UNIT-IV

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Syllabus:
Oscilloscopes: Basic principle of operation CRT, CRT features, Block diagram of Oscilloscope,
Vertical Amplifier: Block diagram of Vertical Amplifier, Horizontal Deflection System-
Sweep/Time Base Generator, Triggered pulse circuit. Delay line in Triggered sweep, Dual Beam
CRO, Dual Trace Oscilloscope, Measurement of Amplitude and Frequency; Sampling
Oscilloscope, Analog and digital Storage Oscilloscope, lissajous method of frequency
measurement, standard specifications of CRO. Probes for CRO (Active and Passive)-Direct
Probes (1:1), High impedance probe (10X), Active probe, Attenuators-Uncompensated
Attenuator, Simple compensated Attenuator.

Introduction:

In studying the various electronic, electrical networks and systems, signals which are
functions of time, are often encountered. Such signals may be periodic or non periodic in nature.
The device which allows, the amplitude of such signals, to be displayed primarily as " function of
time, is called cathode ray oscilloscope, commonly known as C.R.O. The CR.O gives the visual
representation of the time varying signals. The oscilloscope has become an universal instrument
and is probably most versatile tool for the development of electronic circuits and systems. It is an
integral part of electronic laboratories.

The oscilloscope is, in fact, a voltmeter. Instead of the mechanical deflection of a metallic
pointer as used in the normal voltmeters, the oscilloscope uses the movement of an electron beam
against a fluorescent screen, which produces the movement of a visible spot. The movement of
such spot on the screen is proportional to the varying magnitude of the signal, which is under
measurement.

Basic Principle:

The electron beam can be deflected in two directions : the horizontal or x-direction and
the vertical or y-direction. Thus an electron beam producing a spot can be used to produce two
dimensional displays, Thus CRO. can be regarded as a fast x-y plotter. The x-axis and y-axis can
be used to study the variation of one voltage as a function of another. Typically the x-axis of the
oscilloscope represents the time while the y-axis represents variation of the input voltage signal.
Thus if bhe input voltage signal applied to the y-axis of CRO. is sinusoidally varying and if x-
axis represents the time axis, then the spot moves sinusoidally, and the familiar sinusoidal
waveform can be seen on the screen of the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is so fast device that it
can display the periodic signals whose time period is as small as microseconds and even
nanoseconds. The CRO. Basically operates on voltages, but it is possible to convert current,
pressure, strain, acceleration and other physical quantities into the voltage using transducers and
obtain their visual representations on the CRO.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the CR.O. the CRT generates the electron
beam, ,accelerates the beam, deflects the beam and also has a screen where beam becomes visible
,as a spot. The main parts of the CRT are:

i) Electron gun
ii) Deflection system
iii) Fluorescent screen
iv)Glass tube or envelope
v) Base

A schematic diagram of CRT, showing its structure and main components is shown in the Fig.
Electron Gun:

The electron gun section of the cathode ray tube provides a sharply focused electron beam
directed :towards the fluorescent-coated screen. This section starts from theql1ally heated
cathode, limiting the electrons. The control grid is give!! negative potential with respect to
cathode dc. This grid controls the number of electrons in the beam, going to the screen.
The momentum of the electrons (their number x their speed) determines the intensity, or
brightness, of the light emitted from the fluorescent screen due to the electron bombclrdl1lent.
The light emitted is usually of the green colour. Because the electrons are negatively charged, a
repulsive force is created by applying a negative voltage to the control grid (in CRT, voltages
applied to various grids are stated with respect to cathode, which is taken as common point). This
negative control voltage can be made variable.

Deflection System:

When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection system, with which
beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen. The deflection system of the cathode- ray-tube
consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and horizontal deflection plates.
One of the plates' in each set is connected to ground (0 V), To the other plate of each set, the
external deflection voltage is applied through an internal adjustable gain amplifier stage, To
apply the deflection voltage externally, an external terminal, called the Y input or the X input, is
available.

As shown in the Fig. , the electron beam passes through these plates. A positive voltage
applied to the Y input terminal (Vy) Causes the beam to deflect vertically upward due to the
attraction forces, while a negative voltage applied to. the Y input terminal will cause the electron
beam to deflect vertically downward, due to the repulsion forces. When the voltages are applied
simultaneously to vertical and horizontcl1 deflecting plates, the electron beam is deflected due to
the resultant-of these two voltages.

