the Study

5. Methodology
- Locale of the Study
- Research Design (strategy that you choose in the study)
- Respondent/informants/research participants of the study
- Instrumentations
- Data Gathering
- Data Analysis
6. References
7. Appendices
Gantt Chart of Activities