OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Open channel flow is a flow of liquid, basically water in a conduit with a free surface. The open channel flows are driven by
gravity alone, and the pressure gradient at the atmospheric interface is negligible.

Closed duct flows are full of fluid, have no free surface within, and are driven by a pressure gradient along the duct axis.

That is a surface on which pressure is equal to local atmospheric pressure.

Open channel flows are characterized by the presence of a liquid-gas interface called the free surface. Some are natural
flows such as rivers, creeks and floods, some are human made systems such as fresh water aquaducts, irrigation, sewers
and drainage ditches.
An open channel always has two sides and a bottom, where the flow satisfies the no-slip condition. Therefore even a straight
channel has a three-dimensional velocity distribution. Some measurements of straight channel velocity contours are shown
below.

The profiles are quite complex, with maximum velocity typically occurring in the midplane about 20% below the surface.
COMPARISON OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOW AND PIPE FLOW

OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PIPE FLOW

Open channel flow must have a free surface. No free surface in pipe flow.
A free surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. No direct atmospheric pressure, hydraulic pressure only.
Flow area is determined by the geometry of the channel Flow area is fixed by the pipe dimensions. The cross
plus the level of free surface, which is likely to change section of a pipe is usually circular.
along the flow direction and with as well as time.
The cross section may be of any from circular to The cross section of a pipe is usually circular.
irregular form of natural streams, which may change
along the flow direction and as well as with time.
The depth of flow, discharge and the slopes of channel No such dependence.
bottom and of the free surface are interdependent.
TYPES OF OPEN CHANNEL FLOWS

The most common method of classifying open channel flow is by the rate of change of the free surface depth. The simplest
and most widely analyzed case in uniform flow.

Type of flow Description

Steady flow When discharge (Q) does not change with time.
Uniform flow When depth of fluid does not change for a selected length or section of the
channel.
Uniform steady flow When discharge does not change with time and depth remains constant for a
selected section. Cross section should remain unchanged, referred to as a
prismatic channel.
Varied steady flow When depth changes but discharge remains the same.
Varied unsteady flow When both depth and discharge change along a channel length of interest.
Rapidly varying flow Depth change is rapid.
Gradually varying flow Depth change is gradual.
1. Rapidly varying flow
2. Gradually varying flow
3. Hydraulic jump
4. Weir and waterfall
5. Gradually varying
6. Hydraulic drop due to change in channel slope
PARAMETER USED IN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW ANALYSIS

Hydraulic radius, 𝑅! of open channel flow

𝑅! is a ratio of flow cross sectional area, 𝐴 and wetted perimeter (WP)

𝐴
𝑅! =
𝑊𝑃

𝐷! = 4𝑅!

𝑅! : Hydraulic radius
𝐷! : Hydraulic diameter
A : Flow cross sectional area
WP : Wetted perimeter
REYNOLDS NUMBER FOR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW.

𝜌𝑉𝑅! 𝑉𝑅!
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜈

Re < 500 – laminar flow

Re > 2000 – turbulent flow

Reynolds number for pipe flow

𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝜇 𝜐

Re < 2000 – laminar flow

Re > 4000 – turbulent flow

Froude number, Fr

The Froude number (Fr) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of channel velocity to the speed of propagation of
a small disturbance wave in the channel.

For a rectangular or very wide constant depth channel, Froude number can be defined as :

Flow velocity 𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = =
Surface wave speed q𝑔𝑦!

𝑉 = Velocity
𝑔 = gravity
𝑦! = Hydraulic depth

𝐴
𝑦! =
𝑇

A = Area
T = Top width of the channel
Fr < 1.0 → Sub-critical flow

Fr = 1.0 or when 𝑉 = q𝑔𝑦! → Critical flow

Fr > 1.0 → Super-critical flow

A combination of both numbers is used to describe channel flow conditions.

THE CHEZY FORMULA

Uniform flow can occur in long straight runs of constant slope and constant channel cross section. The water depth is
constant at 𝑦 = 𝑦" , and the velocity is constant at 𝑉 = 𝑉" . The slope be 𝑆" = tan 𝜃 , where 𝜃 is the angle the bottom makes
with the horizontal, considered positive for downhill flow. From Bernoulli equation, the head loss becomes:
From Bernoulli equation:

0 + 0 + 𝑧# = 0 + 0 + 𝑧$ + ℎ%

ℎ% = 𝑧# − 𝑧$ = 𝑦 = (tan 𝜃)𝑥 = 𝑆" 𝐿

where L is the horizontal distance between section 1 and 2.