Fluorescent Screen:

The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when bombardment by
electrons ceases, i.e., when the signal becomes zero. The time period for which the trace remains
on the screen after the signal becomes zero is known as "persistence". The persistence may be jS
short as a few microsecond, or as long as tens of seconds and minutes.
Long persistence traces are used in the study.. of transients. Long persistence helps in the
study of transients since the trace is still seen on the screen after the transient has disappeared.

Phosphor screen characteristics:

Many phosphor materials having different excitation times and colours as well as
different phosphorescence times are available. The type PI, P2, PI1 or P3I are the short
persistence phosphors and are used for the general purpose oscilloscope

Medical oscilloscopes require a longer phosphor decay and hence phosphors like P7 and
P39 are preferred for such applications. Very slow displays like radar require long persistence
phosphors to maintain sufficient flicker free picture. Such phosphors are P19, P26 and, P33.
The phosphors P19, P26, P33 have low burn resistance. The phosphors PI, P2, P4, P7, Pll
have medium burn resistance while PIS, P3I have high burn resistance.

Block diagram of simple oscilloscope:

CRT:
This is the cathode ray tube which is the heart of CR.O. It is' used to emit the rlectrons required
to strike the phosphor screen to produce the spot for the visual display of the signals.

Vertical Amplifier:

The input signals are generally not strong to provide the measurable deflection on the screen.
Hence the vertical amplifier. stage is used Jo amplify the input signals. The amplifier stages used
are generally wide band amplifiers so as to pass faithfully the entire band of frequencies to be
measured. Similarly it contains the attenuator stages as well. The attenuators are used when very
high voltage signals are to be examined, to bring the signals within the proper range of operation.

It consists of several stages with overall fixed sensltivity. The amplifier can be designed
for stability and required bandwidth very easily due to the fixed gain. The input stage colrtsists of
an attenuator followed by FET source follower. It has vel' high input impedance required to
isolate the amplifier from the attenuator. It is followed by BJT emitter follower to match the
output impedance of FET output With input of phase inverter. The phase inverter provides two
antiphase output signals which are required to operate the push pull output amplifier. The push
pull operation has advantages like better hum voltage cancellation, even harmonic suppression
especially large 2nd harmonic, greater power output per tube and reduced number of defocusing
and nonlinear effects.
 Delay line:
The delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the verticClI sections. When the delay
line is not used, the part of the signal gets lost. Thus the input signal is not applied directly to the
vertical plates but is delClyed bv some time using a delay line cu-cuit as shown in the Fig.

If the trigger pulse is picked off at a time t = to after the signal has passed through the main
amplifier then signal is delayed by XI nanoseconds while sweep takes YI nanoseconds to reach.
The design of delay line is such that the delay time XI is higher than the time YI' Generally XI is
200. nsec while tl;1.eYI is 80 ns, thus the sweep starts well in time and no part of the signal is
lost. There are two types of delay lines used in CR.O. which are:

i) Lumped parameter delay line

ii) Distributed parameter delay line

Trigger circuit:

It is necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input vertical signal, each
time it sweeps. Hence to synchronize horizontal deflection with vertical deflection a
synchronizing or triggering circuit is used. It converts the incoming signal into the triggering
pulses, which are used for the synchronization.
Time base generator:

The time base generator is used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to deflect the beam in
the horizontal section. This voltage deflects the spot at a constant time dependent rate. Thus the
x-axis' on the screen can be represented as time, which, helps to display and analyse the time
varying signals.

Oscilloscope probes
Oscilloscopes are widely used for test and repair of electronics equipment of all types. However
it is necessary to have a method of connecting the input of the oscilloscope to the point on the
equipment under test that needs monitoring.

