MOULDING

FURANE SAND

MOULDING

SELF SETTING SAND

FURANE SYSTEM

Ir G HENDERIECKX
GIETECH BV

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FURANE SAND

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION
2. SYSTEM
2.1 TARGET
2.2 NEW SAND
2.3 RECLAIMED SAND
2.4 GENERAL FACTORS
3. MATERIALS
3.1 SAND
3.2 RESIN OR BINDER
3.3 CATALYST
3.4 COATING
4. EQUIPMENT
5. RULES & INFLUENCES
6. TESTS
6.1 SAND
6.2 BINDER & CATALYST
6.3 COATING
6.4 MOULD
7. NON CONFORMITIES
7.1 SURFACE
7.2 GAS INCLUSIONS
7.3 GRAPHITE
8. CONCLUSION
9. LITERATURE

ADDITION ENVIRONMENT & SAFETY PROPERTIES

ADDITION SPECIFIC SURFACE OF SAND
ADDITION USE OF CHROMITE SAND

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1. INTRODUCTION
Due to the limitation of green sand (bentonite sand) for larger castings and materials
with a high pouring temperature as well as the hard working conditions for filling and
ramming moulds, new sand bounding systems were required.

The use of chemically bounded sand for producing moulds started at the end of the
fifties in Europe as well as The United States. The first products to harden the sand
were furane and phenol as binder and sulfuric acid, PTSA acid and xylene were used
as reaction catalyst.

In the beginning, a lot of problems occurred and the quality consistency was very low.
Most of the improvements were made in the period between 1960 and 1970. The
system became more clear and more stable. Different types of furane were
produced: with different amounts of furfuryl alcohol, water and nitrogen.

Since the end of the eighties, beginning of the nineties, the environment has got an
increasing importance, concerning air pollution and waste production. For these
reasons the sand reclamation has become an alternative, recognising that waste
(residual materials) has to be dumped, which is not recommended.

Also the influence of the sand system on the work station (working environment) has
to be limited. The fume and smell that are released during the reaction cannot be
hazardous to the workers and should definitely not be dangerous to anyone’s health.

The classification of the chemical binder systems can be done in different ways, but
one of the most common used is depending on heat input or not and gas (cold box)
or liquid (no bake) catalyzed. The table below gives an overview.

Cold-Box No-Bake Heat-Activated

Phenolic/Urethane/Amine Furan/Acid Shell
Silicate/CO2 Phenolic/Acid Core Oil
Furan/SO2 Phenolic/Ester Phenolic Hot-Box
Acrylic/Epoxy/SO2 Oil/Urethane Furan Hot-Box
Urea Formaldehyde Hot-
(Acrylic) FRC /SO2 Silicate/Ester
Box
Phenolic/Ester (Methyl
Phenolic Urethane Warm-Box
Formate)
Phenolic/CO2 Phosphate/Metal Oxide
Polyol Urethane

In this book, the system based on furane is choosen. Phenol is clearly cheaper, but it
is not allowed to be used in some country, due to a suspicious influence on the
operators.

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Water glass is environmentally very good, but has the disadvantage that it absorbs
humidity very quickly, which makes it less suitable for environments with a lot of rain
(monsoon rains), high temperature and humidity (exotic environment) and cold
temperatures with high humidity (winter period in northern countries).
The other systems like “coldbox” and “hotbox” are used for cores, mostly small cores
for serial production.

The chemically bounded sand is the best moulding system these days for middle
large to large castings, in single production or small series.

The Air-Set or No-Bake systems are distinguished from the cold-Box systems just
covered in that they are catalyzed by a liquid rather than a gas agent.
The Air-Set binder system is generally used by smaller "Jobber-Shops" or low
volume foundries due to the additional time required for the binder system to cure
once moulded.

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2. SYSTEM
2.1 TARGET
2.2 NEW SAND
2.3 RECLAIMED SAND
2.4 GENERAL FACTORS

2.1 TARGET
The popularity of silica sand as a molding material is due to it's availability and
relatively inexpensive cost. But also other types are used.

The target of using a type sand mould for the production of castings is to produce a
mould that:

1. is strong enough to be manipulated after a short period of time

2. has sufficient heat resistance and strength to let the casting solidify without
problems
3. has no (negative) influence on the metal (no interaction)
4. can be shaken out sufficiently easily
5. can be reclaimed sufficiently “well” (low cost, low amount of waste).

All these requirements can be obtained with “furane sand system”. This system is
organic and readily polymerizes with acidic catalysts to a solid state at room
temperature. It is different from others, like cold box, because it use a liquid to
catalyse the hardening reaction. It is mostly used in jobbing foundries.

Good minimal strengths for the several chemical bounded sands (furane) are:

1. core sand > 400 N/cm2 or 4000 kPa

2. mould sand in contact with the pattern > 250 N/cm2 or 2500 kPa
3. mould sand for backing > 100 N/cm2 or 1000 kPa

1 kPa = 1 kN / m²

It is also important that the reclaiming can be done to a very high extend (less
environmental pollution by dumping) and that the part of the sand that has to be
dumped is not or very few polluting or can be destroyed with low cost.

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2.2 NEW SAND

A unique characteristic of furan resin is that, when it is polymerized with a strong
acid, it undergoes a unique color transformation, first turning green and then black.
The color shift results from the formation of chromophoric compounds (chemical
reactions that produce color as they occur) during the curing stages. Ultraviolet light
breaks down the chromophoric conjugation so that the color eventually will return to
that of the naturally coated brownish appearance. The color change has no apparent
physical effect on coated sand properties.

This binder - catalyst system has 3 (three) distinct phases that start immediately after
the catalyst is added to the coated sand mixture and occurs at ambient room
temperature.

The sand has to be moisturized with “furane” (the binder of the system, which is
mainly furfuryl alcohol) and every grain of sand is attached to the other. The start of
the reaction (hardening process) and the control of the reaction speed is done by the
catalyst (PTSA, phosphoric acid or mixed acid).

The sand has to be mixed with the binder and the catalyst. This is mostly done in
high speed mixers. There are 2 types of mixers with:
• 1 trough where first the catalyst is introduced and then the resin.
• 3 trough: one for resin (binder) and sand and one for the catalyst and sand.
At the end, both are mixed with each other, fast and intensively in a third
trough.

The sand is falling in the mould box, which contain the pattern. The sand is vibrated
or rammed (less vigilant than for green sand) to assure a good filled mould box.

The first phase in the process is "Work-Time", which is the period that all mixing,
transport, mould filling and compaction is done.

The second phase is the "Strip-Time" referring to the period that has to elapse till
core / mould has polymerized enough to hold it's shape and the pattern can be
removed from the mould and the core from the core box. The hardening of the sand
is happening in contact with air, physically from the outside to the inside because the
reaction (resin – catalyst) forms water, which must escape to keep the reaction going.
The moment in time (stripping time), when the pattern is removed becomes very
important for the further hardening, because than the part of the mould, in contact
with the pattern, can easily get rid of the reaction water and the hardening at that
area (which is important because it is the contact area with the liquid metal) can
really go and be finished.

The third phase is the "Cure-Time", which is the period of time that has to elapse
once the core and the mould start to set-up to the time that the resin is fully
polymerized.

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When the mould and core are hardened sufficiently, the inside mould cavity and core
are coated to protect the sand during pouring for the liquid metal and high
temperature.

Work, Strip & Cure Times should be predictable consistent in time and are specific to
the resin type being used, the quantity and type of catalyst added, the ambient
temperature of the sand and room as well as the humidity.

The furane / acid system is categorized as the “furane family” but contains no
furane, but is rather composed of either:
• Urea Formaldehyde (UF) or
• Phenol Formaldehyde (PF) as well as
• Furfuryl alcohol (FA).

The system is considered as organic, and readily polymerizes with acidic catalysts to
a solid state at room temperature

The furane family has 3 sub groups based upon the nitrogen and combined with the
water content of the system. These are generically identified as low, medium and
high nitrogen systems.

Furane / Acid Binder Classification

Nitrogen % Water %
Low 0–3 0-5
Medium 2–8 5 - 15
High 5 – 11 10 - 30

These percentages are representative for the polymerized resin and do not include
the volume of sand.

The catalyst reaction is exothermic (one that generates heat), although not
stated, it's possible to theorize a relationship between the moisture content
created during the polymerization phase and rate of cure.

Fact is that higher moisture contents do generally lead to slower cure-times.

The tensile strength of the core / mould is also negatively impacted by higher levels
of moisture.

Another issue is the relationship between nitrogen (N) and moisture. Though the
effect of nitrogen is less pronounced with non-ferrous castings, it is problematic with
ferrous (especially steel) castings.

The nitrogen and by association moisture content, can be modified by the use of
"low-N" furfuryl alcohol.

Typical use of the sand – resin or binder - catalyst is:

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Typical Material proportions

Mold Core
Sand 98.96% 98.70%
Resin 0.80% 1.00%
Catalyst 0.24% 0.30%

Note that mould sand generally has less resin & catalyst than core sand.

The catalyst material is an acid, which is generally from either:

• phosphoric or
• sulfonic families, with the sulfonic acids yielding faster cure times.

The rate of cure can be accelerated up to a point, beyond which core / mould quality
is effected by dried weak surfaces that are prone to being friable when poured.

The acidic nature of the catalyst is what activates and precipitates polymerization.

The sand that is used can adversely affect the curing process if it has a high ADV
(Acid Demand Value), effectively neutralizing the catalyst before the curing process is
complete. Olivine sand does have a high ADV and would be considered unsuitable,
while silica, chromite and zircon sands would be acceptable.

The furan family of binders is among the most widely used systems for the class of
No-Bake / Air-set sand systems.
They offer flexible work, strip and cure times, good hot strength and erosion
resistance and relative ease of sand reclamation.

On the negative side SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide) is produced during the casting process, as
well as the toxicity of the resin & catalyst components involved. The release of
residual formaldehyde during the sand reclamation process also poses health and
environmental concerns.

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2.3 RECLAIMED SAND

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
2.3.2 PRINCIPLES & PURPOSE
2.3.3 TYPE OF RECLAIMING
2.3.4 IMPORTANT ITEMS

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Regeneration, also called reclaiming, is necessary to keep the chemical bounded
sand system economic, which means good quality and capability for lowest price.
Chemical bounded sand has mostly a high price compared to green sand but has
more capabilities and sometimes higher quality surfaces of the casting.
The importance of reclaiming increases due to increasing difficulty and cost for
dumping or re-using the “used sand”.

For these reasons it is preferred to find and develop ways to re-use the “used sand”
to a “as high degree as possible”.

For thermal regeneration the reclaiming can already be up to more than 95 % and for
mechanical regeneration from 80 to 90 %.

But let’s not forget that the pouring system, risers and casting itself do already heat
part of the sand to temperatures, equal to the ones used in a thermal regeneration.
This means that the sand, which is influenced by the pouring process is already
reclaimed to more than 95 %. The amount of sand involved depends on the sand /
metal ratio. The lower the ratio, the more sand (in %) will be reclaimed and this
thermal regeneration costs nothing.

Thermal reclaiming does use a lot of energy: heating the sand to at least 650 °C,
cooling it to below 25 °C and removing the waste (d ust), which is highly polluted by
other elements. Due to the fact that nearly all industrial countries are stabling
programs to reduce CO2 emission, which is present by nearly every heating, the
thermal regeneration system is not the preferred one. For this reason, it is seldom
used. Unless mentioned otherwise, in this book we will always write about
mechanical regeneration.

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2.3.2 PRINCIPLES & PURPOSE
After using the sand, a lot of reacted products (binder and catalyst) are present in the
sand, partly loose (dust) and partly still attached to the sand grains.
By re-using the sand, the “unburned” (organic) products will build up in the sand. Also
the sand grain will become finer. The consequences are:

a. build up of resin particles --> LOI increases

b. build up of catalyst --> pH decreases (needs less catalyst)
c. sand grain gets smaller --> AFS number increases
d. requires less binder --> because specific surface increases and
the roundness of the grains gets better
e. build up of nitrogen --> problems with pinholes

These products unburned (organic) materials:

* do not participate anymore in the “bounding of grains” during the next use because
they are reaction products (completely reacted, hardened; similar to a two
component-glue)
* do bloc and disturb a good connection of the new resin with the sand grains: the
required sand – new resin – sand conncetion becomes a sand – old resin –
new resin – old resin – sand connection, which is very weak to non existing.
* do cause extra gas formation (temperature sand > 650 °C) during pouring.

These reaction products, as well as other organic (volatile parts) and anorganic
materials (fine grain sand, metal), will be removed during reclaiming.
At the same time, the sand distribution and specific surface of the reclaimed sand
must be brought back to the target values in 2 steps.

1. Step 1: the large non wanted elements like metal fins, mould stiffners, chills,
wood, sleeve remains, sand agglomerates… are removed by
sieves
2. Step 2: the sand proceeds to the next step of reclaiming, which will be:
* for the thermal regeneration: heating to temperature > 650 °C, cooling
and removing dust
* for the mechanical regeneration: with grinding, shock applying and
vibrating, these components come loose from the sand grains.
Once loose, they have to be removed (sucked by aspirators),
together with the other unwanted materials, which can be to fine
grain sand particles (dust).

Due to the possibility that “agglomerates” are formed, which cannot be broken down,
phosphoric acid cannot be used in a high degree cold reclaimation (mechanical
regeneration). In case of thermal regeneration however, it can be used as is any
other binder and catalyst. We will discuss the difference between mechanical and
thermal regeneration later.

As a summary, the following elements should be removed and or controlled:

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1. volatile components: binder and catalyst, phosphorous and other

aggregates, nitrogen combinations …
2. dust
3. sand agglomerates, which gives an incorrect idea of the grain distribution
and will, by re-using, suck up to much resin without increasing strength
and they decrease or make the ramming and densifying difficult. They
are mostly connected with a high S- and or P-content.
4. all non-sand components: residues of exothermal and isolating riser
sleeves, carbonized residues of binder, metal, wood…

The quality of regeneration is set by the degree of removal of “dust” and

“agglomerates”, combustible or not. Only sand should be present after
reclaiming.

Additionally the reclaiming should:

1. lead to an economical advantage in the all-over price or cost: price new sand,
products, dumping old sand and regeneration costs have to be compared.

2. lead to more round sand grains, which will lead to a lower need of binder,
catalyst and lower importance of coating activity.

3. remove “all” impurities (not being the target sand).

4. approach to the best environmental result:

1. cause as few residual materials as possible (waste)
2. have a low concentration and amount of chemical materials in the
waste products.
These are contradictory requirements because a maximum reclaiming
causes few but chemically highly concetrated waste.

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2.3.3 TYPE OF RECLAIMING
There are 4 types, commonly used:

1. mechanical systems
* dust “can” be removed very well and in a good controlled way
* remove only “binder / catalyst residues” and other non-sand inclusions, which
are loose from the sand grain. The “aspiration or suction action” is very
important. If it is not sufficiently strong, the “removable objects” will
again attach themselves somewhere else. If the suction is too strong,
also valuble sand is removed (and lost).
* especially residues of phosphoric acid, which form stable phosphates, are
hard to remove.
* type of mould sand acting:
+ jaw crusher
+ pneumatic scrubber
+ vibratory reduction
+ shot blast reduction
+ mechanical sand scrubber.

2. wet systems (wash and dry)

* remove dust very well
* remove also more or less a higher part of the “non-combustible” materials
* problem is the water, used for washing, which:
+ becomes highly contaminated and costly to clean or dump
+ will need a high maintenance level (corrosion, low concentrated acid)
* system requires a lot of energy (especially drying)

3. thermal systems (minimum 750 °C)

* remove dust very well if filter and aspiration is applied
* “combustible” materials disappear and should be collected in filters
* expensive concerning energy consumption (heating and cooling)
* expensive investment (thermal furnace and filter)

4. combined thermal systems

* depend on the applied combination
* the combination of wet and thermal reclamation is best: the non-combustible
as well as the combustible materials are then removed.

As seen, there are different types, which are valuable depending on the target result,
taking in account the cost that can be paid to keep the result (sand reclaiming)
economically acceptable.

At the end, the most important action is the controlling of the sand temperature. This
is of course the case with thermal reclaiming but also with mechanical reclaiming.
Many times large amounts of hot sand are put into the regeneration, which has to
cool the sand before it is send to the storage hoppers.

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2.3.4 IMPORTANT ITEMS

1. RATIO SAND / METAL

2. USE CORRECT PRODUCTS
3. LOSS OF IGNITION
4. PERCENTAGE SULFUR
5. PERCENTAGE NITROGEN
6. AMOUNT OF GAS DURING POURING
7. REQUIRED AMOUNT OF NEW SAND
8. pH
9. TYPES OF SAND SYSTEMS MIXABLE
SUMMARY

1. RATIO SAND / METAL

It is obvious that a low ratio of sand to metal will cause a high thermal load to the
mould sand during and after pouring and therefore it causes a high degree of burning
organic elements (which is a type of thermal reclaiming). This tends towards the
result of thermal regeneration, which is a lot more effective than mechanical
regeneration and it is free!

The more binder and catalyst will burn, as well as possible organic components, the
less they have to be removed by the mechanical regeneration (after shake out).
These advantages will be discussed deeper in the following text.

The sand (mould material), after pouring, consists of four layers (figures next page):

1. sand without bound (separate sand grains):

the resin and the other materials are burned, the sand is thermal reclaimed.

2. sand with a moderate bound (when mould is lifted or transported, most of the
sand falls into grains):
the resin and the other materials are fairly burned out and it is easy to
clean this sand and remove the non-sand components.

3. sand with somewhat less strong bound (fragments, agglomerates, lumps):

this sand still contains all the “polluting” materials but the binding bound with
the sand grains is more or less brittle, which makes it somewhat easier to
remove the non wanted elements.

4. sand with the original bound:

with this sand, nothing happened and the reclaiming is to be done in full.

The result can be shown in a graph, which compares the “residual loss of ignition” in
percentage of “the initial loss of ignition” (if nothing happened), related to the ratio
sand / metal.

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The higher the loss of ignition of the sand after shake out, the larger the amount of
sand in groups 3 and 4. See figure on this page.

Casting
1

2
4
3

100
LOI (% of original LOI)

80

60

40

20 2 3 4

1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
RATIO SAND / IRON

The regeneration process can be summarized, in relation to the ratio sand / metal:
(also shown in the picture on next page).