Head loss from Darcy-Weisbach is:

𝐿 𝑉$
ℎ% = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔
 #
8𝑔 $ # #
𝑉" = € ‚ ∙ 𝑅! $ ∙ 𝑆" $
𝑓
!
&' "
For a given shape and bottom roughness, the quantity „ … is constant and can be denoted by 𝐶.
%
#
8𝑔 $
𝐶=€ ‚
𝑓

Finally, the velocity 𝑉" can be expressed as :

#
8𝑔 $ # # #
( )
𝑉" = € ‚ ∙ 𝑅! ∙ 𝑆" = 𝐶 ∙ 𝑅! 𝑆" $
$ $
𝑓
 #
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐶 ∙ (𝑅! 𝑆" )$

These are called Chezy formula, first developed by the French engineer Antoine Chezy in conjuction with his experiments
on the Saine River and the Courpalet Canal in 1769.

The quantity 𝐶 , called the Chezy coefficient, varies about 60 ft½/s for small rough channels to 160 ft½/s for large smooth
channels (30 m½/s to 90 m½/s in SI units).
EXAMPLE 1

A straight rectangular channel is 6 ft wide and 3 ft deep and laid on a slope of 2°. The friction factor is 0.022.

SOLUTION 1
8𝑔 (8)(32.2) #
𝐶=• =• = 108 (𝑓𝑡 $ 𝑠)
𝑓 0.022

𝐴 18
𝑅! = = = 1.5 (𝑓𝑡)
𝑊𝑃 3 + 6 + 3

𝑆" = tan 2°
# #
𝑄 =𝐴∙𝐶∙ (𝑅! 𝑆" )$ = (18)(108)(1.5 × tan 2°)$ = 450 (𝑓𝑡 ( /𝑠)

For SI units, it can be used directly.

Uniform steady flow and Manning’s equation

When discharge remain the same and depth does not change, then we have uniform steady flow.

In this condition, the surface of water is parallel to the bed of the channel. To make sure water (liquid) flow inside the
channel, it must have certain angle of inclination, or the channel’s slope.

The slope of the channel (S) can be expressed as :-

• An angle = 1 degree
• As percent = 1%
• As fraction = 0.01 or 1 in 100
Manning’s equation is used to estimate the velocity of flow in a channel.

The SI units form of Manning’s equation:

1.0 $ #
𝑉= ∙ 𝑅! ( ∙ 𝑆 $
𝑛

V = Velocity of flow in a channel (m/s)

n = Channel surface roughness. Values developed through experimentation.
R = Hydraulic radius (A/WP) in meter
S = Slope of the channel

The English units form of Manning’s equation:

1.49 $ #
𝑉= ∙ 𝑅! ( ∙ 𝑆 $
𝑛

V = Velocity of flow in a channel (ft/s)

R = Hydraulic radius (A/WP) in feet
Example of the n values:-
The flowrate of a channel could be determined by :

1.0 $ #
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = ∙ 𝐴𝑅! ( ∙ 𝑆 $
𝑛

where Q is in m3/s.

For uniform flow, Q is referred to as normal discharge.

The above equation can also be re-arranged such that :

$ 𝑛𝑄
𝐴𝑅! ( = #
𝑆$

The left-hand side equation is based on channel geometry.

The right-hand side equation is based on flow properties.
Example #01

Determine normal discharge for a 200 mm inside diameter common clay drainage tile running half-full if the slope drops
1m over 1000m.

1.0 $ #
𝑄= ∙ 𝐴𝑅! ( ∙ 𝑆 $
𝑛
 𝑛 = 0.013

1 𝜋𝐷 $
𝐴= × = 0.0157 𝑚$
2 4

1
𝑊𝑃 = × 𝜋𝐷 = 0.3142 𝑚
2

𝐴 0.0157
𝑅! = = = 0.05 𝑚
𝑊𝑃 0.3142

𝑆 = 0.001

1.0 $ #
𝑄= ∙ 𝐴𝑅! ∙ 𝑆 $ = 5.18 × 10)( 𝑚( /𝑠
(
𝑛
Example #02

Calculate slope of channel if normal discharge is 50 ft3/s. Channel is formed, unfinished concrete.

English unit !!!