To connect the scope to the point to be monitored it is necessary to use screened cable to prevent
any pick-up of unwanted signals and in addition to this the inputs to most oscilloscopes use
coaxial BNC connectors. While it is possible to use an odd length of coax cable with a BNC
connector on one end and open wires with crocodile / alligator clips on the other, this is not ideal
and purpose made oscilloscope probes provide a far more satisfactory solution. Oscilloscope
probes normally comprise a BNC connector, the coaxial cable (typically around a metre in
length) and what may be termed the probe itself. This comprises a mechanical clip arrangement
so that the probe can be attached to the appropriate test point, and an earth or ground clip to be
attached to the appropriate ground point on the circuit under test. Care should be taken when
using oscilloscope probes as they can break. Although they are robustly manufactured, any
electronics laboratory will consider oscilloscope probes almost as "life'd" items that can be
disposed of after a while when they are broken. Unfortunately the fact that they are clipped on to
leads of equipment puts a tremendous strain on the mechanical clip arrangement. This is
ultimately the part which breaks.

X1 and X10 oscilloscope probes

There are two main types of passive voltage scope probes. They are normally designated X1 and
X10, although 1X and 10X are sometimes seen. The designation refers to the factor by which the
impedance of the scope itelf is multiplied by the probe.

The X1 probes are suitable for many low frequency applications. They offer the same input
impedance of the oscilloscope which is normally 1 MΩ. However for applications where better
accuracy is needed and as frequencies start to rise, other test probes are needed.

To enable better accuracy to be achieved higher levels of impedance are required. To achieve this
attenuators are built into the end of the probe that connects with the circuit under test. The most
common type of probe with a built in attenuator gives an attenuation of ten, and it is known as a
X10 oscilloscope probe. The attenuation enables the impedance presented to the circuit under test
to be increased by a factor of ten, and this enables more accurate measurements to be made. As
the X10 probe attenuates the signal by a factor of ten, the signal entering the scope itself will be
reduced. This has to be taken into account. Some oscilloscopes automatically adjust the scales
according to the probe present, although not all are able to do this. It is worth checking before
making a reading. The 10X scope probe uses a series resistor (9 M Ohms) to provide a 10 : 1
attenuation when it is used with the 1 M Ohm input impedance of the scope itself. A 1 M Ohm
impedance is the standard impedance used for oscilloscope inputs and therefore this enables
scope probes to be interchanged between oscilloscopes of different manufacturers.

The scope probe circuit shown is a typical one that might be seen - other variants with the
variable compensation capacitor at the tip are just as common.

In addition to the X1 and X10 scope probes, X100 probes are also available. These oscilloscope
probes tend to be used where very low levels of circuit loading are required, and where the high
frequencies are present. The difficulty using the is the fact that the signal is attenuated by a factor
of 100.
X10 oscilloscope probe compensation

The X10 scope probe is effectively an attenuator and this enables it to load the circuit under test
far less. It does this by decreasing he resistive and capacitive loading on the circuit. It also has a
much higher bandwidth than a traditional X1 scope probe. The x10 scope probe achieve a better
high frequency response than a normal X1 probe for a variety of reasons. It does this by
decreasing the resistive and capacitive loading on the The X10 probe can often be adjusted, or
compensated, to improve the frequency response.

Typical oscilloscope probe

For many scope probes there is a single adjustment to provide the probe compensation, although
there can be two on some probes, one for the LF compensation and the other for the HF
compensation. Probes that have only one adjustment, it is the LF compensation that is adjusted,
sometimes the HF compensation may be adjusted in the factory. To achieve the correct
compensation the probe is connected to a square wave generator in the scope and the
compensation trimmer is adjusted for the required response - a square wave.

Compensation adjustment waveforms for X10 oscilloscope probe.

As can be seen, the adjustment is quite obvious and it is quick and easy to undertake. It should be
done each time the probe is moved from one input to another, or one scope to another. It does not
hurt to check it from time to time, even if it remains on the same input. As in most laboratories,
things get borrowed and a different probe may be returned, etc . .

A note of caution: many oscilloscope probes include a X1/X10 switch. This is convenient, but it
must be understood that the resistive and capacitive load on the circuit increase significantly in
the X1 position. It should also be remembered that the compensation capacitor has no effect when
used in this position.

As an example of the type of loading levels presented, a typical scope probe may present a load
resistance of 10MΩ along with a load capacitance of 15pF to the circuit in the X10 position. For
the X1 position the probe may have a capacitance of possibly 50pF plus the scope input
capacitance. This may end up being of the order of 70 to 80pF.
Other types of probe

Apart from the standard 1X and 10X voltage probes a number of other types of scope probe are
available.

