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CE 423a (HYDRAULICS)

TOPIC: OPEN CHANNELS

6.1 INTRODUCTION
 In open-channel flows the water surface is exposed to the atmosphere. This type of flow is typically found in
sanitary sewers, drainage conduits, canals, and rivers.
 Open-channel flow, sometimes referred to as free-surface flow, is more complicated than closed-conduit flow,
since the location of the free surface is not constrained, and the depth of flow depends on such factors as the
discharge and the shape and slope of the channel. may be classified as either open-channel flow or closed-
conduit flow, depending on whether the conduit is flowing full.
 Flows in conduits with closed sections, such as pipes,
 A closed pipe flowing partially full is an open-channel flow, since the water surface is exposed to the atmosphere.
 Open-channel flow is said to be steady if the depth of flow at any specified location does not change with time; if
the depth of flow changes with time, the flow is called unsteady. Most open-channel flows are analyzed under
steady-flow conditions.
 The flow is said to be uniform if the depth of flow is the same at every cross section of the channel; if the depth of
flow varies along the channel, the flow is called non-uniform or varied. Uniform flow can be either steady or
unsteady, depending on whether the flow depth changes with time; however, uniform flows are practically
nonexistent in nature. More commonly, open-channel flows are either steady nonuniform flows or unsteady
nonuniform flows.
 Open channels are classified as either prismatic or non-prismatic. Prismatic channels are characterized by an
unvarying shape of the cross section, constant bottom slope, and relatively straight alignment. In non-prismatic
channels, the cross section, alignment, and/or bottom slope change along the channel.
 Constructed drainage channels such as pipes and canals tend to be prismatic, while natural channels such as
rivers and creeks tend to be non-prismatic.

Figure 4-1: Open Channel Flow

4.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
 The governing equations of flow in open channels are the continuity, momentum, and energy equations. Any flow
in an open channel must satisfy all three of these equations.
 Analysis of open-channel flow can usually be accomplished with the control-volume form of the governing
equations, and the most useful forms of these equations for steady open-channel flows are derived in the
following sections.

4.2.1 Specific Energy

The specific energy(H) is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the channel. It is given by:
v2
H= +d
2g
4.2.2 Chezy Formula
In figure 4-1, the head lost between any two points in the channel is: h L =SL
where: S = slope of the energy gradeline
L = lenth or run
The head loss balances the loss in height of the channel.

From Darcy-Weisbach relation:

fL v 2
h L=
D 2g
Where D= 4R
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fL v2
h L=
4R 2g
hL f v2 hL
= ,where =S
L 8g R L
8g
v 2= RS
f
8 g 1 /2 R 1 /2
v=( ) ( )
f S
 For a given channel shape and bottom roughness, the quantity (8g/f) 1/2 is constant and can be denoted by C. The
equation becomes,
v=C √ RS
Q= AC √ RS
 These equations are called the Chezy formulas, first developed by the French engineer Antoine Chezy in 1769.
 The quantity C is called Chezy coefficient, varies from about 30 m 1/2/s for small rough channels to 90 m1/2/s for
large smooth channels.
 A great deal of hydraulic researchers correlated C with roughness, shape, and slope of various open channels.
Among them were Ganguillet and Kutter in 1869, Manning in 1889, Bazin in 1897, and Powell in 1950.

4.2.3 Kutter and Ganguillet Formula

 In 1869, Ganguillet and Kutter (1869) published an elaborate formula for C that became widely used.
1 0.0011
+23+
n S
C= , SI Units
n 0.00155
1+ (23+ )
√R S

1.811 0.00281
+ 41.65+
n S
C= , English Units
n 0.00281
1+ (41.65+ )
√R S

4.2.4 Manning Formula

 In 1890, Manning (1890) demonstrated that the data used by Ganguillet and Kutter were fitted just as well by a
simpler formula in which C varies as the sixth root of R, where
1
C= R1 /6 - (SI Units)
2
1.486 1 /6
C= R - (English Units)
2
1
v= R2 /3 S 1/ 2 - (SI Units)
n
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= AV = A R S - (SI Units)
n

4.2.4 Bazin Formula

87
C=
m  (SI Units)
1+
√R
87
C=
m  (English Units)
0.552+
√R
4.2.5 Powell Equation(SI)
C ε
C=−42 log ⁡( + )
Re R
where:
n = roughness coefficient, see table 4-1
m = bazin coefficient, see table 4-2
ε = roughness in meter
R = hydraulic radius
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S = slope of energy grade line
1
=¿strickler coefficient
n
Table 4-1. Values of n to be used with Manning Formula

Table 4-2 : Typical Bazin Coefficient

4.2.6 UNIFORM FLOW (S =So)

 The simplest of all open channel problem is the uniform flow condition.
 For all the flow to be uniform, the velocity, depth of flow, and cross-sectional area of flow at any point of the
stream must be constant(i.e. v1 =v 2 , d 1=d 2 , A1 =A 2 ¿ .
 For this condition, the stream surface is parallel to the channel bed and the energy grade line is parallel to the
stream surface, and therefore the slope of the energy gridelin S is equal to the slope of the channel bed S o.