1. Binder and catalyst, which is vaporized during mixing, hardening and drying
will be about 15 %
2. The temperature increase of sand, due to pouring, causes some materials
to decompose, vaporize.
3. During mechanical regeneration, some more non-wanted material is
removed:
* 20 – 25 % for a low ratio sand / metal with a large 2 + 3 zone
* 1 - 5 % for a high ratio sand / metal with a large 4 zone.
4. part of the sand that has to be replaced by new sand.

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REMOVING OF BINDER / CATALYST Vaporizing

Heating
100
Mechanical reclaming
80
Cleaning (%)

60 NEW SAND

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4
Sand / Metal ratio

SCHEMATIC FIGURE OF THE SAND CLEANING BY THE RECYCLING PROCESS, IN

PERCENTAGES OF THE ADDED RESIN AND CATALYST PER CYCLE.

Some guidelines are:

* the weight of sand which is reclaimed during pouring equals the weight of metal.

* the amount of sand that is easy to reclaim is the sand in zones 1 + 2.

For steel, this sum will be higher than for cast iron for an equal amount of
sand because of the higher heat input (higher pouring temperature).

2. USE CORRECT PRODUCTS (BINDER AND CATALYST)

As binder, mostly furane and phenol resins are used. Because of the bad
qualification considering environment and especially waste (dumping), in quite some
countries (amongst them Netherlands), the phenolic binders will not be used.
Therefor the phenollic system is not discussed in this text, but can to a high degree
also be applied.

The furane binders consist mainly of furfuryl alcohol. The formaldehyde is added as
an essential element, but also water as well as other additions can and will be made.

Water is cheap but has a negative effect because it slows down the reaction and it
results in a lower strength / hardness of the sand.

For all binders, especially the nitrogen content is important, because it can influence
the metal (in an uncontrollable degree).

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The catalysts belong to four types:

* PTSA paratolueensulfonic acid

* Phosphoric acid phosphoric-acid
* BSA-acids benzeen-sulfon acid
* XSA-acids xylene-sulfon acid

Especially the catalysts of the group of the PTSA’s, (sulfuric acids belongs to it), can
have a negative influence on the graphite formation of ductile iron by introducing
sulfur from the sand to the metal and promote the reaction with magnesium. The
sulfur (locally too high content compared to the magnesium content) will favour the
lamelar shaped free graphite, decrease the nodularity and create a dross surface
layer (1 – 3 mm).

Because there is always water in these catalysts, the percentage will strongly
influence the reaction speed of the hardening and the final hardness / strength of the
sand. Pay attention that this water is coming on top of the water in the binder and the
water initiated (reaction product) by and during the hardening.

3. LOSS OF IGNITION (ESPECIALLY AFTER REGENERATING)

The loss of ignition is the amount or percentage of materials, present in the sand, that
can combust and cause gas formation. These (mostly organic) materials are often
present as fine particles (dust) or they are present as useless layers around the sand
grains (attached to the grains).

The “loss of ignition” (LOI) gives an objective idea of the gas development that can
happen and of the possible decrease in hardness / strength of the sand. It indicates
the potential danger for gas defects in castings and the level of surface quality.

What is the maximum allowed “loss of ignition”?

Until recently, in many literature and instructions, there was a maximum percentage
mentioned. The amount varies depending of the source.
But is it necessary to have a maximum and is there interest for indicating a minimum.

The well-known company “GF” states: < 3,5 %.

Another source gives guidelines for furane and phenolic sand according to the ratio
sand / metal:
Loss of ignition for sand / metal furane sand phenolic sand
ratio

0,6 - 1,5 0,8 - 1,1 % 1,8 - 2,5 %

1,5 - 2,0 1,2 - 1,8 % 2,5 - 3,0 %
2,0 - 3,5 1,8 - 3,0 % 3,0 - 4,5 %
3,5 - 5,0 3,0 - 5,0 % 4,5 - 6,0 %
> 5,0 > 5,0 % > 6,0 %

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Remark

If the foundry works with the system in which a fixed amount of regenerated sand and
new sand together with a constant amount of resin and catalyst is continuously used,
the loss of ignition will end at a fairly constant level, after a fast increase during the
first runs of the sand. See figure.

The higher the ratio sand / metal, the less organic material will burn during and after
pouring and the higher the loss of ignition will be.

The higher the temperature of the metal, the more organic material will burn and the
the lower the loss of ignition will be (See figure on page 36 and 37: % binder that will
burn).

By adding new sand, mostly to compensate the removed dust and fine sand, the loss
of ignition of the mixed (reclaimed and new) sand will decrease. This is because the
loss of ignition of new sand is low (most requirements ask for a level < 0,5 %).

The total degree of regeneration consists of two components:

r = ra + rr ra : removed volatile components

rr : removed parts of resin and broken sand

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Besides the standards for the maximum, some foundries also want a minimum
loss of ignition prescribed.

The idea behind requesting a minimum and a maximum level is as follows:

Minimum: * LOI causes a smoother and nicer casting surface, if below a certain
figure (depending on the type of metal)
* LOI increase the resistance to penetration, fin formation, …
* re-used silica sand already had its quartz expansion and should be
used to the maximum, also for cores and covering sand of
pattern.

Maximum: * LOI increase the presence of gas defects

* LOI increase will request a higher amount of binder / catalyst to get
the highest possible strength
* LOI increase will decrease the reaction speed.

1280 °C 1420 °C
BURNT BINDER
60
% BURNT BINDER

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
SAND / METAL RATIO

LOI acc No of RUNS r = 75 % r = 50 % r = 25 %

r = 20 % r = 10 %
8

6
LOI (%)

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
No of RUNS

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By regenerating the sand, the amount of dust can increase especially if the suction
action is not optimal. This can be caused by sand grains that break because of
thermal shock (in mould) or mechanical shock (in reclaiming). This has absolutely to
be avoided because small grains neeed more resin for the equal sand strength.
An example:
before regeneration after

% dust 0,91 % 1,44 %

% loss of ignition 6,47 % 3,80 %

The three most important measures to avoid a high loss of ignition are:

1. keep the ratio sand / metal as low as possible

2. use high quality binders in small amounts
3. put high quality sand on the pattern and after that use backing sand with
less binder / catalyst addition.
4. adequately remove dust because
* in the dust are a lot of not-wanted materials
* the dust will form nids in the sand silos which can then suddenly get
into the mixer
* new dust will be produced by pneumatic transport and increase the
dust percentage.

A filter on top of the sand silo may NEVER be hanging over the silo and
the dust can’t be removed from it while hanging over the silo.

Summarized we can say that the loss of ignition (LOI) depends on:

1. amount of resin and addition of catalyst

2. addition of new sand
3. ratio sand / metal
4. efficiency of the regeneration
5. metal temperature
6. section, thickness of the casting
7. addition of other sand systems by for example cores.

4. PERCENTAGE SULFUR

The sulfur in the sand comes mainly from the catalyst PTSA and sulfuric acid, if used
(frequently used in winter conditions).

The higher the addition of catalyst and the higher the ratio sand / metal, the more
sulfur there will be in the (reclaimed and or re-used) sand.

However a minimum of catalyst is needed, otherwise it will moisturize the sand

insufficiently and the hardness of the sand will definitely be not homogeneous. The
condition of the sand mixer is very important for the correct mixing!

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Therefore the minimum amount of 25 % is accepted, with the maximum of 50 – 60 %
and the optimal amount of 40 %.

The sulfur is especially negative for the “shape of free graphite” in the ductile iron
casting, especially the surface layer. Because of the surplus of sulfur, the magnesium
will react untill it is too low and the free graphite will locally (at the surface) segregate
as worms and or lamellae. This is especially the case for thick wall (> 75 mm) ductile
iron castings, which can have a 1 to 3 mm thick layer with non-spheroidal graphite! In
thinner (> 25 mm) castings, this zone is 0,5 till 1,3 mm.

It can also be a disadvantage for steel, stainless steel and carbon steel, especially
when it has to be welded.

A “partly” solution can be a well covering coating, although for thick wall castings, this
result will never be that good that it can prevent the surface layer.

Maximum sulfur content in sand is 0,10 to 0,12 % for steel and ductile iron, for
all other materials, maximum 0,5 % is admitted.

The combination of sulfur with oxygen and nitrogen is even more harmfull.

5. PERCENTAGE NITROGEN

The amount of nitrogen will adjust itself, for a consistent process (equal conditions of
sand / metal ratio, addition of binder / catalyst, type of metal…), to a certain amount
that depends directly on the amount in the binder (resin) and its nitrogen content.
The better the regeneration, the longer it will take before this process value is
reached.

The problem is that nitrogen causes “pinholes”.

These are small gas defects (inclusions) that occur in nests directly under the surface
and even into the surface.
Most of the time they are completely visible during machining. But they are very
difficult to remove or repare. See figure below.

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Following maximum values (% of nitrogen in the sand) are generally accepted:

0,15 % for cast iron and non-ferrous metals without special requirements
0,15 % for lamellar (grey) cast iron
0,10 % for ductile and alloyed lamellar cast iron
0,06 % for steel
0,01 % for steel to be welded.

From experience, a sand with additions of 1 to 3 % binder and 40 to 60 % catalyst,

can have following process data for the nitrogen content in the sand:

sand / metal % nitrogen

cast iron steel
0,6 to 1,5 4% 1%
1,5 to 2,0 2 to 4 % 0,5 to 1 %
2,0 to 3,5 1,5 to 2 % 0,3 to 0,5 %
3,5 to 5,0 < 1,5 % < 0,3 %
> 5,0 < 1,0 % 0,0 %

6. AMOUNT OF GAS DURING POURING

Every organic material has its decomposing and vaporizing temperature. The amount
of gas, during decomposing and or vaporizing also differs a lot. The following values
are common (at 1350 °C for gas production):

material vaporizing m3 gas / m3 sand ml gas / g product

temperature

starch 121 °C 113 13,0

furane 163 96 12,6
phenol 316 266 16,0
alkyd resins-urethaan 14,5
linseedoil 427 351 11,5
core oil 10,5-12,5
air hardened oil 21,0
CO2 3,5
water glass 4,5
shell moulding 18,5-23,0
bentonite 2,0
(furane: urea formaldehyde, phenol: phenol formaldehyde)

* The amount of gas related to time is shown for water glass, phenol and furane. The
faster this gas is produced, the more problems there will be to remove it. This
is the case for water glass, a little less for furane and the lowest for phenol. So
the slower the gas production, the easier to remove.

* The higher the “loss of ignition” (LOI), the more gas will be produced

* The higher the pouring temperature, the faster the gas forms, so the easier it will
penetrate into the metal, especially the “hotspots”.

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* The amount of gas also depends on the humidity of the sand, which in turn is
depending on its (forced or not) frying and absorption of the air humidity.

CHEMICAL BOUNDED SAND

cm3/g Amount of gas

15

12

0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5 %

LOI

PHENOLIC FURANIC
GAS ACC TO TIME
WATER GLASS

7
6
GAS (cm³/g)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240
TIME (s)

* Following maximum is suggested:

1. < 10 cm3 / gram for steel (maximum loss of ignition 2 - 2,8 %)

2. < 20 - 22 cm3 / gram for cast iron and non-ferrous metals (maximum loss of
ignition 4 – 5 %).

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7. REQUIRED AMOUNT OF NEW SAND

For mechanically reclaimed sand the minimum amount of new sand is 10 %, but
safer is 15 to 20 %; however it depends strongly on the quality of the used resin,
catalyst and sand.

For thermal reclaimed sand, the minimum amount of new sand equals the removal of
dust, which is mostly less than 5 %.

Actually, the necessary addition is as much as needed to obtain the required values
for the different quality related factors, which are: sand strength, loss of ignition, gas
formation, amount of nitrogen and “acid demand”.

8. pH

The pH cannot be low, without causing serious problems.

Due to the surplus of catalyst (compared to the theoretical need for the binder), the
initially “neutral” sand (concerning pH) will become more and more acid. This high
acidity (low pH) will slightly decrease the need for extra catalyst.

The new sand can definitely not be “basic” (olivine sand) for furane and phenol!
The requirement for extra catalyst (acid addition) to neutralize this basic pH is high, in
order to be able to initiate the binder reaction.

9. TYPES OF SAND SYSTEMS MIXABLE

The foundry has to acknowledge that the use of “basic sand systems” does not
decrease the acidity of the regenerated sand because there is a compensation for
this basic pH and a need for extra catalyst to assure the good sand strength building.

The gas formation will increase strongly by adding “shell bounded sand” to furane
sand.

The fatigue strength will decrease by adding CO2-sand to furane sand.

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Summarized influence of the elements (C as carbon, N as nitrogen, S as sulfur
and P as phophorous), introduced by the use of one or some systems:

System C N S P Measures to take

furane-PTSA 1/2 2 5/6 a, b, c, f, h, j

furane-phosphoric acid 1/2 2 7/8 a, b, c, f, i, j
phenol-PTSA 1/2 5/6 a, b, c, h, j
phenol-urethane 3 4 a, b, c, g

Explanation of figures

“1” crack formation “a” decrease loss of ignition

“2” decrease mechanical strength “b” less resin + catalyst
“3” 1 as well as 2, explicit “c” put on coating
“4” slight decrease of mechanical strength “f” less N in resin
“5” intake S for steel and non-ferrous “g” less nitrogen
“6” graphite disturbance for ductile “h” check amount of S in metal
especially in ductile iron
“7” intake of P for steel “i” checking amount of P
“8” intake of P in non-ferrous “j” different catalyst
and introduction of brittleness

Quartz, zircon and chromite sand have sufficient strength to be regenerated

mechanically; olivine sand is less suitable. It breaks too fast and therefore it leads
very fast to a very fine grain distribution.

Not all systems require the same regeneration method:

* water glass has to be washed and dried

* alpha-set has to be thermally reclaimed (heated).

The different types of sand have their proper pH-value:

basic: clay-sand, oil sand, chroming, cement sand, CO2- and water glass
sand, alpha and betha set, pepset sand, all others with a “alkyd and
poly-urethane resin” based binder.

acid: furane, phenol, hotbox, hardox, redset sand

All sand systems can only be used together “without restrictions” if there is a
thermal regeneration.

If they are mechanically regenerated, the pH is the main factor and has to be verified
continuously. Dependent on this pH, the amount of use of another sand system can
be determined (without getting prtoblems).

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SUMMARY MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE VALUES

Steel Cast Iron & non-ferrous

% dust 0,5 0,5 to 2

Basic (% NaOH) 0,5 to 0,75 0,5 to 0,75

gas formation cm3/g 10 20 to 22

loss of ignition (LOI) % 2,2 3 to 5

amount of nitrogen % sand 0,03 to 0,07 0,1 to 0,2

amount of sulfur % sand 0,08 to 0,15 0,08 to 0,15

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2.4 GENERAL FACTORS

The strength of the mould (sand) is influenced by:

1. the amount of binder

2. the amount of binder in ratio to the grain distribution and the specific
surface of the sand
3. negatively influencing factors
a. water (percentage of water)
b. physical process (strength build up)
c. excess of acid (pH)
d. organic materials (LOI)

The speed of the “strength build up” is mainly influenced by the catalyst.

There are limiting factors:

1. amount of catalyst, especially its relative ratio to the amount of binder (resin)
2. temperature: increasing temperature leads to increasing reaction speed, which
leads to less time for filling and compressing, stamping or vibrating
3. type of catalyst: not all catalysts work fast (see later)
4. water content: during the reaction, water is formed and has to vaporize. If there is
a high water content in the catalyst, the total water content during the reaction
will be high and this will slow down the reaction.
The higher the humidity, the slower the water will vaporize and the slower the
hardening will happen.

The influence of the mould (sand + binder + catalyst) on the metal can be:

a. too much gas development so that it segregates into the metal.

(mostly caused by organic material, which can be measured by LOI or loss of
ignition)

b. too much nitrogen that causes pinholes, especially in steel and ductile iron and the
so-called “Komma-fehler” in lamellar cast iron.

c. sand that is too strong causes heat related (hot) cracks (especially steel).

By using a coating the influence metal / sand can be restricted but never completely
avoided. The coating itself will also influence the surface quality of the casting.

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3. MATERIALS

In this chapter all material involved in the process will be described: sand, resin or
binder, catalyst and coating.

Which factors are important for the sand?

The thermal expansion is important because the more the sand expands, the more
the risk that the coating will crack and liquid metal can penetrate. This leads to scabs,
rat tails, mould wall movement…
Especially the silica sand is prone to these defects because at the first heating, the
alpha quartz phase will be transformed to the beta quartz phase, which has a
different volume.

The density is important because the heat content will be higher if the density is
higher.

The melting temperature is important because the sand will be “wetted” more easy
if the temperature is coming close to the liquid metal temperature. This will lead to
penetrating and burn in of sand – metal.

The shape of the sand grains, from round to angular, is important because it has an
influence on the necessary amount of binder to get an equal strength.

The pH is important because it will indicate the necessity for catalyst or even indicate
that an acidic system is not applicable.

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3.1 SAND

3.1.1 Quartz sand, Silica sand

Composition:

Grade A > 96 % SiO2

< 1,5 % Al2O3
< 1,0 % Fe2O3
< 0,75 % CaO + MgO
< 1,0 % Na2O + K2O
maximum 0,5 % loss of ignition

Grade B < 96 % SiO2

< 2,5 % Al2O3
< 1,0 % Fe2O3
< 1,00 % CaO + MgO
< 2,0 % Na2O + K2O
maximum 0,75 % loss of ignition

Characteristics:
* colour is white (to brown if polluted with organic material, mostly
clay)
* sharp as well as round grains
* loss of ignition 0,2 % to 0,75 %
* apparent weight about 1,6 to 1,7 kg/dm3
* pH: acidic

Use: Can be used for all types of resin

Advantages:
* very cheap
* unlimited availability in all AFS-numbers

Disadvantages:
* thermically not stable
* large volume-changes according to temperature
* is moisturized by manganese steel and high-chromium steels
* grain distribution depends strongly on the area where it is found
* relatively light and low cooling effect
* hazardous to the health (dust part of it).

Other properties see at the end of this chapter.

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3.1.2 Chromite sand

Composition:
44 to 47 % Cr2O3
12 to 15 % Al2O3
25 to 27 % Fe2O3
0,15 to 0,20 % MnO
1 to 1,8 % SiO2 (max 4 %)
0,1 % CaO (max 0,5%)
6 to 10 % MgO
humidity < 0,5 %

Characteristics:

* colour is black to dark grey

* sharp as well as round grains
* loss of ignition 0,5 % under nitrogen atmosphere
* apparent weight about 2,7 to 3,0 kg/dm3
* specific weight about 4,4 to 4,6 kg/dm3
* pH: neutral to basic

Use: Can be used for all types of resin with acid catalyst.
* So no water glass!
* Amount to add is about 1,5 times the one for white sand.
* Only coating based on silica cannot be used.