Current probes: It is sometimes necessary to measure current waveforms on an oscilloscope.

This can be achieved using a current probe. This has a probe that clips around the wire and
enables the current to be sensed. Sometimes using the maths functions on a scope along with a
voltage measurement on another channel it is possible to measure power,
Active probes: As frequencies rise, the standard passive probes become less effective. The effect
of the capacitance rises and the bandwidth is limited. To overcome these difficulties active
probes can be used. They have an amplifier right at the tip of the probe enabling measurements
with very low levels of capacitance to be made. Frequencies of several GHz are achievable using
active scope probes.
Differential scope probes: In some instances it may be necessary to measure differential signals.
Low level audio, disk drive signals and many more instances use differential signals and these
need to be measured as such. One way of achieving this is to probe both lines of the differential
signal using one probe each line as if there were two single ended signals, and then using the
oscilloscope to add then differentially (i.e. subtract one from the other) to provide the difference.
Using two scope probes in this way can give rise to a number of problems. The main one is that
single ended measurements of this nature do not give the required rejection of any common mode
signals (i.e. Common Mode Rejection Ratio, CMMR) and additional noise is likely to be present.
There may be a different cable length on each probe that may lead to a time differences and a
slight skewing between the signals. To overcome this a differential probe may be used. This uses
a differential amplifier at the probing point to provide the required differential signal that is then
passed along the scope probe lead to the oscilloscope itself. This approach provides a far higher
level of performance.
High voltage probes: Most standard oscilloscope voltage probes like the X1 or X10 are only
specified for operation up to voltages of a few hundred volts at most. For operation higher than
this a proper high voltage probe with specially insulated probe is required. It also will step down
the voltage for the input to the scope so that the test instrument is not damaged by the high
voltage. Often voltage probes may be X50 or X100.
Special Purpose Oscilloscopes
Dual Beam CRO
The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic switch which
switches two signals to a single vertical amplifier. The dual beam CRO uses two completely
separate electron beams, two sets of VDPs and a single set of HDPs. Only one beam can be
synchronised at one time, since the sweep is the same for both signals, i.e. a common time base
is used for both beams. Block diagram of a Dual Beam CRO.
Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must be relatedharmonically, in
order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT screen, e.g. the input signal of an amplifier can be
used as signal A and its output signal as signal
DUAL TRACE OSCILLOSCOPE
This CRO has a single electron gun whose electron beam is split into two by an electronic switch.
There is one control for focus and another for intensity. Two signals are displayed
simultaneously. The signals pass through identical vertical channels or vertical amplifiers. Each
channel has its own calibrated input attenuator and i positioning control, so that the amplitude of
each signal can be independently adjusted.

A mode control switch enables the electronic switch to operate in two modes. Where the switch
is in ALTERNATE position, the electronic switch feeds each signal alternately to the vertical
amplifier. The electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical amplifier to channels A
and B and adds a different dc component to each signal; this dc component directs the beam
alternately to the upper or lower half of the screen. The switching takes place at the start of each
new sweep of the sweep generator. The switching rate of the electronic switch is synchronized to
the sweep rate, so that the CRT spot traces the channel A signal on one sweep and the channel B
signal on the succeeding sweep.
The sweep trigger signal is available from channels A or B and the trigger pick-off takes place
before the electronic switch. This arrangement maintains the correct phase relationship between
signals A and B. When the switch is in the CHOP mode position, the electronic switch is free
running at the rate of 100-500 kHz, entirely independent of the frequency of the sweep generator.
The switch successively connects small segments of A and B waveforms to the main vertical
amplifier at a relatively fast chopping rate of 500 kHz e.g. 1 i.ts segments of each waveform are
fed to the CRT display (Fig. 7.19 (c)).
If the chopping rate is slow, the continuity of the display is lost and it is better to use the alternate
mode of operation. In the added mode of operation a single image can be displayed by the
addition of signal from channels A and B, i.e. (A + B), etc. In the X — Y mode of operation, the
sweep generator is disconnected and channel B is connected to the horizontal amplifier. Since
both preamplifiers are identical and have the same delay time, accurate X — Y measurements
can be made.