4.2.7 BOUNDARY SHEAR STRESS(τ O ¿

 The average boundary shear stress, τ O , acting over the wetted surface of the channel given by:
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τ 0=γRS
where: γ = unit weight of the liquid
R = hydraulic radius and for uniform flow or for
S = slope of the EGL S < 1/10 (θ < 0.57°), S=So
4.2.8 NORMAL DEPTH
 Normal depth is a commonly used term in open-channel hydraulics.
 It can be defined as the depth of flow that will occur in a channel of constant bed slope and roughness, provided
the channel is sufficiently long and the flow is undisturbed (Knight et al., 2010).
 When the Darcy–Weisbach or Manning equation is used to calculate the depth of flow for a given discharge,
channel roughness, and channel slope (for S = S0), the calculated depth of flow is taken to be the normal depth.
 Normal depth can be determined from chezy formula with S = S 0
 The resulting equation usually requires a trail-and-error solution.

4.2.9 MOST EFFICIENT CROSS SECTION(MES)

 Also known as the most economical sections
 These are sections which, for a given slope S, channel cross-sectional area A, and roughness n, the rate of
discharge is a maximum.
 From manning formula,
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n
It can be seen that with A, n, and S constant, Q is maximum when the hydraulic radius R is maximum, since R =
A/P, then R is maximum if P is minimum.
 Therefore, the most efficient section is the one that have the least wetted perimeter and therefore requires the
least cost of grading and lining, which makes it most economical.

Let us suppose that you are required to design a rectangular canal to have a cross sectional area of 8
sq.m. The possible dimensions (width x depth) are as follows:
b = 8m, d = 1m; perimeter = 10 m
b = 2m, d = 4 m; perimter = 10 m
b = 1m, d = 8m; perimeter = 17 m
b = 4m, d = 2m; perimeter = 8 m
Of these dimensions, it can be seen that the size 4m x 2m has the least perimeter hence it is the most
efficient.
 Semicircular flumes are often built of pressed steel and other forms of metal, but for other types of construction
such a shape is impractical.
 For wooden flumes the rectangular shape is usually employed.
 Canals excavated in earth must have a trapezoidal cross section, with side slope less than the angle of repose of
the bank material. Thus, there are other factors besides hydraulic efficiency which determine the best cross
section.
 Of all canal shapes, the semicircular open channel is the most efficient.

4.2.10 PROPORTIONS FOR MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS

To derive the proportions for most efficient sections, minimize the perimeter with the cross-sectional area
constant.
RECTANGULAR SECTION Perimeter , P=b+2 d A d2
R= =
Area, A=bd P b+ 2d
b= A/d
A d2
P= +2 d R=
d 2 d +2 d
dP −A ( 1 ) d
= +2=0 R=
dd d2 2
A
=2
d2
A=2 d2
bd=2 d 2
b=2 d

TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION Perimeter , P=b+2 y ¿ the figure :

P=b+2 d sec θ (Eq. 1) x=b+ 2 y
P=bd+¿ x=b+ 2 d tanθ (Eq. 5)
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A=bd+ d 2 tan θ but, b=
A
−d tan θ=¿¿ ¿
bd= A−d 2 tan θ d
A
b= −d tan θ (Eq. 2) b=2 d sec θ−d tan θ−d tan θ
d
In eq. (1) b=2 d sec θ−2 d tan θ
A
P= −d tanθ+ 2d sec θ (Eq. 3) In eq. (5)
d
By partial differentiation: x=2 d sec θ−2 d tan θ+2 d tan θ
∂P −A
= 2 −tan θ+2 sec θ=0 x=2 d sec θ=2 y
∂d d
A
=2 sec θ−tanθ x=2 y
d2
A=¿
In Eq. (3)
P=¿¿
A
R= =¿¿
P
d
R=
2
Therefore, the most efficient trapezoidal section (including the rectangle) has its top width (x) equal to the sum of the
sides (2y), which is a proportion for a half-hexagon.
¿ Eq . ( 2 )
∂P
=0−d sec 2 θ+2 dsec θ tan θ=0
∂θ
sec θ=2 tan θ
1 sinθ
=2
cos θ cos θ
1
sin θ=
2
θ=30°
This shows that the best of all efficient trapezoidal section is the half-regular hexagon (all sides are equal)

θ
TRIANGULAR SECTIONS Perimeter , P=2 d sec ( )
2
tan ( θ2 )= dA
2

2
1 θ θ d
A= x 2 d tan
2 2 ()
xd tan ( )= =1
2 d 2

θ θ
A=d 2 tan
2() 2
=45 °

A θ
d 2
=tan
2 () θ=90 °

θ √ A 2 +d 4 Therefore, the most efficient section

sec ()2
=
d2
is the 900 V-notch.
thus,
θ
P=2 d sec ( )
2
A + d4
2
P=2 d √ =¿ 2 √ A2 +d 4
d2 d
3
4d
d 2 4
− √ A 2+ d 4
dP 2 √ A +d
=2 =0
dd d2
2 d4 2 4
2 4
=√ A +d
√ A +d
2 d 4 =A 2+ d 4
A2=d 4
A=d 2
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CIRCULAR SECTIONS A circular channel will have its maximum discharge when the depth of flow
d is 93.8% of the diameter D, and the velocity is a maximum when the
depth is 82% of the diameter.