Advantages:

* high thermal stability, good behaviour at high temperature

* high cooling effect
* good resistance to metal moisturizing
* good resistance to metal penetration
* chemically stable

Disadvantages:

* volume expansion is double the expansion of zircon sand

* more angular (less round) grains than for zircon sand
* danger of moisture pick up, which can lead to gas problems and lower
sand strength
* higher “acid consumption” than zircon sand
* should never be mixed with silica sand.

Other properties see at the end of this chapter.

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3.1.3 Zircon sand
Composition:
65 to 66,5 % ZrO2
Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + TiO2 < 1 %
33,5 to 35 % SiO2
humidity < 0,5 %

Characteristics:

*colour is light brown to grey

* round grains 80 to 140 AFS
* loss of ignition 0,4 % under nitrogen atmosphere
* apparent weight about 2,8 to 3,0 kg/dm3
* specific weight (density) about 4,5 to 4,8 kg/dm3
* pH: slightly acidic

Use: Can be used for all types of resin, also shell-moulding

For the coating, graphite and zircon coating are possible.

Advantages:

* better properties at higher temperature

* good cooling effect, up to 4 times the effect for silica sand
* chemically not reactive and no metal moisturizing
* lowest coefficient of expansion
* highest heat conductivity and apparent density
* can be mixed with silica sand (chromite sand not)
* can have any resin system with low addition
* pH neutral to slightly acid

Disadvantages:

price

Other properties see at the end of this chapter.

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3.1.4 Olivine sand
Composition:

ca 49 % MgO
Al2O3 + Fe2O3 + TiO2 < 9 %
ca 42 % SiO2
gas amount < 1,0 %

Characteristics:

* colour is light green

* size of grains 25 to 80 AFS
* shape is angular
* loss of ignition % under nitrogen atmosphere
* apparent weight about 1,7 to 1,9 kg/dm3
* specific weight (density) about 3,2 to 3,4 kg/dm3
* pH: basic

Use: Can only work with basic resin systems and has to be dried. .
This is because due to gas and possible chromates, water can be formed.

Advantages:

* only sand very good for manganese steel

* other advantages equal to chromite sand

Disadvantages:

* price
* only suitable with basic systems
* risk of gas and moist problems
* pouring temperature limited to about 1550 °C, oth erwise sand defects
will occur.

3.1.5 Other types

There are also some special types of sand, which are mixtures of the types above
with other refractory elements, used in a small specific area of applications.
Mostly, their availability ir restricted to specific geographical area. These sands are:

1. chamotte sand
2. alumino-silica sand with a pH = 6 mostly used for manganese steel
3. staurolite for non-ferrous metals.

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3.1.6 Remarks

1. The highest density of sand with equal grains cannot avoid that it still has a
minimum of 25,9 % pores. Independent of the grain size, the highest
theoretical bulk density of silica-sand, formed of equal grains, will be 1,96 g /
cm3 .

2. The specific weight decreases if the specific surface of the sand increases (specific
surface measured in cm2 / gram).

3. The gas permeability decreases with increasing specific surface and increasing
amount of dust.

4. The higher the specific surface, the more resin is needed to obtain equal strength.

The highest strength (optimal strength) is reached with a minimum resin

addition for a sand with a specific surface of 80 to 120 cm2 / g.

5. The higher the specific surface:

1. the smoother the casting surface will be
2. the less metal / sand penetration will happen
3. the less fin formation
4. the slower the cooling of the material (higher cooling effect)
5. the more resin and catalyst will be needed, which leads to an increasing
* tendency to gas formation during pouring
* loss of ignition during regenerating

6. The grain distribution will have to be so that 90 % of the sand is located in 2,

maximum 3 sieves in the sieve test.

Features Chromite Olivine Quartz Chamotte Zircon-

silicate
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Density g / cm³ 4,4-4,6 3,25-3,40 2,65 2,5-2,7 4,6-4,7

Vibrated density g / cm³ 2,9-3,1 2,05 1,5-2,0 1,44-1,76 3,0
Melting temperature °C 2180 1760 – 1890 1723 1700 – 1750 1900 -
1950
Heat capacity (*) kJ / (kg*K) 0,20 0,22-0,33 0,27 0,25 0,13
Heat conductibility (*) W / (m*K) 1,65 1,1 1,4 1,0 2,8
Thermal expansion (**) mm / (mm*K) 0,019 0,031 0,065 0,016 0,0013

(*) 0 – 1200 °C (¨**) 0 – 1000 °C

(1) FeO*Cr2O3
(2) 84 % (2MgO*SiO2) 9 % (2FeO*SiO2) rest MgO*SiO2 and 3MgO*SiO2
(3) SiO2
(4) Al2O3
(5) ZrO2*SiO2

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3.2 RESIN OR BINDER

Furfuryl alcohol is the basic raw material for the furan family of acid-catalyzed no-
bakes. It is produced from waste vegetable materials such as corn husks, rice hulls…

Furan resins are commercially classified according to the nitrogen and water content.
Nitrogen content varies from 0 – 2 % (zero, low, medium, and high nitrogen furan-
types). Water content can range from 0 – 30 %.

The lower the nitrogen and water content, the higher is the grade of furan binder.
The greater the furfuryl alcohol content, the better the environmental, core / mould
making, and casting performance of the system, and, unfortunately, the higher the
price.

The furane base resin is often modified with urea, formaldehyde, phenol and a variety
of "extenders." Other materials, known as "modifiers" can be used to "scavenge" or
neutralize free formaldehyde, stabilize the resin, enhance coating properties and
strength, and control reactivity.
Unfortunately, modifiers invariably accomplish their job at the cost of some other
desirable resin property.

Silane can be used in the furane system to significantly increase strength and to
improve its moisture and humidity resistance. Its role is to act as a coupling agent
between the inorganic sand grain surface and the organic binder. It can be added to
the resin when manufactured, but is sometimes added as a third component because
the silane tends to "fade," or lose its effectiveness during storage. The major
disadvantage of the silane additive is its very high cost.

The copolymerisation reaction is as follows, all resulting in extra water. This is clearly
indicated for the reaction of formaldehyde and furfurylalcohol. For the polymerisation
of formaldehyde and furfurylalcohol, the (H – OH) connection are indicated.

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Water should not be present (or as few as possible) in the binder, especially if the
working environment (climate) has a high air humidity. The presence of water will
block the grain connection, weakens it and the sand system will not reach its required
(and or expected) strength.

The amount of nitrogen in the binder can be high for cast iron, up to 5 %; for steel it is
has to be very low, less than 2 %. If a mechanical regeneration is used, which means
no heat treatment, even with a low ratio sand / metal, the nitrogen level in the
reclaimed sand will increase.

Generally it is said that the amount of nitrogen in the sand must be below:

0,01 % for steel,

0,1 % for alloyed and ductile cast iron
0,2 % for unalloyed cast iron.

Types of furane will act different in case of different amounts of nitrogen and
hydrogen (besides different amounts of furfuryl alcohol), which mostly range as
follows:
0 to 6 % of nitrogen
1 to 20 % of water.

The low amount in water and nitrogen binders will be expensive and the best for use
in steel production. Especially a high water content binder is a cheep and can
possibly be good for use in grey iron production.

The amount of added binder ranges between 1 and 2 %, preferably as low as

possible. The following factors are important:

1. The finer the sand and the higher the specific surface and the more angular the
grain, the more resin is needed.
Example:

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* AFS 50 sand with 1 % binder will have an equal strength as a AFS 75
sand (lower grain size) with 1,75 % binder
* Round grains need the calculated specific surface x 1,00 and “edgy
grains needs calculated specific surface x 1,43 and grain shape in
between needs calculated specific surface x 1,17.

2. The more organic components, the more binder is required (absorb resin).

3. The higher the required sand strength, the more binder is needed.

It is important that the binder is stable and has a long storage life time. This means
that it has to stay reactive and will not react during storage (becomes more viscous).
This is possible for binders with a high amount of furfuryl.

Always follow the instructions of the supplier and if a binder is overdue (storage time),
do some sand test before releasing it to the production.

Since the properties offered by expensive, high-quality furan binders are not needed
by all foundries, various modifications have been made to zero water/zero nitrogen
furan resins. Various copolymer blends and dilutent-extender modifications are
commonly made to the base of high-grade furan resin to balance price and
performance properties.
Foundrymen paying a premium price for a low water content binder should remember
that there is usually far more water in the catalyst, and sometimes in the sand, than
there is in the resin. Although modifiers lower cost, they can cause detrimental side
effects, such as increased nitrogen or hydrogen gas evolution and less hot strength.
It is the preference to not use any modifiers in our furan binder products.

Other important remarks:

1. The more binder is used, the higher the “smell polution”, which is mainly caused
by the formaldehyde.

2. Binder should have:

* a high processing time (working time),
* a short hardening time,
* low nitrogen level and
* leading to a high strength.

3. for regenerated sand: use preferably a binder with a very low nitrogen level: <
0,5 % or even one free of nitrogen.

4. for large moulds: use

* “backing” or “filling sand” with lower amount of resin and catalyst
(catalyst not too low, compared to the amount of resin, because
then the hardening time will be too long).
* use lumps in the less important area (corner area), always bedded in
sand and not too heavy to avoid mould cracking.

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Furanes in future

Furanes are recognized as the "first true no-bake binder system." They have been
modified extensively during their four decades of foundry application, and are currently
undergoing further modifications:

∗ Reductions of already low phenol levels are being implemented to

minimize employee exposure and control phenol leachate.
∗ Reduction of nitrogen levels to eliminate gas related defects.
∗ Development of new and drastically modified zero nitrogen furan systems
∗ such as Reacted-Type (Polymeric); Furfuryl Alcohol - Reactive Compound
Blends; Ketone Aldehyde Resins - FA Blend and Phenol Modified Furan No-
Bake.
∗ Further improving the already excellent reclamation properties.
∗ Improving reactivity of the resins to reduce acid catalyst requirements.

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3.3 CATALYST

The function of the acid catalyst is to neutralize the alkaline contaminants (materials
having a pH value greater than 7) in the sand. Then it initiates and sustains
(controls) the furane's condensation-type curing and cross linking reaction.
This is measurable and controlable by the “degree of acidity” of the system.

The furane condensation reaction produces water, which tends to slow the cure rate.
This causes the core / mould sand to cure from "the outside in," meaning that the
coated sand that is exposed to the air cures before the subsurface sand.
The outside-in type of cure is the reason "deep set" is of concern to the foundry
working with furane. It is also the reason that a large nail is often used to penetrate
the surface of the core / mould as it cures to determine how far back from the air
exposed surface the core / mould has cured.

Because of the dilution effect that the reaction's water by-product has on the cure
rate, it is advantageous to use concentrated acid catalysts to optimize cure rate and
deepset properties.

Catalyst choice is important because it significantly affects binder

performance.

The different catalysts that are mostly used, are:

1. PTSA : paratolueen sulphon acid (contains mostly alcohol and water)

2. BSA : benzene sulphon acid (contains water)
3. XSA : xylene sulphon acid (contains water)
4. PA : phosphoric acid (contains water).

The reactivity is in order of increasing reactivity: 75 % phosphoric, 85 % phosphoric,

toluene sulfonic, xylene sulfonic and benzene sulfonic.
It is significant to note that a given furan resin catalyzed with phosphoric acid
develops higher tensile strength than one catalyzed with a stronger sulfonic acid. In
general, the milder the acid and/or the slower the catalyst, the higher the resin
bonded sand's tensile strength will be.
BSA catalyst lead to the highest sand strength. This indicates that, if the “acid
demand” is high, it will be better to use BSA because the addition will be less to
obtain the same sand strength.
Phosphoric acids work well with many furan binders, but because phosphoric is a
relatively weak acid, phosphoric-types may not be suitable for the low reactivity, zero
nitrogen furanes.
Sulfuric acid is sometimes added as a "kicker" to all these acids, but results in strong
sulfur-type odor in the pouring areas. It also increases the possibility of sulfur pick-up
on the casting surface, which can be a significant problem in steel and ductile iron.

The speed of the curing reaction can be adjusted by changing the catalyst type and /
or percentage. Faster strip times require an increased amount of catalyst or
conversion to a stronger type of catalyst. Curing and strip characteristics depend on

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such factors as sand ADV (Acid Demand Value), binder reactivity, amount of resin
coating the sand, temperature of the components, sand moisture content, humidity,
and water content in the resin and catalyst. Note that moisture from any source
slows the curing reaction.

The more catalyst addition, compared to the binder, the

1. shorter the stripping time: time at which the pattern can taken out of the
sand.
2. higher the “acid demand” can be. This is the amount of catalyst (acid)
needed to start the reaction.
3. more clay and other organic materials are allowed in the sand.
4. lower the temperature of the sand and the products (binder, sand…) can be.

But pay attention at:

1. phosphoric acid, because of the agglomerates formation, will have a limited

regeneration possibility.
2. water in the catalyst will decrease the sand grain connection strength and
decrease the hardening rate.

Some more:

Catalyst Addition Sequence

The catalyst should always be added to the sand first and thoroughly mixed
before the addition of the resin. If the resin coats the sand first, the
concentration of the catalyst will be too high at the point where it is introduced
onto the resin-coated sand. The consequence of this is over-catalyzation of
that volume of the resin and a significant loss in strength.
The catalyst should always be added to the sand first and thoroughly mixed
into the sand before the addition of resin. Eventually, even if the "salt and
pepper" effect occurs, the entire coated sand surface will usually turn black and
the salt and pepper will fade from sight.
The catalyst and resin should never be added simultaneously or under any
circumstances mixed together. An explosion can, and probably will, result from
the uncontrolled exothermic chemical reaction that follows the mixing of the
liquids together.

Over-catalyzing

The furane system forms a brittle, weaker bond when over-catalyzed. An over-
catalyzed furan resin tends to go through a rapid color change to black and / or
appears speckled like grains of salt and pepper. This effect is the result of
uneven distribution of the catalyst over the sand grains. It frequently occurs
when the catalyst and resin are applied to unexpectedly hot sand that is being
coated with a muller or a low intensity mixer, or when the mixer is not working
properly.

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Too low addition, too low water content

When the acid is added to the dry, new sand it tends to fill the "holes" of the sand
grains. This results in some grains having more acid on them than others. This is a
probable explanation for the "salt and pepper" effect described above. Because the
resin will encounter grains containing variable amounts of acid, resin covering acid-
rich grains will be over-catalyzed and turn black. If the "salt and pepper" effect is
observed, the acid addition procedure should be modified so that the catalyst is
atomized when added to the continuous mixer, and mullers should have the acid
slowly added in a fine stream as the sand is mixed, instead of being dumped into a
hole dug into the sand when the muller is off.

How much catalyst is needed?

The proper amount of acid catalyst required to properly cure a no-bake resin
depends on many factors:

∗ The reactivity of the binder itself - Some are far more reactive than others.

∗ The amount of water in the system - This includes sand, resin, catalyst, air,
release agents, etc.

∗ Relative humidity - Because acid catalyzed resins produce water as a by-product

of the curing reaction, the water needs to evaporate before a completed cure is
attained. Therefore, the higher the relative humidity, the slower the evaporation
of the water in the system and the slower the apparent cure.

∗ Temperature of the sand, along with everything else that has some thermal
energy, affects the catalyzed resin components - Higher temperature means less
catalyst, and lower temperature means more catalyst.

∗ Sand ADV - The acid must first satisfy the acid demand of the sand before it can
begin to cure the resin, so the higher the ADV the more catalyst is needed.

∗ Reclaimed sand - This is primarily a function of ADV; mechanically reclaimed

furane sand probably has a negative ADV, and thermally reclaimed sand can be
neutral or very high in ADV.

∗ How Fast? - The quicker the strip and cure times, the more catalyst. Slower strip
and cure times mean not only less catalyst but, because slower strip and cure
times mean stronger cores and molds, it could ultimately mean less binder
because of the stronger coated sand.

∗ Acid type - Weaker means more needed and stronger means less acid is needed
for the same strip time.

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3.4 COATING

3.4.1 PURPOSE

The coating has to form a barrier to avoid penetration of the metal into the sand (in
between the sand grains). The use of coating will also lead to:

1. a smoother surface (if properly applied)

2. a possible decrease of machining cost (higher machinability)
3. dimensional accuracy (especially for the cores) decreases.

Often, properties are contributed to coating,which it barely has or has not at all, like:

1. improvement of the heat resistance

2. avoiding the sand-metal penetration
3. changing the structure of the surface layer.

But lets have a good look at following quotation:

A well made core or mould, with the correct type of sand, grain
distribution and compaction, adapted to the type of metal and wall
thickness, bound with the optimal amount of resin and catalyst, DOES
NOT need a coating!

Coating will more or less tend to improve small deviations in the sand systems.

Coating can never make up for bad sand!

3.4.2 CLASSIFICATION

Coating can be divided, according to different criteria:

a. Type of liquidiser:

1. watercoating
2. deflamable coating: alcohol, benzene, …
3. self drying coating: gas or a very volatile material

b. Purpose:

1. Covering coating (Deckschlichten in german)

Has to fill up the pores between the grains.
It can do this filling for maximum 25 %.
The components (graphite, zircon, talc) are lamellar and relatively large
in size.

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2. Impregnating coating
Penetrates the sand a few mm.
The components are finer and smaller.
Also the anti-fin coatings are of this type.

3. There are coatings that try to combine both properties by containing both
fine and lamellar components.
These coatings will never have the same effect per purpose as a
coating for one purpose will have.

A most common used method is to use an impregnating coating first and then a
covering on top of it.
Pay attention that the first one has to be sufficiently dry before the second one is
applied.

3.4.3 COMPOSITION

The coatings consist of four main components:

3.4.3.1 Refractory components

3.4.3.2 Thickeners
3.4.3.3 Solvents and liquidiser
3.4.3.4 Others

3.4.3.1 Refractory components

* 50 to 70 % of the mass in shape of paste with a grain size mostly 5 to 10

micron.
* is the most important, main component, for the result (no contact sand-
metal).
* possibilities: quartz, amorphous or lamellar graphite, iron oxide, chamotte,
zircon, magnesite, … or combinations
* graphite for cast iron, possibly graphite – zircon combination
+ covering function
+ by burning it causes “reducing gasses”, which will avoid burning in.
+ has a higher heat conductivity than zircon.
* zircon, chromite for steel and thick walled cast iron
+ have a high degree of isolation which causes them to better protect
the sand against heat shocks (for example with steel)
+ the thicker the layer, the higher the isolation value.
* magnesite for manganese steel.