Dual trace Oscilloscope(0-15MHz)

Block Description Y-Channels

A and B vertical channels are identical for producing the dual trace facility. Each comprises an
input coupling switch, an input step attenuator, a source follower input stage with protection
circuit, a pre-amplifier from which a trigger signal is derived and a combined final amplifier. The
input stage protection circuit consists of a diode, which prevents damage to the FET transistors
that could occur with excessive negative input potentials, and a resistor network which protects
the input stage from large positive voltage swings. As the transistors are the balanced pre-
amplifier stage, they share the same IC block. The resulting stabilisation provides a measure of
correction to reduce the drift inherent in high gain amplifiers. The trigger pick-off signal is taken
from one side of the balanced pre-amplifier to the trigger mode switch, where either channel A or
channel B triggering can be selected. The supply for the output of the pre-amplifier stage is
derived from a constant current source controlled by the channel switching logic. Under the
control of channel switching, signals from A and B channels are switched to the final
amplifier. The combined balanced final amplifier is a direct coupled one to the Y-plates of the
CRT.
Channel Switching

The front panel A and B channel selection (push button or switch), controls an oscillator in the
CHOP mode. For channel switching electronic switching logic and a F/F is used. When either A
or B channels are selected, the F/F is switched to allow the appropriate channel. In the
ALTERNATE mode, a pulse from the sweep-gating multivibrator via the electronic switching
logic, switches the F/F, thus allowing A and B channels for alternate sweeps. In the CHOP mode,
the oscillator is switched via the logic stage to provide rapid switching of the channels via the
F/F.
Triggering

A triggering signal can be obtained from the vertical amplifier of Channels A and B from an
external source or internally from the mains supply (LINE triggering). The triggering signal is
selected and normally fed via the amplifier stage to the pulse shaper, which supplies well defined
trigger pulses to the sweep-gating multivibrator for starting the sawtooth generator. Triggering
from the TV line and frame signals can be obtained from the sync separator and peak detector
stages. The latter stage is switched into circuit in the TOP position.
Time Base
The time base generator circuit operates on the constant current integrator principle. The sweep-
gating multivibrator, triggered by pulses from the differentiator and auto circuits, starts the
sawtooth generator. Sweep signals are fed to the final X-amplifier. A gate pulse is supplied by
the sweep-gating multivibrator for unblanking the CRT during the forward sweep. In addition
this pulse is supplied to an external socket for probe adjustment via a diode network.
X–Channel

Under the control of diode switching from the TIME/DIV switch, the X- amplifier receives its
input signal from either the time base sawtooth generator or from an external source (X-EXT
input socket via the X and trigger pre-amplifier). The X-MAGN (x 5) circuit is incorporated in
the X-final amplifier. The output of this amplifier is direct coupled to the horizontal deflection
plates of the CRT.

Cathode–Ray Tube Circuit and Power Supply

The high voltages required for the CRT, which has an acceleration potential of 1.5 kV, are
generated by a voltage multiplier circuit controlled by a stabilised power supply. The CRT beam
current is controlled by:
The intensity potentials network across the Extra High Tension (EHT) supply. During flyback
(movement of electron beam from right to left) by the blanking pulses coming from the sawtooth
generator via the beam blanking stages to blank the trace during right to left movement of the
electron.
Regulation of the mains input voltage is achieved by a diode clipper network controlled by a
signal fed back from an LED in the + 14 V rectifier supply.

SAMPLING OSCILLOSCOPE (VHF)

An ordinary Sampling Oscilloscope has a B.W. of 10 MHz. The HF performance can be

improved by means of sampling the input waveform and reconstructing its shape from the
sample, i.e. the signal to be observed is sampled and after a few cycles the sampling point is
advanced and another sample is taken. The shape of the waveform is reconstructed by joining
the sample
levels together. The sampling frequency may be as low as 1/10th of the input signal frequency (if
the input signal frequency is 100 MHz, the bandwidth of the CRO vertical amplifier can be as
low as 10 MHz). As many as 1000 samples are used to reconstruct the original waveform.

Figure shows a block diagram of a sampling oscilloscope. The input waveform is applied
to the sampling gate. The input waveform is sampled whenever a sampling pulse opens the
sampling gate. The sampling must be synchronised with the input signal frequency. The signal is
delayed in the vertical amplifier, allowing the horizontal sweep to be initiated by the input signal.
The waveforms are shown in Figure below.