 1.0 $ #
𝑄= ∙ 𝐴𝑅! ∙ 𝑆 $ =
(
𝑛

2 1 1
1.49 Qn
Q= × AR 3 × S 2 → S =
2
2
n
1.49 AR 3

A = 12 ft2

WP = 9.66 ft
A
R= = 1.24 ft
WP
n = 0.017

S = 0.00169
(Channel should drop 1.69 feet for every 1000 feet length.
Example #03

Design a rectangular channel in formed, unfinished concrete with below mention specifications.
Normal flowrate = 5.75 m3/s
S = 1.2%
Normal depth = half of the width of the channel.

Since we have to design the channel, use this equation.

2
nQ B
AR =
3
1

S 2

2
nQ 0.017 ´ 5.75 Y=B/2
AR =
3
1
= 1
= 0.892
S 2 (0.012)2

B B2
A = BY = B ´ =
2 2
WP = B + 2Y = 2 B
A B
R= =
WP 4

2
2
æ B 2 öæ B ö 3
AR = çç ÷÷ç ÷ = 0.892
3

è 2 øè 4 ø
B = 1.76 m
Y = 0.88 m
Example #04

In a rectangular channel as mention in Example #03, the final width was set at 2m and the maximum discharge is 12m3/s.
Find the normal depth for this maximum discharge.

2
nQ
AR =
3
1 2m
S2

2
nQ 0.017 ´ 12
AR =
3
1
= 1
= 1.862257 Y
S 2 (0.012)2
A = 2Y
WP = 2 + 2Y
A 2Y
R= =
WP 2 + 2Y

2
2
æ 2Y ö 3
AR = (2Y )ç
3
÷ = 1.862257
è 2 + 2Y ø

Cannot solve directly. Use trial and error method. Can use MS Excel datasheet.

From Excel,

The normal depth must be 1.348 meter.

From MS Excel worksheet:
CONVEYANCE AND MOST EFFICIENT CHANNEL SHAPES

2 1
1.0
Q= × AR 3 × S 2
n

Other than the S term, all other terms are related to channel cross section and its features.

These terms together are referred to as the Conveyance (K) of the channel.

2
1.0
K= × AR 3
n

Then,

1
Q = K ×S 2

A
R=
WP

K is maximum when wetted perimeter (WP) is the least for a given area. This is also the most efficient cross section for
conveying flow.
For circular section, half full flow is the most efficient.
COMPOUND SECTIONS

It is occurs when channel shape changes with flow depth. It is a typical idea in natural stream sections during flooding.

At normal condition, water flows in the main channel. During floods, water spills over the flood plain.

We need to know the flowrate, Q at various depths or vice-versa. So that we could design channels or determine channel
safety for various flood magnitudes.
Example #05

Channel type: Natural channel with levees.

Slope: 0.00015

Determine the normal discharge, Q for depth 3 ft and 6 ft.

COMPOUND SECTION

This is more realistic situation, where the channel roughness (value of n) may be different for floodplain than the main
channel.

In this case, we need to determine velocity for each sub-section, and then sum up the discharges for the sections.

Example #06

Slope: 0.5%
n for bank = 0.06
n for main channel = 0.03
Calculate discharge for depth of 8 feet?
 𝐴# = 80 × 4 = 320 , 𝐴$ = 50 × 8 = 400 , 𝐴( = 100 × 5 = 500

𝑊𝑃# = 80 + 4 = 84 , 𝑊𝑃$ = 4 + 50 + 3 = 57 , 𝑊𝑃( = 100 + 5 = 105

$
1.49 𝐴* ( #
𝑉* = € ‚ 𝑆$
𝑛* 𝑊𝑃*

+ $ $ $
# (320/84)( (320) (400/57)( (400) (500/57)( (400)
𝑄 = ™ 𝐴* 𝑉* = (1.49)(0.005)$ š + + › = 9010 ft 2 /s
0.06 0.03 0.06
*,#
ENERGY PRINCIPLES FOR OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

Energy at particular point in the channel is potential energy and kinetic energy.

Specific energy:

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2 gA 2

y = Depth of flow
V = Velocity
Q = Discharge
A = Cross sectional flow area

Total energy:

V2 Q2
E = y+z+ = y+z+
2g 2 gA 2
z = Height of the channel bottom from the datum
Example:

Rectangular channel width = 2 m

Depth = 1 m
Q = 4.0 m3/s 2m
Height above datum = 2 m
1m
Determine the specific energy and total energy.

Specific energy:
2m

V2 42
E = y+ = 1+ = 1.20 m
2g (2)(9.81)(2)2
Datum

Total energy:

E = datum height + specific energy = 2.0 + 1.2 = 3.2 m

Specific energy diagram

The specific energy can be plotted graphically as a function of depth of flow.