This component mainly avoids:

+ metal penetration
+ sand erosion
+ metal / sand reaction

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Therefore this component needs a high sinter and melting point and a thermal
coefficient of expansion that is close to the one for the sand.

Material Specific weight melting point

g/cm3 °C

Talc 2,70 1200

Silica 2,65 1800
Aluminum 3,90 2050
Zircon 4,80 2200
Magnesite 3,50 2800
Graphite 2,10 3000

See also the values in next table which differ a little.

Material Melting Heat Elongation Suited for

point conductibility
°C W/m.K 10-6 / K

Mica 900 – 1300 0,36 – 0,58 4,6 (1200°C) Iron, copp er,
aluminium
Graphite < 3000 47 – 175 1,5 Iron, copper,
aluminium
Gravel (kieselguhr, 0,08 – 0,22 Iron, copper,
mountain flour) aluminium
Cokes 5 (1200°C) Iron, copper
Corundum > 2000 2,1 (1400°C) 9 (1200°C) Steel,
aluminium
Magnetite > 2000 3,0 (1400°C) 14 (1200°C) Steel
Quartz 1700 1,86 (1400°C) Iron, copper
Chamotte (dead 1700 1,06 (1200°C) 4,6 – 7,6 Steel
clay) (1200°C)
Talc 1300 9 – 10 Iron, copper,
aluminium
Zircon > 2000 1,86 (1400°C) 4 (1200 °C) Iron, coppe r

This refractory component will not:

+ react with the sand
+ react with the metal
+ be moisturized by the metal (wetting)
+ develop gas while heating.

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3.4.3.2 Thickeners

* is 1 to 5 % of the mass in shape of paste

* has to realize the connection of all the components with each other and the
coating with the sand surface.
* has to be compatible with the solvents and thinners:
+ water: bentonite, kaolin, artificial resin, water glass, starch
+ alcohol: artificial resin, colophonium (violin resin), “bentone”

3.4.3.3 Solvents and thinners

* represents 20 to 40 % of the mass in shape of paste

* have to dissolve the fireproof components and the binder components and or bring
them into suspension and keep them so that an easy homogeneous covering
is possible.
* they determine the type of drying and therefore also the necessary investments:
+ alcohol: flaming off, very fast, relatively independent of the air humidity
(possible investment for suction)
+ water: drying furnace, slightly dependent of the air humidity after (investment
drying furnace)
+ volatile materials: depend strongly on air humidity, most of the time extra
drying is needed (problems with avoiding gasses).
+ have to correspond with resin and catalyst in the sand
* "water glass" + "CO2" not with a water coating
* vacuum moulds normally don’t need a coating and if they do, it has to
be inert related to the plastic foil.
* never put it on if there is still reaction in the sand.
It will block the further reaction of the sand.
+ impregnating coatings are mostly with alcohol (isopropylalcohol)
+ alcohols have clear problems with the environment and the working area,
they are mentioned in the TA-Luft chapter 3.1.7 class III.

For use of 3 kg / hour or more, the concentration in the air cannot be

higher than 0,15 g / m3.

See more safety figures in the Addition.

3.4.3.4 Others

* represent 1 to 5 % of the mass of the paste

* these influence viscosity and they are biologically functioning components
* bentonite, starch, cellulose for water coatings; acetate, acrylate, amine for alcohol
coatings
* increase the risk of cracks
+ foam avoiding components
+ preservatives for the water coatings
+ ways to colour

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CONCLUSION:

1. refractory components (filler) 50 to 70 %

2. binders 1 to 5 %
3. liquidisers and solvents (carrier liquid) 20 to 40 %
4. others (suspension agents) 1 to 5 %

3.4.4 APPLYING

* Coating has to be applied with a constant thickness and its composition must be
homogeneous. It has to remain in time at a constant thickness.
The necessary thickness depends on:

1. ferro-static pressure in the mould

2. amount of metal that pass over the coated sand.

* Coating has to be kept constant in viscosity and temperature. This has to be

measured regularly and it needs a correct intensive stirring. Especially the
coatings with alcohol loose this alcohol through vapourizing, which causes the
coating to thicken in time.
Alcohol based coatings are less good for the environment, because the
vaporized alcohol mostly penetrates the working area (moulding, core
making…).

* The mould material has to finish its hardening reaction to a large extend before the
coating can be applied. When the coating is applied, the hardening reaction
rate will be decreased extensively if not come to zero (no disposal of the
reaction water anymore). On the other hand the liquidiser and or solvent of the
coating with react itself with the binder and or the catalyst. This causes a lower
strength of the sand.

* Possible guidelines for thickness of the applied coating layer:

+ minimum 0,25 mm
+ for thick sections: minimum 0,6 mm

3.4.5 DRYING OF COATING

Because the solvent / liquidiser penetrates into the mould and or core sand, it has to
be removed before pouring. It has no protective capability during pouring, on the
contrary!

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The removal can be done through drying in a furnace, flaming (burning) or air drying,
depending on the type of solvent / liquidiser.
1. Water based coating

+ dries very slowly in contact with air and in case of a high (environment) air
humidity, it is even impossible to dry sufficiently.
+ radiation heaters are better (infrared or others …)
+ a drying furnace is the best.

The minimum temperature is 100 °C, but with a maxim um to avoid that the
strength of the binder system is influenced.

The “cost” advantage of the water coating is almost completely lost because of
the disadvantages:
+ fairly high investment in a drying furnace
+ need for a longer production lead time
+ required extra space for storage between operation
+ energy consumption of drying.

For the working environment the water based coatings are the best solution.
But for the pouring action it is dangerous because the water that is left in the
sand, can explode through the “hydrogen gas reaction” (critical ratio of water
and heat), which is dangerous for the pouring operator and other people around
the mould.

2. Alcohol based coating

+ air: is slow drying or removing

+ flaming or burning:
The liquidising alcohol always contains about 9 % (or more) water and
during burning, extra water is formed too, which for the larger part
vaporizes.
Theoretical the burning of 1 kg isopropyl alcohol gives about 1,2
kg water.
So there can be water absorption by the sand.
+ micro-cracks always occur during burning, which increase the permeability of
the coating. This is a disadvantage. The more alcohol, the easier to apply for
the operator but the more cracks will appear.
+ because of the rules for “healthy working areas”, a correct and good
ventilation has to be provided.

3. Air drying agent based coating

+ depends strongly on temperature and relative humidity of the environment air.

Following figures can be used as guidelines:

* 1 hour at 21 °C and 55 % relative humidity

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* 2 hours at 21 °C and 80 % relative humidity.

+ the thickness of the layer is very important for the drying time
+ penetration depth of the coating into the sand is important
+ air flow (+ temperature, humidity) over the mould has the largest influence.

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4. EQUIPMENT
4.1 MIXERS
4.2 REGENERATION
4.3 COATING APPLYING

4.1 MIXERS

Self-hardening sand is usually prepared in a continuous mixer, which consists of a

trough or tube containing a mixing screw.
Dry sand is metered into the trough at one end through an adjustable sand gate.
Liquid catalyst and binder are pumped from storage tanks or drums by metering
pumps and introduced through nozzles into the mixing trough; the catalyst nozzle first
then binder (so that the binder is not exposed to a high concentration of catalyst).

Calibration

Regular calibration is essential to ensure consistent mould and care quality and the
efficient use of expensive binders. Sand flow and chemical flow rates should be
checked at least once per week, and calibration data recorded in a book for
reference.

Sand:
Switch off the binder and catalyst pumps and empty sand from the trough.
Weigh a suitable sand container, e.g. a plastic bin holding about 50 kg. Run
the mixer with sand alone, running the sand to waste until a steady flow is
achieved. Move the mixer head over the weighed container and start a stop
watch. After a suitable time, at least 20 seconds, move the mixer head back to
the waste bin and stop the watch. Calculate the flow in kg / min. Repeat three
times and average. Adjust the sand gate to give the required flow and repeat
the calibration.
Binders:
Switch off the sand flow and the pumps except the one to be measured.
Disconnect the binder feed pipe at the inlet to the trough, ensuring that the
pipe is full. Using a clean container, preferably a polythene measuring jug,
weigh the binder throughput for a given time (minimum 20 seconds). Repeat
for different settings of the pump speed regulator. Draw a graph of pump
setting against flow in kg / min.
Repeat for each binder or catalyst, taking care to use separate clean
containers for each liquid. Do not mix binder and catalyst together, since
they may react violently. Always assume that binders and catalysts are
hazardous, wear gloves, goggles and protective clothing.

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When measuring liquid flow rate, the pipe outlet should be at the same height
as the inlet nozzle of the mixer trough, so that the pump is working against the
same pressure head as in normal operation.

Mixers should be cleaned regularly. The use of cleaning agents, applied to the mixer
blades, reduces sand build-up.

One trough sand mixer

Mobile sand mixer

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4.2 REGENERATION

Nearly all foundries using significant amounts of furane either mechanically or

thermally reclaim their sand because it is economically advantageous, minimizes
disposal problems and, in some cases, actually improves the characteristics of the
sand itself.

Furane is noted for its outstanding shakeout and excellent reclamation

characteristics. If a consistent screen distribution, constant grain fineness number,
reasonable magnetic levels and low LOI values are maintained, furane sand reuse
percentages in excess of 85 % are common with mechanical reclamation. A reuse
level of 100% (except for the dust compensation) is possible with thermal
reclamation, or with a thermal/mechanical combination.

Thermal and mechanical reclamation can pose special problems. Carbonate-

containing sands pose special problems for acid catalyzed binder systems. When the
carbonate materials are heated and oxidized during the metal casting process and /

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or during thermal reclamation, they convert the carbonates to water soluble and very
alkaline lime, or calcium oxide (CaO). The presence of lime in the sand obviously
must be neutralized by the acid catalyst before it can start to cure the resin.

In thermal reclamation nearly all of the carbonates are converted to lime; but in
mechanical reclamation, the amount of the carbonate material converted to lime by
the heat from the metal casting operation varies dramatically, depending on casting
size, sand to metal ratios, sand exposure temperatures, etc.
This is a problem because the ADV of the sand exiting the reclaimer varies based on
the quantity of the lime conversion in the heat exposed sand. To compensate for this
the catalyst amounts must also vary.

The most important features are that any reclaiming equipment is a high demanding
maintenance equipment. Due to the sand and other materials, there is a high erosion
and sometimes corrosion.

It is important to check continuously:

1. dust content and suction and filters that are present

2. temperature of reclaimed sand that is sand to the storage hopper.

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4.3 COATING

The most important factor is the viscosity of the coating, which means all over the
coating mass. Many times, the coating is not homogeneous because of the setting of
the heavy components and the floating up of the liquidizer.

For this reason, a more or less continuous mixing (stirring) is necessary, especially
before a test sample is taken and before the coating is applied.

Coating mixers,
stirrers

Coating container
with mixer

Core dryer

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5. RULES & CONDITIONS & TESTS

5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 FILLING ACTIVITY
5.3 HUMIDITY & TEMPERATURE
5.4 SAND
5.5 BINDER
5.6 CATALYST & ACID MOBILITY
5.7 COATING

5.1 INTRODUCTION
It is obvious that these requirements depend on the metal that is poured, because:

a. the pouring temperature is different for every material, so also the thermal load of
the mould material
b. every metal reacts differently concerning the absorption of gases out of the mould
(N, H, …)

So it is clear that the problems will increase in the order from lamellar cast iron,
ductile iron, high alloyed cast iron, steel, alloyed steel to stainless and heat resistant
steel.

Mostly, the “theoretical strength” (Spitzenfestigkeit in german) is in reality not

reached? The real strength is much lower.

Therefore, the “efficiency” (Wirkungsgrad in german) is defined, which shows the

ratio (in %) of the real strength to the theoretical strength.

Theoretical strength

This is the strength that is reached if the (real) amount of binder reacts with
the present sand with maximum efficiency, so that we can obtain the required
strength with a minimum amount of resin.

Final strength (Endfestigkeit in german)

This is the obtained strength at the end of the chemical reaction, in practice
after 24 hours.

Efficiencies of 50 % are common! Generally accepted, the efficiency has to be

minimum 65 %, so about 2 / 3 of the theoretical strength.

The following factors have an influence on the sand strenght:

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1. filling action
2. water and temperature
2. type and amount of catalyst
3. dependence on the type of binder
4. theory of the “acid mobility”
5. coating.

5.2 FILLING ACTIVITY

The way in which the mould box is filled, does have a large influence on the final
strength of the sand. The filling can be just by gravity, by gravity and ramming or by
gravity and vibration.

The theoretical hardening of the sand is shown in next figure. The real strength is
lower because:

1. Part of the strength is lost during compressing and or ramming during filling
2. Part of the strength is lost by the “water slow down effect”.
The reaction forms condensation water and this influences the reaction
speed and quality.

Tw
Tw is the “time” available and or used for filling, pressing and ramming.
Tw is also called “work time” or “bench life time”

The ideal time Tw is the time after mixing, during which the compression strength of
the sand is less than 10 kPa. The filling activity can be finished if the sand has a high
flowability and compactability.

The strength during the ramming, and in

a lesser degree during vibration, is
destroyed because the growing bound
(sand grain – binder – sand grain) is
cracked and will never reach its
theoretical strength anymore.

This means that the longer the ramming

time, the more strength will be lost,
although it depends of the reaction
speed at the start (see figure).

The work time of low ADV sand coated

with furan no-bake resin is normally 50
% -60 % of the strip time. Typical strip
times range from one minute to over 30
minutes. Cure time is one of the more complicated aspects of furane no bake
system.

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5.3 HUMIDITY & TEMPERATURE

The reaction speed is depending on the heat supply and humidity (water) removal, as
well as from the type of catalyst, type of binder (concerning water content) and heat
(reaction heat) removal.

The advantage of the air hardening systems is also their disadvantage.

It is self hardening on the condition that the hardening rate is continuously sufficient,
which is influenced by the possibility to remove water.
The draining of the condensation water (reaction water) is not going fluently in the
common environments (temperature and humidity), it can even be very difficult.

Especially humidity, temperature of sand and moulds and the environment play an
important role.

The total humidity is composed of:

1. humidity of the sand

2. reaction humidity, depending on the type of binder and catalyst
3. air humidity, environment.

The humidity of the sand can be adjusted by a high quality drying and a dry storing.

Air humidity can be decreased less easily. The only possibility is ensuring that there
is a good air flow around the reacting sand. In this way there is always new low
humidity air available to absorb the reaction humidity. In this way the humidity is
removed as fast as possible.

The reaction humidity is caused by the reaction of binder and catalyst. But it is also
fact that as well the catalyst as the binder can contain already water. In practice, the
catalyst has mostly a high amount of water.

The considerations of temperature and humidity can be even more critical with some
of the binder systems that generate water as a byproduct of the polymerization
process. The moisture has to be evaporated from the core / mold to ensure that the
binder is not under-cured and proportionally weaker as a result.
Similarly any surplus moisture or un-catalyzed solvents may contribute to excessive
gassing and porosity defects in the casting.

For the hardening, the 10 °C / 18 °F rule is applic able. The basic premise is that
every rise in sand / resin temperature of approximately 10 °C / 18 °F cuts the current
phase time in half.
The ideal temperature or mid-point from which to work is between 24 °C and 30 °C,
with a lower limit of approximately 10 °C and an up per limit of approximately 43 °C.

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A. Water in the catalyst
Almost all the catalyst contains a large amount of water, indicated as follows:

PTSA65 is a 65 % water solution (1,23 g / ml)

PTSA10 is the dry type with about 10-12 % water.

Depending on this water content, the difference in “final strength” of the mould
material is large. See figure on this page.

If a furanic binder is used, there is a clear strength maximum. This maximum is more
pronounced if the water content is high.
With an increasing amount of catalyst, the final sand strength will decrease due to an
increase in water content.

Furane + PTSA65
BEND STRENGTH Furane + PTSA10
Phenol + PTSA65
300
BEND STRENGTH (kPa)

275
250
225
200
175
150
125
100
0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1
% CATALYST

It is also more difficult to divide the dry catalyst PTSA10 equally in the sand. And this
is an absolute requirement to obtain a good homogeneous reaction.

The phenolic binder has a lower maximum. Therefore, it is less critical. It’s strength is
lower, compared to furane, although the equal amount is added.

When phosphoric acid is used, the factor humidity is very important. If the air
humidity is larger than 50 %, sand with a phosphoric acid absorbs extra humidity
(water).

The disadvantage is that water formation (due to the reaction binder – catalyst) is the
largest in the beginning of the reaction; this means when the pattern is still in the
mould. So at that moment in time, the humidity in the center of the mould and near to
the pattern cannot escape.

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This causes a strong delay in hardening and later also loss of strength of the sand
against the pattern. This is the sand, which will be most in contact with the fluid metal
and should have the highest strength and quality.

If there is a long hardening time, the influence of the water content of the catalyst and
the humidity of the environment becomes more important. If the reaction runs a long
time, a lot of humidity from the air can be picked up by the hardening sand and the
slower the reaction will be.

The water content (humidity) evolution in function of time is given in the figure on next
page. The phenolic binders do pick up less water than furane binders. But after a
long time (about 24 hours), the humidity or water content of the sand is nearly equal.

The faster the pattern is removed from the sand, the higher the final hardness will be.
Therefore:

The pattern has to stay as long as necessary, but also as short as possible in
the sand!

BEND STRENGTH
130
Bend strength (kPa)

120
110
100
90
80
70
60
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4
Time of removal of pattern (hours)

The humidity can escape if the hardening sand is in contact with the air. This means
that the surface will harden first. Inside the mould material and the sand in contact
with the pattern is retarded in hardening. When the pattern is removed, the sand
comes in contact with the air and the hardening of this sand speeds up.
In the next figure on this page, the final strength, depending on the time of pattern
removal, is given. It is clearly visible that, the longer the pattern stays in the mould,
the lower the final strength will be.

The best time for removing the pattern, the Ts or “strip time”, is at the moment that
the sand strength is about 350 kPa.

Never leave the pattern in the mould overnight!