4.2.11 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL

The velocity distribution in wide open channels is given by the expression:
1
u=v + √ gyS ¿
K
where: y = depth of water in channel in m
u = velocity at a distance y’ from channel bed
K = von Karman constant, having a value of 0.40 for clear water. (for sediment laden water its value may
be as low as 0.20)
v = mean velocity of flow
S = slope of the EGL

4.2.12 ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

 The channel shown in the figure below carries water at a depth of d and a mean velocity of V.

v2
 The total specific energy in the channel is H= + d .
2g
solving forv , v =√ 2 g(H −d )
and the discharge is Q= A √ 2 g (H−d)
 If the equation will be plotted (as shown in the figure at the right side), it can be seen that when d=0, Q=0 and
when d = H, Q=0 and by substituting values of d in terms of H we can establish a curve.
 It appears in the curve that, within limits (from 0 to H), there are two depths at which any given discharge will flow
with the same energy content. These two depths are called alternate stages, and are spoken as the tranquil or
upper stage and the rapid or lower stage.
 On the upper stage, the Froude number, FN < 1, while on the lower stage FN > 1.0

4.2.13 FROUDE NUMBER

 The ratio of the inertia force to gravity force and is given by the expression:
v
FN =
√ gL
 For rectangular channel, L = depth of flow d.
v
FN =
√ gd
4.2.14 CRITICAL DEPTH, dc
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 From the figure shown in the previous page that there is a certain depth d, that for a given total specific energy H,
the discharge is maximum. This depth is called the critical depth.
 The critical depth is defined as the depth at which for a given total head, the discharge is maximum, or
conversely, the depth at which for a given flow, the specific energy is minimum. Its value can be obtained by
differentiating the following equation:
Q= A √ 2 g ( H−d)
4.2.14.A Critical depth on Rectangular Section
 For rectangular channel, the discharge per meter width can be expressed as
q=d √ 2 g( H −d )

where: q = unit flow in

m3 per meter width of canal = vd.
s
q=Q/ b
Q = total flow in
m3
s
b = channel width in m.
d= √ 2 g(d √ H−d )
dq
dd [
=√ 2 g √ H−d ( 1 ) +d
(−1 )
2 √ H −d
=0
]
d
= √ H −d
2 √ H−d
d=2( H−d )
d=2 H −2 d
3 d=2 H
2 3
d c = H ∨H= d c
3 2
3d

q=d gd
√√
q=d 2 g(
2
−d )

Square both side:

2 2
q =d gd
3 q2
d=
g
q2
d c=
g √
3
for rectangular channel
Q
q=vd=
b
Replacing q=vd
2
(vd )
d 3=
g
2
gd=v
v=√ gd
v
¿ =1( Froude Number , F)
√ gd
This shows that the Froude number for critical depth is equal to 1.

4.2.14B CRITICAL DEPTH ON ANY SECTION

 For any section, the critical depth can be computed by the following derived formula:
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v2
From H= +d
2g
Where v = Q/A
Then
Q2
H= +d
2 g A2
With Q as constant
dH Q 2
= ¿
dd 2 g
dA
Q2
dd
=1
g A3
From the figure shown, dA = B x dd
And dA/dd = B, then;
Q2 B
=1
g A3
Q 2 A3
=
g B
where A and/or B, if variable, must be expressed in terms of d.
The critical velocity V, in irregular channel can be taken by replacing Q = A cvc
g AC
v c=
√ BC

4.2.15 CRITICAL SLOPE

 The slope required to a given uniform flow at critical depth is known as the critical slope Sc.
 The equation for critical slope for a wide rectangular channel is
g n2
SC = 1
dc 3

4.2.16 NON-UNIFORM OR VARIED FLOW (S=So)

 Uniform flow rarely occurs in natural streams because of changes in depth, width and slope along the channel.
 The manning equation for uniform flow can be applied to non-uniform flow with accuracy dependent on the length
of reach L taken.
 Thus a long stream should be divided into several reaches of varying length such that the change in depth is
roughly the same within each reach.

From the figure shown:

v 21 v 22
+d 1 +S o L= +d 2 +S L
2g 2g
v 22 v2
So L−SL= ( 2g )(
+ d 2 − 1 +d 1
2g )
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v 22 v 21

L=
(2g )(
+ d2 −
2g 1
+d )
S 0−S
H −H 1
L= 2
S0 −S
S1 + S2
S=
2
where:
H = specific energy
L = length of reach
S0 = slope of channel bed
S1 & S2 = slope of the energy grade line at section 1 & 2, respectively, computed using Manning
formula
n2 v 21
S1=
R14/ 3
n2 v 22
S2= 4 /3
R2