At the beginning of each sampling cycle, the trigger pulse activates an oscillator and a linear
ramp voltage is generated. This ramp voltage is applied to a voltage comparator which compares
the ramp voltage to a staircase generator. When the two voltages are equal in amplitude, the
staircase advances one step and a sampling pulse is generated, which opens the sampling gate for
a sample of input voltage. The resolution of the final image depends upon the size of the steps of
the staircase generator. The smaller the size of the steps the larger the number of samples and
higher the resolution of the image.

STORAGE OSCILLOSCOPE
Storage targets can be distinguished from standard phosphor targets by their ability to retain a
waveform pattern for a long time, independent of phosphor peristence. Two storage techniques
are used in oscilloscope CRTs, mesh storage and phosphor storage. A mesh-Storage Oscilloscope
uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh as the storage target. This mesh is placed
between the deflection plates and the standard phosphor target in the CRT. The writing beam,
which is the focussed electron beam of the standard CRT, charges the dieletric material positively
where hit. The storage target is then bombarded with low velocity electrons from a flood gun and
the positively charged areas of the storage target allow these electrons to pass through to the
standardphosphor target and thereby reproduce the stored image on the screen. Thus the mesh
storage has both a storage target and a phosphor display target. The phosphor Storage
Oscilloscope uses a thin layer of phosphor to serve both as the storage and the display element.

Mesh Storage
It is used to display Very Low Frequencies (VLF) signals and finds many applications in
mechanical and biomedical fields. The conventional scope has a display with a phosphor
peristence ranging from a few micro seconds to a few seconds. The persistence can be increased
to a few hours from a few seconds.
A mesh Storage Oscilloscope, shown in Fig. 7.26, contains a dielectric material deposited on a
storage mesh, a collector mesh, flood guns and a collimator, in addition to all the elements of a
standard CRT. The storage target, a thin deposition of a dielectric material such as Magnesium
Fluoride on the storage mesh, makes use of a property known as secondary emission. The writing
gun etches a positively charged pattern on the storage mesh or target by knocking off secondary
emission electrons. Because of the excellent insulating property of the Magnesium Fluoride
coating, this positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position where it is deposited. In
order to make a pattern visible, a special electron gun, called the flood gun, is switched on (even
after many hours). The electron paths are adjusted by the collimator electrode, which constitutes
a low voltage electrostatic lens system (to focus the electron beam), as shown in Figure below.
Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh. Only electrons near the
stored positive charge are pulled to the storage target with sufficient force to hit the phosphor
screen. The CRT will now display the signal and it will remain visible as long as the flood guns
operate. To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to neutralise the
stored positive charge.
Since the storage mesh makes use of secondary emission, between the first and second crossover
more electrons are emitted than are absorbed by the material, and hence a net positive charge
results. Below the first crossover a net negative charge results, since the impinging electrons do
not have sufficient energy to force an equal number to be emitted. In order to store a trace,
assume that the storage surface is uniformly charged and write gun (beam emission gun) will hit
the storage target. Those areas of the storage surface hit by the deflecting beam lose electrons,
which are collected by the collector mesh. Hence, the write beam deflection pattern is traced on
the storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the insulation of the dielectric material is
high enough to prevent any loss of charge for a considerable length of time, the pattern is stored.
To view, the stored trace, a flood gun is used when the write gun is turned off. The flood gun,
biased very near the storage mesh potential, emits a flood of electrons which move towards the
collector mesh, since it is biased slightly more positive than the deflection region. The collimator,
a conductive coating on the CRT envelope with an applied potential, helps to align the flood
electrons so that they approach the storage target perpendicularly. When the electrons penetrate
beyond the collector mesh, they encounter either a positively charged region on the storage
surface or a negatively charged region where no trace has been stored. The positively charged
areas allow the electrons to pass through to the post accelerator region and the display target
phosphor. The negatively charged region repels the flood electrons back to the collector mesh.
Thus the charge pattern on the storage surface appears reproduced on the CRT display phosphor
just as though it were being traced with a deflected beam.
Figure below shows a display of the stored charge pattern on mesh storage.
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes are available in processing and non-processing types. Processing
types include built in computing power, which takes advantage of the fact that all data is already
in digital form. The inclusion of interfacing and a microprocessor provides a complete system for
information acquisition, analysis and output. Processing capability ranges from simple functions
(such as average, area, rms, etc.) to complete Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) spectrum analysis
capability. Non–processing digital scopes are designed as replacements for analog instruments
for both storage and non-storage types. Their many desirable features may lead to replace analog
scopes entirely (within the Bandwidth range where digitization in feasible).
The basic principle of a digital scope is given in Figure below. The scope operating controls are
designed such that all confusing details are placed on the back side and one appears to be using a
conventional scope. However, some digital scope panels are simpler also; most digital scopes
provide the facility of switching selectable to analog operation as one of the operating modes.
The basic advantage of digital operation is the storage capability, the stored waveform can be
repetitively read out, thus making transients appear repetitively and allowing their convenient
display on the scope screen. (The CRT used in Digital Storage Oscilliscope is an ordinary CRT,
not a storage type CRT.) Furthermore, the voltage and time scales of display are easily changed
after the waveform has been recorded, which allows expansion (typically to 64 times) of selected
portions, to observe greater details. A cross-hair cursor can be positioned at any desired point on
the waveform and the voltage/time values displayed digitally on the screen, and/or readout
electrically. Some scopes use 12 bit converters, giving 0.025% resolution and 0.1% accuracy on
voltage and time readings, which are better than the 2-5% of analog scopes.
Split screen capabilities (simultaneously displaying live analog traces and replayed stored ones)
enable easy comparison of the two signals. Pretrigger capability is also a significant advantage.
The display of stored data is possible in both amplitude versus time and X- Y modes. In addition
to the fast memory readout used for CRT display, a slow readout is possible for producing hard
copy with external plotters. When more memory than the basic amount (typically 4096
points/words) is needed, a magnetic disk accessory allows expansion to 32,000 points.
All Digital Storage Oscilliscope scopes are limited in bandwidth by the speed of their A/D
converters. However, 20 MHz digitizing rates available on some scopes yield a 5 MHz
bandwidth, which is adequate for most applications.
Consider a single channnel of Figure below. The analog voltage input signal is digitised in a 10
bit A/D converter with a resolution of 0.1% (1 part in 1024) and frequency response of 25 kHz.
The total digital memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels
each and 1024 for four channels each.