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Also the time of storing is important, especially if the humidity in the storage
environment is high. Although the reaction is completed, a high humidity environment
will penetrate the mould and just at the surface, which is the most important because
it comes in contact with the liquid metal and can cause problems.

During the storing of the mould, the environment humidity can vary, which leads to a
varying strength of the mould. In next figure, these changes are shown.
It is clearly visible that, for very high humidity, the strength decreases very quickly (in
about 2 hours) to less than 50 % of the original strength.
Even after restoring the humidity to lower levels, the strength decrease keeps about
40 % of the original one.

Humidity in sand for 1 % binder / 0,3 % catalyst

100
90
Humidity (%)

80
70
60
50
40
0 5 10 15 20
Furane Phenol time (hours)

BENDING STRENGTH - HUMIDITY Humidity 95 %

Humidity 95 % back to 50 %
100
Bending strength (%

80
original)

60

40

20

0
0 24 48 72
DWELLING TIME (hour)

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This means that the water penetrates the resin connection and “moisturizes” it, so the
strength of the connection decreases, which cannot be restored completely.

Water free resins are brittle, but they have less problems if a little bit of water intrudes
(penetration caused by humidity).

Furanic resin is more sensitive to this phenomenon than phenolic resin.

Moulds that stand over a weekend in a high humidity environment, especially if the
ambient temperature is low, will give castings with a bad surface.
This is especially the case for water glass systems, which are very prone to this
problem. It is less for furane and phenol systems, but it is there in a small degree.

B. TEMPERATURE
Temperature is just as important to the furane process as the catalyst itself.
Temperature must be monitored, controlled and, if possible, kept constant.
A sand heater / cooler is the best way to control the most important operating
element in the furane system, which is, of course, the sand. Ideally, sand
temperatures should remain between 20 – 25 °C. The rate of cure increases as the
temperature rises and slows as the temperature decreases. The change
in the rate is based on the Ten Degree Centigrade Rule, which states that for each
10 °C increase in temperature the speed of the bind er's chemical reaction is doubled,
and it is halved for each 10 °C decrease in tempera ture. Catalyst adjustments can be
made for temperature fluctuation, but it is better to control the sand temperature than
to continually adjust the amount of catalyst.

The temperature has also a large influence on the humidity removal. An increasing
temperature will increase and speed up the humidity removal. This can mostly be
seen in a quick hardening. It is a powerful factor.

Areas with high temperature and high humidity can have a problem due to the
difficulty to remove the humidity quickly. This is happening in sub-tropical and tropical
environments.

If there is a low temperature somewhere or if there are different temperatures at

different areas, at the coldest area the water will condensate. This cold area is often
the contact with “cold mould boxess”, “metal patterns”, … The sand strength will be
much lower in that location and both are important:
• sand, against metal pattern, will come in contact with liquid metal
• sand, against mould boxes, must assure that the mould does not crack or
shifht compared to the metal box.

The sand temperature, especially if the sand hoppers are stored outside, can be low
in winter. But it is possible that, when reclaimed sand is used, with an unsufficient
cooling, the temperature of the sand is much higher than the environment
temperature.

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The sand temperature has to be between 15 and 25 °C , with the following remarks:

* 10 °C temperature difference changes the reaction rate 2 - 3 times

* if the temperature is > 25° C, the amount of cat alyst has to be decreased, but
it can never be lower than 25 %!
* temperature > 35 °C: no more mixing (decreases of strength). Temperatures
above 40 °C tend to evaporate the solvents within the resin(s), resulting
in gummy resin that also does not coat or flow properly.
* temperature has to be minimum 10 °C for furane a nd 15 °C for phenol. If the
temperature is lower, no more mixing. The sand / resin mixture may
become too viscous below 10 °C to flow properly, and the resin will not
be able to properly coat the grains if not pre-coated.

* environment temperature < 10 °C: the metal tool s, metal pattern plates,
mould boxes … have to be pre-heated.

As already mentionned, the 10 °C / 18 °F rule is ap plicable...

Summary of improving final strength

1. remove the pattern as soon as possible

2. blow hot dry air over the sand, especially at the side of the pattern.
3. make a lot of small holes into the mould (pinning the mould) to easy the
moisture (water) escape.

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5.4 SAND
5.4.1 Important features

The following values have to be verified:

a. degree of humidity of the sand (moisture)

Moisture in the sand dilutes the acid catalyst and slows the condensationtype curing
reaction. Sand with a moisture level above 0.2% significantly slows the cure rate,
lowers cured strength, decreases flowability, and produces inferior throughcure
properties.

High ambient relative humidity slows the apparent rate of cure. Because the furan
condensation cure mechanism produces water, it must be evaporated to achieve
complete through-cure.

b. organic materials (influence measured by LOI for old as well as new sand)
They decrease the melting point of SiO2.
Limits: clay < 2 %, CaCO3 < 1 %.

c. grain distribution determined by the AFS-number of the old and new sand.
Important is that the sand is for 85 % at 2, maximum 3 sieves and there is no
dust present ( > 200 mesh, last sieve).

d. “Specific surface “ (calculated from the grain distribution) for old and new sand.
The value has to be in the normal range because it influences the necessary
amount of binder and automatically the catalyst.
The real specific surface can be determined by GF-equipment.

e. grain shape: “angular”, “round” or “mixed”, to be determined with microscope for

old and new sand. This also influences the amount of resin.

Angular factor E = effective / theoretical specific surface.

= 1for round sand and > 1 for all other types.

Clean, round grain silica sand develops maximum handling strength

properties, but it develops such a high compacted density that veining defects
can occur. Angular-type silica sands develop lower handling strength, but
lessen veining defects. Lake and bank sands require a higher amount of
catalyst for satisfactory performance, but contain a significant amount of non-
silica materials that reduce veining and other defects.

f. acid demand
Every type of sand needs a different amount of acid to reach the required pH.
The higher the number for the “acid demand”, the more catalyst will be needed
to start the reaction.

SAND ml HCl-acid needed (0,1 % N in sand)

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pH = 3 pH = 4 pH = 5

silica-sand 2,0 1,8 1,4

3,0 2,3 0,9
0,8 0,6 0,3

zircon sand 1,7 1,2 0,7

chromite sand
high quality 5,0 2,9 0,7
low quality 20,4 18,0 15,7 *

Olivine sand
washed 27,6 25,7 25,2 *
unwashed 40,2 38,5 37,6 *

(*) these sands are not suited for furane because their acid demand is
too high concerning catalyst to assure a correct reaction.

g. LOI (loss of ignition)

The LOI test measures the amount of combustible materials present in the
raw or coated or reclaimed sand (indication of amount of gas that can be
formed during pouring). LOI of the coated sand indicates the amount of
binder and catalyst present on the sand. LOI of the reclaimed sand is a
useful check to determine the amount of combustible materials remaining on
the sand after reclamation.

For new sand, it has to be as small as possible, in any case < 0,5 %.

For regenerated sand, it is difficult to keep the LOI low. The higher the
degree of regeneration and the less new sand is added, the higher the loss
of ignition will be.

Per type of material, the maximum limit can be proposed, which however
also will vary according to the wall thickness of the casting.

The best value for the LOI of reclaimed sand is zero, but less than 2 % is
generally acceptable. A value < 2,5 % seems to be possible for “average
castings”. But try to keep the loss of ignition as low as economically possible.
Defects cost more!

Pure silica sand, washed and dried, 45 to 55 AFS grain distribution, 70

tot 90 cm2 / gram specific surface and round grains, is the best sand.

5.1.2 Sand selection

Acid-cured furan systems work well with most foundry silica-type sands, including
chromite and zircon. The notable exceptions are high-acid demand silica and the very

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basic olivine. These exceptions exist because "basic" sands with a high ADV, contain
contaminants that utilize some portion of the acid catalyst to neutralize them before
the acid catalyst can begin to cure the resin.
Olivine sand, on the other hand, is an alkaline mineral aggregate, which cannot
be acid catalyzed.

Some more:

1. the higher the pouring temperature, the more coarse the sand grains must be.

2. the thicker the walls, the more coarse the grain must be. Fine sands have a higher
specific surface, heat faster and melt and burn in the casting surface.

Example of selection criteria:

Type of metal Wall thickness casting AFS Specific Surface

Steel average and thick 35-50 50- 80

thin walls 50-70 80-120

Cast iron thick walls 40-70 60-120

Average 70-100 120-160
thin walls 100-140 > 160

Copper alloyed thick walls 90-110

average 100-120
thin walls < 140

Light metals thick walls 100-120

average < 140
thin walls < 140

Some important remarks:

1. the grain size and shape of sand grain determine the need (quantity) for the binder
concerning the moisturizing of the sand by the binder.
The larger and rounder the grains are, the more equal the binder distribution
will be, the higher the sand strength and the longer it will be processable (work
time: filling mould and ramming).

2. dust has to be avoided at all costs, because it:

* consists of very small grains, residual binder / catalyst and coating,…
* decreases the fluidity of the sand
* increases the need for binder (specific surface is up to 20 x higher than for
normal sand)
* contains large amounts of S and N

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* increases the mixing time and the hardening time
* forms fragments and lumps in silos and pipes.
* will cause that the sand grain distribution of the sand that runs out of the
hoppers, will never be equal or consistent
* will cause dust nests under the filter, if the filter is placed on top of the
hopper. Therefore the filter has to be located aside of the silo and or
close to the mixer.

3. the residual binder, which is part of the dust, will decrease sand strength, will break
the forming sand grain connections and will increase the loss of ignition.

4. the larger the grain, the

* more coating is required to avoid penetration
* the better the gas permeability
* the less binder is needed
* the higher the sand strength

Example:

sand gas permeability maximum strength (1,2 % furane)

H31 320 4800 N/cm2 or kPa

F33 160 3800
F36 80 2900

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5.5 BINDER
The type and amount of binder is the main influencing factor for the theoretical sand
strength and as such also for the real final sand strength.

The difference in strength, depending on the type of binder but all with the equal
water content, is very small. The main difference occurs due to the water content in
the binder.

The more binder (in % compared to the sand) added, the higher the theoretical sand
strength until the water starts playing a blocking role.
The solution that adds more resin to obtain a higher strength fast, so that the pattern
can be removed sooner, is not a clearly positive solution. This is because due to the
higher amount of resin there is more reaction, so more condensation water and this
decreases the efficiency, so that the finally the real strength doesn’t increase.
Another problem is that a lot of resin also causes more gas formation during pouring.

It is very important to the “necessary or required strength”. Any additional strength

(higher than this required strength) is useless and can only cause extra problems
during shake out and regeneration.

An example is given, dealing with the strength for addition of different types of resin
in different percentages. The composition of the resins is as follows:

Binder type % FA % N2 % H2O

A 90 1,5 1,2
B 73 3,9 8,1
C 75 4,0 5,0
D 60 6,5 8,5

The following results are obtained:

Resin Max strength Weight percentage

type resin/sand catalyst/sand catalyst/resin

A 300 N/cm2 1,0 % 0,35 % 35 %

420 1,5 0,45 30
500 2,0 0,50 25
B 280 N/cm2 1,0 0,35 35
380 1,5 0,50 33
480 2,0 0,65 32
C 300 N/cm2 1,0 0,50 50
D 120 N/cm2 0,5 0,40 80
300 1,0 0,75 75
395 1,5 0,90 60

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In following figure, the strength for 1% resin and different catalyst amounts is shown.

For the same strength, resin A has a clearly lower and resin D a clearly higher need
for catalyst than the others.
The maximum strength as such, is nearly equal (except for resin B).

Binder A Resin B
BENDING STRENGTH (kPa) with 1 % of binder
Resin C Resin D
Bending strength (kPa)

300

200

100
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2
% Catalyst (PTSA65)

The strength of furane sand decreases if the moulds are stored in an

environment with a high relative humidity.

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5.6 CATALYST & ACID MOBILITY

These items, catalyst and acid mobility, are related one to the other.

It is obvious that the efficiency of the sand hardening, apart from the use of an
expensive and high quality binder, can be low if no attention is paid to the catalyst.

The process is depend of:

1. type of catalyst
2. amount of catalyst
3. drainage rate of the side products, especially water.
4. supply and presence of heat (temperature)

The more catalyst add, the faster the reaction starts, the shorter the process time will
be, the more danger to decrease the efficiency. There is clearly a relation with the
filling time. An indication of the relation between catalyst, filling time (working on the
sand) and the bending strength is given in next figure.

BENDING STRENGTH RELATED TO CATALYST AND FILLING TIME

For use of 1 % resin and a normal sand temperature (20 °C), the following process
times can be considered as representative:

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catalyst maximum time catalyst maximum time

0,1 % doesn’t reach strength 0,5 % 3,5 min

0,2 % 11 min 0,6 % 3,0 min
0,3 % 5 min 0,7 % 1,0 min
0,4 % 4,5 min 0,8 % 0,0 min

Important is also the process time related to the “strip time”, this is the moment at
which the pattern “can” be taken out of the mould.
The work time of low ADV sand coated with furan no-bake resin is normally 50 % -
60 % of the strip time. Typical strip times range from one minute to over 30 minutes.
Cure time is one of the more complicated aspects of furane no bake system.

The smaller the ratio “strip time” / “process time”, the better.
Common ratios are:
furane 2,00
phenol 1,25
water glass 3,00

FILLING TIME RELATED TO AMOUNT OF CATALYST

The perfect mixing is only possible if the mixer is working perfectly. The mixer must
perform the mixing correctly in a very short time, so that there is no loss of strength.

For example, if a mould shows weak or soft spots, there will have been a bad,
irregular mixing. That this is not a question of the catalyst, is shown by the fact that
even with locally very few catalyst but sufficient resin, this spot will harden after a
long time, but at a lower strength. For the phenolic system, this is less a problem.

The relation between the best or (maximum) filling can be described. In the German
VDG Merkblatt P72, the best filling time is indicated in relation to the catalyst addition
(for a standard 1 % of binder).

See figure.
PROCESS TIME acc to CATALYST Furane Phenol

50
pROCESS TIME (min)

40

30

20

10

0
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8
CATALYST (% PTSA65)

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Also temperature of the sand and the environment play an important role.

The most commonly used additions, for an environment at 20 °C, are:

30 to 50 % PTSA65
20 to 35 % PTSA10

The sand strength after 24 hours, the final (ultimate) strength, shows a maximum for
a certain amount of catalyst. This can be explained with:

1. At lower amounts:

Due to an unsufficient mixing and an extra local catalyst consumption by the

sand, the catalyst content is too few locally or even all-over.
Therefore there is a “minimum amount of catalyst or acid”, depending on the
process time and the pH of the sand.
The next figures are representative for a pH neutral new sand and 1 % of
resin:

Processing time strength PTSA65 PTSA10

10 min 200 N/cm2 0,3 % 0,2 %

5 230 0,30-0,45 0,20-0,30
3 250 0,45-0,75 0,30-0,50
1 290 0,50-0,85 0,33-0,55

2. At higher amounts:

In this case, the risk that the processing time is so short that a part of the sand
strength is destroyed, is very substantial.

At 20 °C, more than 0,90 % PTSA65 or 0,60 % PTSA10 definitely causes loss of
strength, independent of the processing time.

Adding these high amounts is therefore a waste of product and it is looking for
problems during regeneration.

The higher the temperature, the faster the reaction and the higher the risk for lower
final strength..

ACID MOBILITY

The acid mobility is the capability of the catalyst to start the hardening reaction by
connection with the binder. A high “acid mobility” leads to a low catalyst requirement
(in % to the binder and consequently to the amount of sand).

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1. The acid mobility decrease if the FA-amount (furfuryl alcohol) decreases and
the ureum amount increases. (ureum = Harnstoff). So in these cases there is
a need for more (in %) catalyst.

2. The more binder, the less catalyst we will need to obtain the optimal strength.
The less FA, the more important this effect is.

Binder amount binder catalyst

A* from 1 % to 2 % 35 % to 25 %
D* from 0,5 % to 1,5 % 80 % to 60 %

Resin A and D, see composition below.

Binder type % FA % N2 % H2O

A 90 1,5 1,2
D 60 6,5 8,5

Why does this happen?

1. because of the binder can be reached more easily

2. because of the temperature increase due to the larger reaction of more
binder. This higher temperature causes a better mobility of binder and
catalyst by decreasing the viscosity.

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5.7 COATING
Because the coating has to form a protective layer between metal and mould, the
type of coating will depend on the type of metal and the mould material.

The common types of coatings are:

1. Graphite based coating for lamellar and ductile iron, less suited for alloyed
cast iron.
2. Zircon based coating for steel and thick wall ductile iron and high alloyed
iron castings
c. Magnetite based coating for manganese steel.

The suppliers also add other materials to give the coating more specific properties,
as is the case with the “iron oxide” addition.

The “carrying medium” is water or alcohol or another easy vaporizing material.

Alcohol has the advantage that it vaporizes quickly and it can be flamed. Therefore
the coating layer is, after flaming, in the final state and there are no moisture
problems.

The disadvantage of alcohol is that if the coating is made too thin, a lot of alcohol will
penetrate the sand deeply and this causes that a layer of sand may “burn” (the
reacted binder – catalyst) during flaming and sand strength decreases. It will mostly
cause a bad casting surface.
Penetration of the coating alcohol decreases the hardening speed of the sand and
can even stop it (if the removal of the reaction water of binder – catalyst is stopped).

Water has the advantage that it is environmental and working area friendly and not
polluting. The disadvantage is that it dries “very slowly”, especially if the foundry air is
very humid. This can cause gas serious problems at the surface during pouring. This
can also be dangerous in case of a “possible exploding (gas) reaction” during and
after pouring.

As a solution in between there is also water with several other quickly vaporizing
fluids. This decreases the problem with drying but the environmental load increases.
The best solution is to put the cores and moulds in a drying furnace, which cost extra
energy.

But besides all these advantages of coating use, there is a danger in applying it to the
mould and or core.

1. When it is applied, the coating does close the mould material (no connection
anymore with the air) and by doing this it blocs the hardening reaction of the
sand and the final strength will be decreased.

The best time to apply the coating is at the moment that the reaction is
finished, although this can take a long time.

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In practice, the time is set at the moment that the sand
has reached 80 % of its theoretical strength. See figure
aside.

2. It is possible that the liquidizer of the

coating, which is mainly alcohol or
water, penetrates the reaction
binder and catalyst and influence
(mostly negatively) the final
strength.
Especially water based coating on
furanic or phenolic sand systems
and alcohol based coatings on
water glass sand, do have
problems.

General remarks:

1. if the coating has to be applied quickly, than the hardening reaction speed of the
binder – catalyst systems must also be quick.

2. do never coat before the bending strength of the sand is 200 N/cm2 or 2000 kPa.

3. alcohol as well as water from the coating (liquidizer) decrease the “strength of the
sand, obtained at the time of applying the coating”:
* alcohol decrease strength with 30 %
* water decrease strength with 50 %.

The minimum strength of the sand before coating is therefore:

> 300 N / cm2 or 3000 kPa before the water coating
> 250 N / cm2 or 2500 kPa before the alcohol coating.

4. the minimum final strength of the sand, having a good erosion resistance, is:
> 70 N / cm2 or 700 kPa as tensile strength
> 150 N / cm2 or 1500 kPa as bending strength
> 250 N / cm2 or 2500 kPa as compressive strength.

5. some more:
Both water and alcohol-based coatings, in combination with just about any
refractory, are used successfully with furane. Under normal conditions, the
furan no-bake systems develop 70 % - 90 % of their ultimate properties within
three hours after stripping. Therefore, the coating should not be applied until
one to three hours have elapsed after stripping, unless the cores and molds
have been thoroughly heated before the coating application. Another reason to
delay application of a relatively non-permeable coating (especially if it is a
water based coating) is that the chemical curing reaction produces water as it
cures, and this water needs to come out from inside the core/mold before the
curing can be considered complete.

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6. TESTS
6.1 SAND
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Test sample
6.1.3 Tests

6.1.1 Introduction

The mould is mostly made from sand, which has to withstand high temperatures
(does not melt or react) and keep its dimensions and shape.

The sand is a ceramic material and one of the most important factors in the furane
binder systems and should lead to the best moulds.

The sand that is most common used for the furane binder system, is “white sand” or
“silica sand”. It is successful due to its large availability and low cost. Sand has many
sources and compositions, but all sands have their common origin in the fact that
they are granular material resulting from the disintegration or crushing of rock.

In USA, there are two basic types of silica sand commercially available for foundries.
The first type is the round grain silica sand containing roughly 99% or higher of silica
with minimal amounts of trace materials.
The second type is the lake and bank sands. These sands contain approximately
94% silica with the balance containing iron oxide, lime, magnesia, and alumina.
Since impurities are removed, round grain sands possess higher refractoriness than
the lake sands. However, because the higher refractoriness of the round grain sands,
this can result in a higher propensity for veining and metal penetration defects. Lake
sands have lower refractoriness but also have a lower tendency for casting defects.

Some other sands, but less used, are zircon sand, olivine sand and chromite sand.

For these types of sand there are properties that can be tested easily according to
international accepted standards. The tests will describe in this text.

6.1.2 Test sample

Sample rules

The sand must be representative of the batch. Therefore it is very important to do it

properly, without too much dust or large grains.

Always follow AFS-1101-0-S specification to ensure consistent sampling, for those

unfamiliar with AFS-1101-0-S, sand should be acquired from a free-falling stream of
sand by passing the container through the stream at a uniform speed, clearly passing
through without overflowing the container.

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Special samplers are designed to assure correct sampling. See figure.

Length approximately 2000 mm

Diameter approximately 35 mm

Strength tests
Chemical bounded sand is mostly tested by making test pieces (some standardized
are available), which can be tested after different time (example 1, 4, 8, 24… hours)
to be able to estimate the hardness, strength build up. The test can be bending,
tensile or compression…

The test result indicates a strength and or hardness, which must be evaluated by the
foundry if it is sufficient. Small and large moulds, as well the fact that they are boxless
or with boxes, require different sand strengths.

But the question is, if the test shows and proves a correct strength (target strength), if
this means that it is also valid for the strength of and inside the mould. There is no or
very few relation!

The differences between the test results and the real strength / hardness of the
mould, are due to the difference in using, filling, applying, hardening of the sand for
testing and moulding. As a matter of fact, these are some of the important
differences:

1. filling time is different (seconds for test bar mould, much longer for casting
moulds)
2. capability to get rid of the reaction and product humidity (much better in test
bar mould than in casting moulds)
3. foundry conditions compared to test lab conditions
4. no pattern removal in case of test bar mould
5. no coating application in case of the test bar mould.

This means that the sand test mostly indicates the theoretical sand strength!

It is fact for the foundry to estimate the efficiency of the sand hardening, depending
on the mould and pattern situation as well as the temperature and humidity of the
environment and an eventually fluctuating sand temperature.
The theoretical (test) result has to be corrected by the efficiency (which depends from
a lot of actual, day to day, may be hour to hour changing conditions: difference in
temperature, humidity… of lab and foundry).

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6.1.3 Tests

1. SIEVE ANALYSIS or GRAIN FINENESS NUMBER

To produce a high quality sand, we need a good grain distribution. This grain
distribution together with the grain surface (specific surface) determine the necessary
amount of resin and catalyst.

Therefore the “AFS-number” or “GFN-number” and the “Specific Surface” must

be evaluated.

To determine these figures, an amount of sand is processed through a set of sieve.

Per sieve, the percentage of sand that is present in the sieve, is weigthed.
By multiplying these percentages with multiplicators, we obtain the AFS-number and
the Specific Surface.

There are several standards, of which the AFS-number is the most common.
Besides the old standards (DIN), also the BS standard is mentioned a lot.
The most important is that “a” standard is used continuously, which one is less
important, unless it is used for evaluating new sand deliveries.

The grain distribution is calculated as follows:

AFS ASTM E 11 DIN 1711 DIN 4188

No Mesh Factor No Mesh Factor Mesh Factor
width width width
6 3
12 1,651 5 4 1,5 6 1,4 6
16 1,167 7 6 1,0 9 1,0 9
20 0,833 10 0,71 15
30 0,589 20 10 0,6 17 0,50 25
40 0,414 30 0,4 31 0,355 35
50 0,295 40 20 0,3 41 0,25 45
70 0,208 50 30 0,2 52 0,18 60
100 0,147 70 0,15 71 0,125 81
140 0,104 100 60 0,10 103 0,09 118
200 0,074 140 0,075 146 0,063 164
270 0,053 200 100 0,06 186
pan 300 pan 281 0,02 275

The share of sand in the first two sieves are the “agglomerates”.
The share of sand in the last two sieves is “dust”.

Remarks:
1. DIN 1711 is replaced by DIN 4188
2. AFS-system: Sieve number is the “mesh-number” of the sieve.

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The specific surface can be calculated on 2 different ways:

1. According to the DIN-standard, the specific surface is (AFS-number / 0,57).

2. In a similar way as the grain distribution is calculated, starting from the amounts
that were found in the sieves (in %), but now multiplied by other factors.
See table on this page and ADDITION.

To perform the test a predetermined quantity of sand is removed from the batch,
machine or transfer point to be tested. AFS-GFN readings may be grossly inaccurate
if an inappropriate test point provides the sample.

THE SPECIFIC SURFACE OF THE SAND

AFS ASTM E11 BS 410 DIN 4188

No Mesh Factor No Mesh Factor Mesh Factor
width width width

12 1,651 12 16 19,19 1,4 13

16 1,167 24 22 26,48 1,0 19
20 0,833 40 30 37,42 0,71 26
30 0,589 60 44 52,90 0,50 37
40 0,414 90 60 74,72 0,355 53
50 0,295 130 72 98,02 0,25 75
70 0,208 190 85 115,52 0,18 105
100 0,147 270 100 137,22 0,125 148
140 0,104 400 120 164,07 0,09 211
200 0,074 600 170 209,64 0,063 296
270 0,053 900 240 294,05
pan pan 595,83 0,02 546

The sand is weighed to determine a start point or reference. The

odds of actually collecting exactly to the gram the amount required
is very unlikely, so it is best to get easily twice as much as you think
will be the required weight.

I assume that the weight will be different for each foundry, but once
that quantity is established all testing will be done with that target
weight.

The diagram illustrates a typical range of “Sieve Mesh sizes” used

in an AFS-GFN test.

The word "typical" implies that there may be other sizes that can be
used for specific sand distribution ranges, but this listing can be
considered an example, but not "the example".

The sieves have collars that surround the mesh and allow them to
be stacked securely into a column, with a closed pan at the bottom

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to catch any material that passes through the finest mesh sieve.

Ensure that all sieves are completely free of any sand or residue from a previous test
before beginning.

The column of sieves is placed into an agitator that securely holds the column and
will apply a vibratory action on it to work the grains through the various mesh sizes.
This process is run for approx 15 minutes to ensure that a thorough separation has
occurred.

The sieves are separated and the various distributions are weighed and documented.

It would seem that AFS-GFN is ranked as a 3, 4 or 5 sieve distribution (with the

condition of at least 10% of the total sample weight is present on 3, 4 or 5 adjacent
sieves... Since that is the case it's likely that there is a minimum value as a
percentage of the total sample size required to an AFS-GFN to be within or out of
bounds of the expected value.

The point of grain size distribution is to strike a balance between voids and
permeability of sand.

If a uniform size of rounded grains is compactly rammed, the total volume would still
consist of approx 40 % void space, if the size was reduced considerably (but
remained consistent, it would still have an equal volume of voids...

The solution is to use a distribution of varying grain sizes to fill-in voids to improve
surface finishes, and an added note that “silica flour” also can be used to increase
mold densities.

2. ANGULARITY

There are mainly 3 types of grain shape: “rounded”, “angular” and “sub-angular”.
All three have different properties and behaviour. This has to be done with a
microscope with magnification in the range from 10 x to 40 x.

Rounded sand offer excellent permeability but lack any interlocking strength, in an
unbounded state. In a bounded state require less binder though with a reduced
permeability, but good flow characteristics.

Angular sand exhibit lower permeability though with superior interlocking strength
when unbounded. In a bounded state require more binder to cover the higher surface
area, and are prone to produce significant sand fines due to sharp corners breaking
from mechanical handling.

Predictably sub-angular sands are a median between rounded and sub-angular...

Better permeability than angular, but not as good as rounded when unbounded,
better interlocking strength than rounded, but not as good as angular. More binder is

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required than rounded, but not as much as angular, with less fines generated than
angular, but more than rounded, and a similar mid-point of flowability.

It is common practice for foundries to use a

mixture of sand shapes to achieve a
balance of the above properties for their
specific molding, handling and casting
needs.

The next figure shows an overview:

Grain shape has a considerable influence

on binder adhesion and quantity, due to the
variance in grain surface area.

Grain shape also influences mold strength

and permeability.

The last point is that sand grain shape has

a natural tendency to change from angular
to rounded, due to handling and usage
over time.

The points or material that is broken off an

angular grain remains in the sand and is termed "Fines", the quantity of fines also
impacts mold permeability.

3. ORGANIC MATERIALS

These organic materials, especially the amount of clay, has a very negative influence
and the final hardness of the sand.

Following maximum is suggested:

< 1,0 % for oil based sand
< 0,5 % for water glass sand
< 0,3 % for furane and phenol (with acid catalysts) sand.

The procedure is described in the file “Clay Determination”.

4. LOSS OF IGNITION

The loss of ignition is the % of material that can be evaporated (organic material).

The value is determined by heating a weighted part of the sand to 1000 °C, stay for a
time and determine the weight loss. This weight loss gives an idea of the combustible
materials and is called the “loss of ignition”, LOI.

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5. ACID CONSUMPTION or ACID DEMAND VALUE

Is the amount of basic products (mostly NaOH) that is needed to restore the condition
of the sand to neutral (or indicated) pH.

When acidic activators used in synthetic bonding materials are added to moulding
sands containing alkaline substances such as calcium carbonate, a portion of the
catalyst or activator is no longer available for complete satisfaction of the
programmed resin-catalyst reaction.

Therefore it is important that the presence of these alkaline reacting materials be

measured so that uniformity and formulation control may be achieved.

Alkalis are also undesirable because they reduce the refractoriness of the sand.

The acid demand value and assignment number has been recommended, not as a
direct value, but as an indicator.

The procedure for determining the acid demand value of the sands tested was as
follows:

1. Fifty (50,0) grams of sand were placed into a 400-ml beaker.

2. Fifty (50,0) ml of distilled water were added to the sand.
3. Fifty (50,0) ml of N HCl hydrochloric acid were added to the sand.

The above mixture of sand, water, and acid was stirred continuously for fifteen (15)
minutes.

After stirring, the water-acid mixture was decanted and filtered with the sand being
washed with five 10-ml portions of distilled water. This wash water was added to the
filtrate.

The filtrate was titrated with standard N NaOH sodium hydroxide to a phenolphthalein
endpoint.

Acid demand of the sand was calculated as follows:

Let X equal ml of 0,1 N HCl

Y equal ml of 0,1 N NaOH
Acid Demand = X - Y

Comments:

Acid demand values of the samples range from somewhat less than 1 to the
maximum of 50.

A value of near 0 means little or no acid was consumed, and so virtually no soluble
carbonates are present in the sample.

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Values in the upper 40’s to 50 mean that nearly all, or in some cases all, the acid
added in the test was consumed and the sample had, therefore, a high soluble
carbonate content.

Published specifications for acceptable ADV’s of foundry sands vary depending on

foundry practice and on the molding techniques used. Available information shows
the maximum ADV’s specifications for various sands range from about 20 to 25 to a
low of about 5 for some uses.

6. RESIDUAL ACID

This is mostly not tested as such and is partly covered by the reaction of the mixed
sand in building up its strength.
.

7. pH

This is mostly not tested.

Since water is the suspension medium for

the pH test, a pH reading will only show the
presence and amount of water soluble materials.

8. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY

This is mostly not tested.

9. APPARENT DENSITY OR BULK DENSITY

This is the actual weight of a bulk

standard volume of sand. It takes into
account the grain size, packing,
humidity, …

The lower the weight, the less sand per

volume, the lower the heat content.

There is a instrument to test the density.

This accessory for the Metric Sand

Rammer provides a rapid method of
determining the weight in kilograms per
cubic metre of moulding or core sand
mixes.

The correct weight of sand to form a

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metric standard 50 mm diameter x 50 mm height specimen can also be readily
obtained by using the Density Indicator.

The Density Indicator is designed to be mounted on top of the Sand Rammer.

The position of the pointer is controlled by the length of the rammed sand specimen.

Three scales are engraved on a curved plate, two of which indicate density in
kilograms per cubic metre, one from 1400 to 1800 kilograms per cubic metre when a
157 gram weight of sand is used and the other reading from 1280 to 1650 kilograms
per cubic metre, when a 143 gram sample weight is used. The third (central)
calibration indicates the exact weight (in grams) of sand needed to form a 50 mm
diameter x 50 mm height specimen after ramming a sand specimen weighing 157
grams.

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6.2 BINDER & CATALYST

It is difficult to test the binder and catalyst.

The most important item is to request a certificate from the supplier concerning
chemical composition, physical properties and safety regulations.

Pay attention on the storage time!

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6.3 COATING
If the foundry buys the coating in shape of paste, it has to be brought on the correct
viscosity (adding liquidiser) very carefully. This has to be done before the coating
itself is checked on:

1. solid components: amount or percentage

2. specific weight or density
3. loss of ignition: 2 to 16 % of the solid components
4. viscosity: can be verified through several methods, for example using
Fordcup 4, which ha an opening 4,11 mm (counting time to empty cup)

applying with brush 20 to 30 sec emptying time

dipping 13 20
floating 13 16
spraying 10 18

Baumé equipment
The instrument is used to determine the specific gravity of all types of
foundry washes, sprays and coating materials which are heavier than
water.

5. pH

Is mostly not tested.

Only viscosity is easy to verify by the foundry, for example with the “Fordcup”. All the
others require equipment and time.

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6.4 MOULD
The mould testing is important duet o the fact that the sand tests, done in the
laboroty, are not one to one related to the reality in the moulding shop.
Therefore a relation between the tests should be set by the foundry and will be
different per foundry.

The Mould Strength Tester is used to measure the green compression strength of
moulds on the foundry floor. Any reasonable flat or gently curved mould surface may
be used. The tester can be operated at any angle, thus making it possible to take
strength measurements on vertical surfaces of a mould.

A reading is obtained, which is comparable to the green compression strength test,

obtained on a standard test specimen, rammed to the same degree as the mould.

Impact Penetration Tester

This instrument will determine the safe stripping time for moulds and cores made
from cold self-hardening sand mixtures and measure the sub-surface strength of CO2
– silicate moulds and cores.

A graduated probe is driven into the mould or core by a series of blows of equal
impact. The number of blows required to cause a given penetration of the probe can
be related to the sub-surface hardness of the material being tested, harder layers
requiring more impacts to cause an equivalent depth of penetration.

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7. NON CONFORMITIES
7.1 TOO LOW SAND STRENGTH
7.2 SURFACE
7.3 GAS
7.4 GRAPHITE
7.5 INCORRECT COATING APPLICATION

7.1 TOO LOW SAND STRENGTH

If the sand has a too low strength, sand cracks, core or mould breakage and sand
erosion can occur. The too low strength can be present due to:

* too much dust and or fines (burned binder, reaction residues…)

* too much water content binder and or catalyst
* too much resin has been sucked up by the agglomerates
* too high specific surface of sand (too edgy).

For ductile iron castings, a too low mould strength can result in extra mould wall
movement and extra shrinkage problems.

If sand grains become rounder, it needs less binder and this leads to a higher sand
strength for an equal binder addition.

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7.2 SURFACE

7.2.1 Scabbing
This defect is called “Scabbing” or “Spalling”

It is caused by a strength decrease of the sand, due to the heat shock of the cold
sand with the hot metal. Parts of sand come loose.

There are two major types:

1. sand cracks and metal penetration (spalling)
2. metal penetrates behind the sand and partly mixes (scabbing)

Which influences are playing?

1. moisture: the defect will appear quicker with increasing moisture content
2. pouring rate: slowly pouring and a long stay at high temperatures increase
this effect
3. silica expansion: sand suddenly expands at about 573 °C (alpha
beta
quartz)

Actions:
1. use more regenerated sand (already had the quartz leap, silica expansion)
2. use zircon and or chromite sand
3. pour fast (short pouring times)
4. furane / phenol are less sensitive than green sand, CO2 en water glass
bounded sand
5. dry the coating well before pouring
6. don’t repair small areas of mould or core.

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7.2.2 Burning in, penetration
Roughness of the casting surface is determined by the way that the metal intrudes
the sand. This can be extreme so that “burning in” or “penetration” occurs.
Penetration is a special type of burning in.

How does this happen?