The analog input voltage is sampled at adjustable rates (up to 100,000 samples per second) and
data points are read onto the memory. A maximum of 4096 points are storable in this particular
instrument. (Sampling rate and memory size is selected to suit the duration and waveform of the
physical event being recorded.) Once the sampled record of the event is captured in memory,
many useful manipulations are possible, since memory can be read out without being erased.
If the memory is read out rapidly and repetitively, an input event which was a single shot
transient becomes a repetitive or continuous waveform that can be observed easily on an ordinary
scope (not a storage scope). The digital memory also may be read directly (without going through
DAC) to, say, a computer where a stored program can manipulate the data in almost any way
desired.
Pre-triggering recording allows the input signal preceding the trigger points to be recorded. In
ordinary triggering the recording process is started by the rise of the input (or some external
triggering) above some preset threshold value. As in digital recorder, DSO can be set to record
continuously (new data coming into the memory pushes out old data, once memory is full), until
the trigger signal is received; then the recording is stopped, thus freezing data received prior to
the trigger signal in the memory.
An adjustable trigger delay allows operator control of the stop point, so that the trigger may
occur near the beginning, middle or end of the stored information.
Digital Storage Oscilloscope Features

1. Sampling rate 20 Mega-samples per second per channel. Max. (simultaneous) capture of both
channels.
2. Pre-trigger: 25%, 50%, 75%, for Single Shot, Roll normal.

3. Roll mode: (Continuous and Single Shot with Pre-trigger of 25%, 50%, 75%)

4. Single shot (0.5 p.s Single shot @ 10 pts. /div resolution with pre-trigger 25%, 50%, 75%)

5. Digital Sweep rate: 0.5. μs/cm to 50 sec/cm, (event as long as 8.33 minutes can be captured)
6. Computer built in Interface: (RS 232 Serial port and Centronics Parallel interface).