* presence of several foreign (mostly organic) materials that decrease the

sinter point, for example phosphates
* high moisturing tendency of the sand with the metal
* liquid metal: the larger the pores in the sand (large grains) and the more
pressure (ferrostatic height and graphite segregation), the more sand –
metal penetration
* chemical reaction: metal oxides attach to the mould sand, react with the sand
and can change the size and amount of pores in the sand. For example
this happens with manganese steel in silica sand.
* gas pressure: gas from the metal can penetrate the sand and or gas from the
sand penetrates the metal. This doesn’t happen a lot.
* gas explosions: gas from the binder and or catalyst can cause small
explosions, can crack the sand and give the metal a chance to
penetrate.

Influences:

* happens through cracks and pores in the covering coating layer; the thicker
the layer, the less burning in or penetration
* in case of fin formation, some penetration almost always occurs because in
the crack the sand is not protected by coating
* sand with a high content of residual catalyst is very sensitive for this defect
* sand with an alcohol coating, which is flamed, is more sensitive
* the phenomenon is more explicit for cast iron; ductile iron even more than
grey iron, because of the eutectic volume expansion. The residual liquid
metal increase in volume during graphite segregation and the pressure
in the mould increase very much. See figure below.

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* increasing the ferrostatic pressure will increase the penetration

* increasing “kinetic energy” of the incoming metal (high speed and mostly
turbulence), the more explicit the phenomenon will be.
* increasing the time that liquid metal and sand are in contact with each other,
the more penetration: high pouring temperatures (compared to TL-
temperature), thick wall castings...

Actions

1. lower pouring temperature will cause less penetration

2. pour as fast as possible so that the sand near the incoming metal doesn’t
heat too fast and will stay low temperature
3. decrease the ferrostatic pressure by the location of the split line of the mould
4. locate risers aside of the casting (side risers) and keep them as low as
possible
5. increasing carbon equivalent for cast iron, especially ductile iron, will
increase the metal pressure, lead to mould wall mouvement and more
penetration
6. influence of manganese and sulfur on the sand can be neglected for grey
iron
7. elements that cause more volume shrinkage will decrease sand defects
(less graphite segregation and liquid metal volume expansion). The
elements are:
* P has very strong influence (less sand defects)
* Mo has also large influence
* Al, Mg and Ti have small influence.
8. inoculating cast iron, especially grey iron, causes less penetration
(increases the tendency to shrinkage)
9. the more strong (higher strength) the mould material, the more penetration.
So from a little to more sensitive, these are: clay sand, furane, cement
sand.
10. heavy ramming of the sand and “completing” the sand grain
distribution with a finer grain component will cause a too low gas
permeability and therefore gas defects.
11. never work (ram) on a cold hardening system too long (respect working
time). This will break the already existing grain connections partially,
which causes the sand to be less resistant to penetration.
12. Use special sands at the casting surface:
* zircon sand, but it is very expensive
* chromite sand, but should not be mixed with silica sand.
13. use thick coating layers (up to 1 mm) and or put two layers (if > 1 mm is
preferred).

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7.2.3 Fin formation
If the sand cracks due to fast heating (thermal shock), metal can flow inside and then
a fin is formed.
This is clearly different to sand – metal burning in or penetration.

The more plastic (deformable) the sand, the less fast it cracks:
* Phosphoric acid is better than PTSA.
* Reclaimed sand with low melting catalyst residues is less sensitive than new
sand.

The stronger the sand, the less it can be deformed. This high strength increases the
tendency to fin formation.

A coating, applied sufficiently thick (0,4 to 0,6 mm) is very effective to decrease this
effect (fin formation).

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7.3 GAS

7.3.1 General
Gas defects can vary in shape, dimensions and location where they occur. They can
occur in the “metal section” as well as “at the surface” of the casting.

The shape of the gas defect is mostly round with smooth walls. It can also, in case of
surplus of nitrogen in lamellar cast iron, be stretched and or have an irregular shape
(Komma-Fehler).

The amount and formation rate of gas, which it is formed, are important.

1. If the pressure at the contact surface metal / sand becomes very high, the gas
will penetrate the thin layer of solidified metal at the surface. These gas
defects (blow holes) have a “smooth white coloured wall” and are mostly
surrounded by a thin layer of metal.

2. In case of a lack (or sufficient amount) of vents, the gas will be blocked in the
mould cavity at the zone of the mould – metal. This gas consists of the air from
the mould cavity and the decomposition gas of the burned resin + catalyst.

3. Gas underneath the casting surface occurs if the gas, dissolved in the liquid
metal during melting and pouring, segregates from the metal without being
able to completely leave the metal and the mould cavity. This is caused by a
lower diffusion rate (lower temperature) and or a solidified surface metal layer.
These defects can be “round or very irregular”.

4. Gas caused by rusty chaplets or humid chaplets (condensation water) and or

internal and external chill blocks.

5. insufficient dried to not dried coating layers.

The gas defects occur in:

1. casting surface layer (between sand and metal) and will be always oxidized.
2. the metal volume, underneath the surface (large bubbles)
3. the metal volume, dissolved in the complete section, mostly appearing as a lot
of small defects.
4. casting surface layer (partly appearing, partly below the surface) as “pinholes”.
It are small deep defects under the surface, mainly catalised by a surplus of
nitrogen and or hydrogen.

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7.3.2 Causes
Following possibilities of gas exist:

1. physical inclusion of gas:

* of the mould material
* of (exothermic) slag
* (gas and air) of the mould cavity.
2. gas that segregates from the metal during solidification and cooling
3. extra formed gas caused by the reaction of the materials (oxygen, sand material,
gasses) with the metal.

Which gasses usually occur?

1. H, N especially from the metal and mould material
2. CO and H2O as reaction products
3. other gasses, mostly from the mould material.

7.3.3 Influences

BINDER, CATALYST AND COATING

* the amount itself has “no big influence” as such.

* furane resin causes more gas than phenolic resin and this leads faster to defects in
case of a low gas permeability of the sand.
* the rate of gas formation is very important. Especially for water glass the rtate is
high (disadvantage) although it doesn’t bother a lot.
* every catalyst contains water and during the reaction with the binder, extra water is
formed, which must escape (in air).
* also an alcohol based coating will introduce water to the mould sand during flaming.
A water based coating has to be dried very carefully.
* resin that decomposes can diffuse into the metal if it is not evacuated efficiently.
* the formed amount of gas per type of resin is shown on page 34.???

THERMAL CONDITIONS

1. Pouring temperature
* It has mainly an influence in case of a low gas permeability of the sand.
* The higher the temperature, the more gas defects.

For a too low pouring temperature, other problems occur:

+ gas defects caused by the high surface stress of the metal
+ cold flaws
+ less possibility for the gas to diffuse from the metal inside to the surface.

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2. Wall thickness

* For thin walls, the metal solidifies immediately and there are never gas
problems caused by gas from the metal. But nitrogen can lead to inclusions
because it can enter the metal from the mould (binder with nitrogen).

* The thicker the wall, the more heat is added, the more gas is formed, the
higher the gas pressure and the more chance of gas defects.

* The higher the modulus of the casting, the more heat enters the sand
locally, the more gas is formed.

* The same happens at the “hot spots”.

3. Difference in temperature

The formed gases (fumes) can condensate on the colder parts, especially
external chill blocks, upper side of the mould, but also on internal chill blocks.

VENTS, PERMEABILITY

* The higher the gas permeability of the sand, the less problems.
* The faster the gas is formed, the more difficult it is to get rid of it.
* Dust decreases the gas permeability very much.

In general, gas escapes in two ways correctly:

1. through vents and risers
2. through the sand (permeability)

1. Through vents and other openings:

* vents in the upper surface and all high areas

* vents above all coreprints / -shoulders, which have to be as big as
possible.
* use gas rope in the cores and pull them through until a gas hole in the
coreshoulder / print
* make hollow cores to enable gas removal through the mould
* during pouring, flame the escaping gas as soon as possible.

2. Through the sand (permeability > 200)

* the more coarse the grain, the better the permeability (gas removal)
* grain distribution: the less sieves used, the better the permeability.
Dust is a big disadvantage!
* amount of resin must be restricted
* sand compaction: the less compressed, the better the gas permeability
* coating on cores, especially core shoulders, limits the permeability a lot.

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POURING TIME

Only in case of low gas permeability of the sand, the pouring time “can” be problem.

The lower the pouring rate, the less chance of gas defects. The air in the mould can
then take more time to escape in a normal way. But then the same problems as for
too low temperatures will occur.

FERROSTATIC POURING HEIGHT

The higher the ferrostatic heigth, the more pressure on the metal, the better it resist
to gas inclusions, so the less problems.

ADDITIONS

Adding Fe2O3 (iron oxide) has a disadvantage if more than 2 % is added.

This is probably because of the decreased gas permeability and a higher gas
pressure of the chemically bound water present in Fe2O3 .

STORAGE AND INFLUENCE OF THE AIR HUMIDITY

This is of low importance, concerning gas formation, the storage of the complete
reacted mould is done. But the sand strength can decrease during the storage and
the higher the humidity of the storing environment, the more chance of pinholes.

LOSS OF IGNITION

The higher the LOI, which indicates that more product can be burned (combustible
and organic residual materials), so the more gas.

The smaller the ratio sand / metal, the higher the heat load of the sand, the more risk
on problems. But in this sand, so much residual materials burn, that it is already well
regenerated for next use.

This will have very negative consequences especially for a low gas permeability.

In general, gas permeability has to be as high as possible! The

drastically decreases the gas problem but it doesn’t change the
formation of it.

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7.3.4 Types
PINHOLES

* FeO + C <---> Fe + CO (at the surface, contact area of sand / metal)

* through the CO-bulbs atomic hydrogen and nitrogen can diffuse into the
metal
* There are two types:
+ holes in the surface
+ holes under the surface, which become visible during machining.
See figure on next page.
* Solutions:
+ keep nitrogen level as low as possible
+ avoid phosphates because they catalyze the reaction
+ apply a good coating.

Not all pinholes are formed by sand

irregularities. They can also be caused by
the metal.

WHITE PRECIPITATION

* occurs in cast iron, especially thick walled ductile iron castings

* occurs in large areas, locally small areas or in circles around the fins
* there is low oxygen level at the edge surface so the situation is slightly
oxidizing. Therefore Fe doesn’t oxidize but other slightly oxidisable
elements like aluminum, magnesium and silicon do. The longer the metal
stays liquid and or at high temperature, the more this phenomenon will
occur.
* it can cause holes or decrease thickness equally.
* occurs mainly in the area of hotspots and horizontally oriented thick walls
* is increased by a high loss of ignition and presence of phosphates residues.

SURFACE GAS BULB

A large gas bulb at the surface of the casting, usually at the top. The walls of
the gas defect are smooth and mostly oxidized.

The gas usually comes from the air out of the mould cavity, not being able to
escape. The more gas is present in the metal, the larger the bulb will be.

Also exothermal inclusions (exothermic slag…) can cause this defect, mostly
also because they react with the mould material.

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Humid, dirty, rusty chill blocks are also a possible cause.

INTERNAL GAS BULB

A large gas bulb, inside the casting. The walls are smooth and mostly not
oxidized.

The causes are the same as for the “surface gas bulb”. The difference is that
they get enclosed in by a fast flowing liquid metal stream, which later will
solidify quickly.

7.3.5 Actions

Surface gas defects

1. use minimum amount of binder and catalyst

2. good and continuous verification of the amount of binder and catalyst
related to the need of the sand
3. dry the cores very carefully
4. test and evaluate the reclaimed and new special sands on loss of ignition,
especially chromite and olivine sand (< 0,5 %)
5. use coating with low gas formation and dry it well
6. keep the loss of ignition of the reclaimed sand as low as possible, certainly
below 2,5 %
7. assure that the pouring system and the risers and the vents are suitable for
sufficient gas escape (section of vents > section of choke)
8. assure that the liquid metal has a low gas content.

Pinholes and other internal gas defects

1. assure that the liquid metal is as free of gas as possible.

2. assure that there is as few “moisture” as possible in the furnace and the
ladle lining / coating
3. assure that clean scrap is used and dry “inoculant andf “noduliser”
4. never keep the material at high temperature for a long time (oxidising, kitting
together…)
5. use low nitrogen to free of nitrogen binders and check reclaimed sand
continuously on the nitrogen level.

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6.4 GRAPHITE
The mould material, especially chemical bounded sand that uses S-containing
catalysts, can react with the magnesium in the liquid metal. The presence of sulfur in
the sand (mostly the highest content in reclaimed sand), can cause a reaction with
magnesium:

Mg + S --
MgS.

This is dross. But if the residual magnesium is too low, the sulfur cannot be
compensated and the surface layer will have flake iron (and or dross).

This reaction will increase if:

• Mg content is high
• Wall thickness of casting is large
• Coating layer is thin
• LOI, especially S-content, of the mould sand is high
• High metal temperature (pouring temperature).

The dross that is formed is different from the previous discussed one (MgO) and is of
the type MgS. It will also be seen as a surface layer with dross and flake free
graphite. Depending on the factors, the layer can be 1 to 3 / 4 mm.

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6.5 INCORRECT COATING APPLICATION

6.5.1 Different thickness of layer, even lack of coating leading to rough surface

Heterogeneous coating, which causes local differences.

Especially possible in case of dip and brush applying (coating is not touched a
lot) and spraying and flowing with incorrect viscosity coating.

6.5.2 Gas defects in the casting

Insufficient drying of coating

Two or more layers on top of each other, which are incorrectly dried.

6.5.3 Scabbing (spalling) on top of the casting surface

Too large difference of coefficient of expansion between the sand and the
coating causes the coating to come loose from the sand. This causes metal to
flow behind it and form separate shells.
Can be avoided by using a coating with a better penetration capability and a
higher adhesive (bounding) strength related to the sand.

6.5.4 Penetration

This is due to a “too thin” coating layer and or a too high ferro-static pressure.
This defect isn’t only caused by the coating but also by the sand.

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8. CONCLUSION
8.1 WHY USE IT?
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
8.2.1 SAND
8.2.2 BINDER
8.2.3 CATALYST
8.2.4 GENERAL RULES
8.3 OVERVIEW

8.1 WHY USE IT?

Why should furane sand be used?

This can be best shown by going over the advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages:

1. higher strength for given resin content

2. hardens in contact with air and doesn’t need heating

3. has a good flowability, does not require heavy physical work for mould or core
filling, slightly compressing and or vibrating is sufficient

4. sand system is very solid and therefore needs few mould strengthening and
ramming

5. it has a good cold and hot strength

6. it is not hard to mix and prepare, physically speaking

7. high dimensional accuracy of the casting and predictable polymerization shrinkage

8. high reproducibility of the casting

9. mostly lower costs for grinding related to the non-chemical systems

10. low investment costs

11. wide range of possibility concerning cost and performance

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12. agricultural based raw material with high availability

13. colouring indicates start of reaction, which make it easier for operators

Disadvantages:

1. high price of the products and total sand cost compared to green sand

2. requires high quality of the sand concerning the grain shape, grain distribution,
other components (especially organic ones) and “acid demand”

3. products are chemical, especially the catalyst (acid), so they require precautions
for storage, handling and use (corrosion)

4. patterns mostly need to have a better quality and strength

5. work / strip times are depending on temperature and humidity

6. possibility of over-catalyzing

7. environmental polluting waste (dust and resin / catalyst remains).

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8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

8.2.1 SAND

New sand

Foundry sand, type AFS 35 – 50, with distribution of 85 % of the sand at 2 – 3

sieves, without “fines” (>200), with a specific surface as low as possible, is the
best available.

Regenerated sand

Foundry sand AFS 50 – 55, with a specific surface as low as possible and a
loss of ignition, nitrogen and phosphate content of:

+ LOI < 2,5 maximum 3,0 for steel (2,2 according to other source)
< 5,0 maximum 6,0 cast iron (3,5 according to other source)
< 3,0 maximum 4,0 for alloyed cast iron

+ Nitrogen level
< 0,01 % for steel
< 0,1 % for alloyed and ductile cast iron
< 0,2 % for lamellar cast iron

+ Phosphate level (PO4)

< 0,5 % for all ferrous alloys

8.2.2 BINDER

The ideal binder is a water free resin with a furfuryl alcohol level as high as
possible and a nitrogen level < 0,5 %. For steel even nitrogen free.

The final compression strength has to be about 300 N/cm2 in the conditions in
which moulds are used. The backing sand can have a lower strength.

8.2.3 CATALYST

The catalyst should have a very low water content and the addition should be
in the range of 30 % to 60 % of the binder addition, in real use conditions.
The use of phosphoric acid is forbidden if regeneration is applied.

8.2.4 GENERAL

1. Ratio sand / metal as low as possible

Use filling material (wood, sand blocs, …) or fragments of used sand.

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2. Make gas escaping holes in every core to assure easy gas removel.

3. Use ventilation rope (gas escaping) in the cores.

4. Make small holes in the filled mould to increase the reaction.

5. It is important, in case of regeneration, that the grain distribution, the loss of

ignition (LOI) and the nitrogen level stay constant.
With a constant condition can be worked and a solution for a problem will
remain a solution. This is not so if conditions change all the time, if there is no
consistency.

6. Coating has to cover the mould and core sand very well (preferably use
water based coating for the environment). For strength, it has to be applied
“late”. An alcohol coating requires the least investments.

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8.3 OVERVIEW

RESIN FURANE PHENOL COPOLYMERES FURANE /

POLYMERES

Composition FA-UF FA-PF FA-PF-UF FA-F

Hardening time fast relatively fast fast average

Strength very high good high average

Final hardening very good average good good

Brittleness low high average average

Atmospheric good average good good

corrosion resistance

Nitrogen present none present none

Problems pinholes fin formation pinholes shake out problems

possible erosion hot cracks

Advantages shake out resistance thermal stability

hot cracks
thermal stability

Explanation:

FA : furfuryl alcohol
UF : ureum formaldehyde
PF : phenol formaldehyde
F : formaldehyde

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9. LITERATURE

1. Besonderkeiten kalthärtender Furan- und Phenolharze

D Boenisch R Mollenkott
Gießerei 66 (1979) nr 5

2. The Fundamentals of No-Bake Bonding Systems

J Sena
Modern Casting July 1976

3. Altsand-Regenerierung Welche Bindersysteme sind kompatibel ?

M Rochier
Gießerei-Praxis nr 18 / 1990

4. Wirtschaftlichkeitsberechnungen bei der Regenerierung von

Gießerei-Altsanden
H Berndt, Wetzlar
Gießerei 63 (1976) nr 21

5. Wirkungen der Formstoffkörnung auf Form und Gußstück

J Winterthaler, W hoffmann, K Orths
Gießerei 66 (1979) nr 5

6. "Wirkungsgrad" von Kaltharzen beeinflußt die Formfestigkeit

D Boenisch, R Mollenkott
Gießerei 64 (1977) nr 17

7. The impact of reclamation on Furansand Practice and Eonomics

R Wootton

8. Comment exploiter les Résines Furanniques pour prise a froid au

maximum de leurs avantages ?
Quaker Oats Chemicals Europe SARL France

9. An examination of the gas evolution characteristics of various synthtic core binders

JJ Moore, R Mason

10. Ongevalbestrijding bij het gebruik van brandbare deklagen in de gieterij

I. Baumgaertel
Giesserei 63 (1976) nr 5

11. Water-, alcoholcoating, naar welke kant gaat de ontwikkeling ?

D Bartsch
GP Jrg 11 nr 2, 1991

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12. Die Trocknung von mit brennbaren Formüberzugstoffen beschichteten Kernen in
Gießerei-Trockenöfen aus Sicherheits-technischen Sicht
H Wilde Gießerei 77 (1990) nr 1

13. Jahresübersicht Formstoffe (22. Folge) Teil 2

U Kleinheyer
Gießerei 72 (1985) nr 22

14. Jahresübersicht Formstoffe (23. Folge) Teil 2 und 3

U Kleinheyer E Bruemmer
Gießerei 73 (1986) nr 22

15. Récupération, réutilisation ou élimination des vieux sables de

fonderie
G Ulmer S Ryser
Fonderie-Fondeur d'Aujourd'hui 9

16. Veränderungen der Formsandeigenschaften durch den Kreislauf

und durch Zufluss von Kernsanden verschiedener Art
W Pohl, HD Sigmeister
Gießerei-Praxis nr 5 10/3/1974

17. Verslag van een seminar over "Mogelijkheden en grenzen bij de zandregeneratie"
GP Jrg 7 nr 4 1987

18. Regeneratie van harsgebonden zand en het vormzandkringloopproces

H Levelink, F Julien, P de Ruiter
De Gieterij nr 2 februari 1977

19. Eigenschappen van furaanharszand bereid uit geregenereerd zand

H Levelink, F Julien
De Gieterij nr 4 april 1977

20. Jahresübersicht Formstoffe (24. Folge) Teil 3

Prüfverfahren, formstoffbedingte Gußfehler
E Bruemmer
Gießerei 74 (1987) nr 21

21. Gasentwicklung synthetischer Kernbinder - Zusammenhang mit

Blasenbildung im Gußstück
R Naro, R Pelfrey
Gießerei-Praxis 13/14 1985

22. Penetratie en slink als gevolg van interactie van stollend

gietijzer in de gietvorm
H Levelink, F Julien
De Gieterij juni 1972

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23. Simulierung der Metall-Formstoff-Reaktion mittels eines Laborversuches
A Kiesler, W Moore, J Frawley
Gießerei-Praxis nr 7 1975

24. Enduits pour noyaux en fonderie de fonte

M Rochier
Fonderie-Fondeur d'Aujourd'hui 1989, nr 85

25. Special Feature : Mould and Core Coatings

W Meredith
The British Foundryman april 1981

26. A new family of foundry mould coatings

W Meredith
The British Foundryman april 1981

27. Technical Bulletin SCRATA

Metal Penetration and Casting Surface Roughness
Scabbing and Spalling Defects
Gases from Moulding Materials
Characteristics and Control of Cold-setting Sands
Gas Porosity in Steel Castings

28. Inclusions in Steel Castings

G Henderieckx
December 1993

29. Ferro-alloys Castings Gas Defects

G Henderieckx
November 1994

30. Foseco Ferrous Foundryman’s Handbook

John R Brown
Reprint 2001

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ADDITION
ENVIRONMENTAL &
SAFETY PROPERTIES
Working area

The catalyst and resin should never be added simultaneously or under any
circumstances mixed together. An explosion can, and probably will, result from the
uncontrolled exothermic chemical reaction that follows the mixing of the liquids
together.

On the negative side SO2 (Sulfur Dioxide) is produced during the casting process, as
well as the toxicity of the resin & catalyst components involved. The release of
residual formaldehyde during the sand reclamation process also poses health and
environmental concerns.

Coatings on alcohol base have clear problems with the environment and the working
area, they are mentioned in the TA-Luft chapter 3.1.7 class III.

For use of 3 kg / hour or more, the concentration in theair cannot be

higher than 0,15 g / m3.

Data Methanol Ethanol iso-Propanol iso-Butanol

toxicity DLso Dlso DLso

50-500mg/kg 500-2000 500-2000

R-nr 11-23/25 11 11 10-20

S-nr 2-7-16-24 7-16 7-16 16

Flaming point °C 11 12 12 24-29

Danger of
explosion 5,5-26,5 vol% 3,5-15 2,0-12 1,4-11

Emission class III III III III

MAK-value 200ppm 1000 400 100

Smell 2000ppm 350 100 15-25

VbF-class B B B

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FURANES.... their safe use in foundries
Furanes (mainly furane resins) are used extensively in cold-set processes in
combination with furfuryl alcohol and mineral acids to create bonding resins.

The common furanes, phenolic furane and urea furane, are supplied in liquid form,
and at normal temperature do not give off vapours. Skin sensitisation and allergic
contact dermatitis can arise from prolonged contact with the liquid or from exposure
to high concentrations of vapour when the substances are heated.

Vapours arising during foundry processes are irritant to the eyes, skin and respiratory
tract and are potential respiratory sensitisers.

Absorption through the skin can lead to a toxic effect on the central nervous system.

How to reduce risk

Local exhaust ventilation may be used to control exposure. Any worker who is
involved with the use, storage or transport of these resins should be instructed on the
associated dangers and necessary precautions. This may include the proper use of
goggles, and PVC gloves and aprons.

Complying with occupational exposure limits

No occupational exposure limit has been set for furanes. Data supplied by
manufacturers should therefore be consulted and exposures adequately controlled in
the light of that advice.

Regular checking and maintenance

It is advisable that local exhaust ventilation (LEV) used to control exposure is subject
to frequent checks for damage, in addition to the routine testing and examination, to
ensure that it is operating effectively.
Appropriate personal protective equipment may need to be worn when maintenance
activities are carried out on plant using furanes.

Safe labelling and storage

Containers of chemicals should be properly labelled and stored in a safe place,

protected from damage from passing traffic and in an area surrounded by a low sill to
retain spills and leaks.
Commercial furane binders are generally flammable and adequate precautions
should be taken to store the material away from sources of ignition. Containers
should also be stored separately from any catalysts, hardeners, oxidising agents and
sources of heat.

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Dealing with spillages

Prompt action is required to deal with spillages and leaks. Suitable supplies of
decontaminating materials should be kept available and employees instructed on
dealing safely with such situations. These instructions will include the precautions
that may be necessary to deal with the high levels of vapour that could be produced
in such a situation.
Provision needs to be made for the subsequent decontamination of all protective
clothing and equipment used in the clean up.

Waste disposal

Empty drums and containers should be properly labelled and stored in a safe place
until they can be taken away by an authorised contractor for proper disposal.
Alternatively, suitable arrangements may be made with the supplier for collection of
empty containers and drums.

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FORMALDEHYDE.... its safe use in foundries

Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde resins are used extensively in the
hot box and warm box processes to produce cores and moulds. The resins are
mixed with a catalyst and sand which when heated, hardens to form a mould or
core.

The hazards

At normal temperatures these resins do not give off vapour but when they are
heated, formaldehyde is evolved which is a potential respiratory sensitiser and has
been shown in experiments to cause cancer in animals. It is not however a proven
human carcinogen. Formaldehyde can irritate the eyes, skin and respiratory tract and
prolonged exposure could cause skin sensitisation and allergic contact dermatitis.

How to reduce risk

When using formaldehyde resins which are heated, local exhaust ventilation may be
necessary.
Any worker who is involved in the use, storage or transport of these resins needs to
be instructed on the associated dangers and necessary precautions. This may
include the proper use of goggles, PVC gloves and aprons, and footwear.

Complying with occupational exposure limits

The maximum exposure limit (MEL) for formaldehyde is two parts per million (2ppm),
time weighted average over eight hours. The short-term limit (averaged over ten
minutes) is 2ppm.
A worker's exposure to formaldehyde should not exceed this MEL and every effort
should be made to reduce the exposure so far as is reasonably practicable, and in
any case below the MEL.

Regular checking and maintenance

It is advisable that local exhaust ventilation used to control exposure is subject to

frequent checks for damage, in addition to the routine testing and examination, to
ensure that it is operating effectively.

Safe labelling and storage

Containers of formaldehyde resins should be properly labelled, stored in an area

surrounded by a low sill to retain leaks and spills and protected from damage by
passing traffic. They should also be stored separately from any catalysts, hardeners
or sources of heat.

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Dealing with spillages

Prompt action is required to deal with spillages and leaks. Suitable supplies of
decontaminating materials should be kept available and employees adequately
instructed on dealing safely with such situations.
Provision needs to be made for the subsequent decontamination of all protective
clothing and equipment used in the clean up.

Waste disposal

Empty drums and containers should be properly labelled and stored in a safe place
until they can be taken away by an authorised contractor for proper disposal.
Alternatively, suitable arrangements may be made with the supplier for the collection
of empty containers and drums.

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ADDITION
SPECIFIC SURFACE OF SAND
The specific surface can be calculated on 2 different ways:

1. According to the DIN-standard, the specific surface is (0,57 * AFS-number).

2. In a similar way as the grain distribution is calculated, starting from the amounts
that were found in the sieves (in %), but now multiplied by other factors.
See table below.

To perform the test a predetermined quantity of sand is removed from the batch,
machine or transfer point to be tested. AFS-GFN readings may be grossly inaccurate
if an inappropriate test point provides the sample.

THE SPECIFIC SURFACE OF THE SAND

AFS ASTM E11 BS 410 DIN 4188

No Mesh Factor No Mesh Factor Mesh Factor
width width width

12 1,651 12 16 19,19 1,4 13

16 1,167 24 22 26,48 1,0 19
20 0,833 40 30 37,42 0,71 26
30 0,589 60 44 52,90 0,50 37
40 0,414 90 60 74,72 0,355 53
50 0,295 130 72 98,02 0,25 75
70 0,208 190 85 115,52 0,18 105
100 0,147 270 100 137,22 0,125 148
140 0,104 400 120 164,07 0,09 211
200 0,074 600 170 209,64 0,063 296
270 0,053 900 240 294,05
pan pan 595,83 0,02 546

A more correct calculation depends on the type of sand and the shape.

1. Type of sand

See table next page

2. Shape

The calculated surface is multiplied by:

* round shape 1,2

* sub-angular 1,4
* angular 1,6

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ASTM E 11 Silica sand Olivine sand Chromite sand Zircon sand

12 12 12 8 6
20 24 24 16 12
30 40 30 30 24
40 60 60 40 35
50 90 85 60 50
70 130 120 85 70
100 190 170 120 100
140 270 240 170 140
200 400 350 250 200
270 600 500 350 300
400 900 800 600 500

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ADDITION
USE OF CHROMITE SAND
The use of chromite sand is wide spread in steel foundries as well as in heavy wall
ductile iron castings.

The target is to avoid shrinkage (cooling effect of chromite sand is larger than silica
sand) and metal penetration and or burn in of sand.

Unfortunately, many times the result is reverse concerning penetration and burn in of
the sand. How is this possible?

Why use chromite sand?

The use is preferred to:

1. increase cooling rate locally

2. make core removal more easy (less burn in and penetration)
3. increase dimensional accuracy (lower thermal expansion gradient)
4. resist to high ferrostatic pressure
5. resist high pouring temperatures (higher melting temperature, less
tendency to iron wetting)
6. withstand long solidification times (heavy wall castings).

The result is fairly independant of :

1. chemical composition of metal

2. type of furane system for mould / core.

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Where use chromite sand?

The preferred locations are:

1. hot spot
2. heat radiated zones in the mould or cores.

What cause the problem of penetration / sand burn in?

The cause is found in the fact that a low temperature compound is formed, fayalite.
This is the combination of SiO2 and free Fe, which can be increased by the presence
of Ca. The amount of Fe2O3 is between 25 and 27 % and can lead to free Fe.
The compound, fayalite, has:

1. a low melting point

2. high tendency to, absorb SiO2
3. high wetting capacity for chromite sand
4. the effect to decrease the melting temperature of chromite sand.

Fayalite (Fe2SiO4 and 2FeO.SiO2) and fosterite (Mg2SiO4) are both belonging to the
family of (Mg,Fe).SiO4 and both appearing as a glassy slag.
The melting temperature of fosterite is about 1900 °C and the one for fayalite is about
1200 °C. It is also known that Al 2O3 will decrease the melting temperature of fayalite.

The composition is a mix of chromite

sand, glassy slag and metal. If the
temperature of the sand is higher as
1250 °C, even liquid iron (Fe) drops
can exist!

To form this compound and get

penetration and or sand burn in, a
relative high temperature (1000 –
1200 °C) is necessary and a long
contact time (liquid metal – sand) is
required.

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Which are the influences?

The following influences are present:

1. dust and anorganic material content in chromite sand

An increasing amount will increase the tendency.
2. metal temperature in mould
An increasing temperature (> 1000 °C) will increa se the tendency.
3. pouring time
An increasing pouring time will lead to a higher sand temperature
(especially around the ingates) and increases the tendency.
4. oxygen content in the metal
An increasing oxygen content will increase the tendency.
5. aluminium content
An increasing aluminium content will decrease the oxygen content in
the metal and decrease the tendency for problems.
6. metal turbulence and speed of metal in ingates
An increasing turbulence in the pouring system and mould cavity as
well as an increasing metal speed inside the ingates, will increase the
tendency for problems.
7. type of coating and thickness of layer
Zircon based coating will decrease the strength of the sticking of the
penetration and or burn in sand layer to the casting surface.
8. humidity
An increasing humidity level will make more oxygen available and gas
will be present and the tendency to problems will increase. The humidity
can come from the environment or water based coatings.
9. type of atmosphere
A reduction atmospheric condition will decrease the problems.

Rules for best result

The rules are adding, which means all of them should be used to a maximum extend.

1. chromite sand should contain:

• dust < 150 ppm

• SiO2 < 1,5 %
• CaO2 < 0,15 %.

2. coating

• preferred zircon coating

• if graphite coating is required (heavy wall ductile iron castings), first
apply the zircon coating and after drying the graphite coating
• no water based coatings
• Fe content < 0,5 %
• SiO2 content < 2,0 %

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3. mould conditions

• chromite sand layer has minimum thickness: > 50 mm and up to 150

mm for thick wall castings
• furane content as low as possible (should be 30 to 50 % lower for an
equal strength compared to silica sand)
• low humidity can be created by drying with hot air before pouring
• no water based coatings unless completely dried.

4. pouring conditions

• low pouring temperature: TP = TL + 50 °C is best, but requires simple

shape casting and quick pouring
• very high pouring rate, which means short pouring time
• low metal speed inside mould; the following are the best:
+ Vrunner < / = 1,0 m/s
+ Vrefractory pipes < / = 3,5 m/s
+ Vingate < / = 1,0 m/s

Although it is not mentioned, the presence of magnesium, especially in heavy wall

ductile iron castings, can increase the formation of fayalite and or forsterite. This
definitely has an influence on the problem of penetration and sand burn in.

Calculation of required furane addition

If silica sand with a AFS 50 is used and the specific surface is 88 (50 / 0,57), specific
weight 2,5 and the shape is round, how much should be the furane addition for
chromite sand compared to the silica sand for getting the equal mould sand strength?
The amount for silica sand is set on 1 %.

Principle:

1. equal quantity binder compared to the volume

2. ratio of specific surfaces will correct figure
3. factor for shape makes another correction
• round 1,2
• sub-angular 1,4
• angular 1,6.

Chromite sand:
Case 1 2 3

AFS 60 60 80
Specific surface 105 105 140
Shape round sub-angular sub-angular
Specific weight 4,5 4,5 4,5

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Calculation:

Silica sand
1 kg equals 0,40 dm³ 0,40 0,40
Chromite sand
1 kg equals 0,22 dm³ 0,22 0,22

Required addition 1 % * 0,22 / 0,40

0,55 % 0,55 0,55

Correction specific surface

0,55 * 105 / 88 0,55 * 105 / 88 0,55 * 140 / 88
0,65 % 0,65 % 0,875 %

Correction shape 0,65 * 1,2 / 1,2 0,65 * 1,4 / 1,2 0,875 * 1,4 / 1,2
0,65 % 0,76 % 1,03 %

So the result is that depending on the properties of the chromite sand (AFS number,
specific surface and shape), the result can be that 1 % for silica sand becomes:

• 0,65 % for round, AFS 60 chromite sand

• 0,76 % for sub-angular, AFS 60 chromite sand
• 1,03 % for sub-angular, AFS 80 chromite sand.

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ADDITION
POSSIBLE TYPES OF SILICA SAND
New sand

AFS-nr Average Specific % on % on Loss of

grain size Surface 2 sieves 3 sieves ignition
(mm) [cm2/g] (%)
42 0.36 67 84 94 0.15
45 0.33 75 78 94 0.10
48 0.31 80 67 96 0.20
49 0.31 81 73 98 0.15
51 0.27 87 79 98 0.20
54 0.25 93 85 98 0.15
67 0.19 119 95 91 0.15

Reclaimed sand

AFS-nr Average Specific % on % on Loss of

grain size Surface 2 sieves 3 sieves ignition
(mm) [cm2/g] (%)
46 0.34 76 70 84 5.00
50,5 0.25 175 66 79 7.10
52,8 0.35 180 57 74 7.20
57 0.24 99 88 96 3.5
57 0.23 99 87 97 3.7
62 0.27 109 93 96 3.9
59 0.23 115 96 99 3.3
55 0.26 104 93 99 3.2

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Regenerated sand with problems

AFS-No water Specific Nitrogen pH Residual acid LOI

surface
% cm2/g % mg NaOH % %

57 0,1 99 0,04 2,2 124 3,5

57 0,2 99 0,05 2,9 128 3,7
62 109 3,1 248 3,9
46 76 2,3 266 5,8
50,5 183 7,5
54 91 9,3 -220

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