V2 Q2
E = y+ = y+
2g 2 gA 2
y = Static energy, E s (potential energy)
Q2
= Kinetic energy, E k
2 gA 2

Relationship between y and static energy, Es

Relationship between y and kinetic energy, Ek

Q2
Ek =
2gA 2

For a rectangular channel;

Q
Substitute Q with specific discharge (discharge per unit width), q =
B
Substitute area, A with, A = B × y

Q2 q2
Ek = =
2 gA 2 2 gy 2
EXAMPLE

A rectangular channel, width is 4 m, flowrate is 12 m3/s and depth of flow is 2.5 m.

Draw specific energy diagram

Find critical and alternate depth?

Q2
E = y+
2 gA 2
q2
E = y+
2 gy 2

Q 12
q= = = 3 m 2 /s
B 4
 4.5
static E = y
4 kinetic E
total E
3.5

2.5

y
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Energy
Meaning from the graph:
1. The diagram applies for a given cross section and discharge.
2. As the depth of flow increases, the static energy increases, and the kinetic energy decreases
3. The total energy curve approaches the static energy curve for high depths and the kinetic energy curve for small
depths
4. The specific energy is minimum (Emin) for a particular depth – this depth happens to be the critical depth – Depth
for which the Froude’s number = 1.0. velocity = Vc.
5. Emin – only energy value with a singular depth!
6. Depths less than the critical depths – supercritical flow. Froude Number > 1.0. V > Vc.
7. Depths greater than the critical depths – subcritical flow. Froude Number < 1.0. V < Vc.
8. For all other energy values – there are two depth associated – one greater than the critical depth and one less than
the critical depth.
9. The two depths associated with the same energy values are referred to as – Alternate depths
10. As discharge increases, the specific energy curves move to the upper right portion of the chart.
 Q2
E = y+
2 gA 2
q2
E = y+
2 gy 2

There is a minimum value of E at a certain value of y called the critical depth.

dE 2q 2
= 0 = 1-
dy 2 gy 3

It shows that Emin occurs at yc

1 1
æ q2 ö3 æ Q2 ö3
y c = çç ÷÷ = çç 2 ÷÷
è g ø èb g ø

The associated minimum energy is ;

3
E min = E ( y c ) = yc
2

The depth, yc corresponds to channel velocity equal to the shallow-water wave propagation speed, C0.

V
Fr =
gy
q = gy c3 = (gy c ) y c2 = Vc2 y c2
2
By comparison it follows that the critical channel velocity is:

1
Vc = (gy c ) 2 = C0

Fr = 1

For E < Emin , no solution exists.

For E > Emin , two solutions are possible:

(1) Large depth with V < Vc, called sub-critical.

(2) Small depth with V > Vc , called super-critical.

In sub-critical flow, disturbances can propagate upstream because wave speed C 0 > V .

In super-critical flow, waves are swept downstream: Upstream is a zone of silence, and a small obstruction in the flow will
create a wedge-shape wave exactly analogous to the Mach waves.

The angle of these waves must be:

µ = sin
C0
-1
= sin -1
(gy ) 2
V V

The wave angle and the depth can thus be used as a simple measurement of super-critical flow velocity.
Critical depth, yc

1 1
æ q 2 ö 3 æ 32 ö 3
y c = çç ÷÷ = çç ÷÷ = 0.971 m
è g ø è 9.81 ø

Minimum specific energy, Emin

3 3
E min = y c = (0.971) = 1.457 m
2 2

Since given depth was 2.5 m > 0.971 m, the given depth is sub-critical and the other depth should be super-critical.

Now, determining alternate depths (Energy at 2.5 m)

q2 32
E = y+ = 2.5 + = 2.57 m
2 gy 2 2 ´ 9.81 ´ 2.5 2

This energy value is the same for the other alternate (super-critical) depth, so;

32
2.57 = y +
2 ´ 9.81 ´ y 2

Determine value of y by trial and error method. (use Excel ok)

super-critical alternate depth, y = 0.467 m
HYDRAULIC JUMP

In open channel flow a supercritical flow can change quickly back to a subcritical flow by passing through a hydraulic jump

The upstream flow is fast and shallow.

The downstream flow is slow and deep.

The hydraulic jump is quite thick, ranging in length from 4 to 6 time the downstream depth.

It is very important that such jumps be located on specially designed aprons; otherwise the channel bottom will be badly
scoured by the agitation.

Jumps also mixed fluids very effectively and have application to sewage and water treatment designs.
Type of weir
For sharp-crested weir

Theoretical flow rate, Q » 0.81æç 2 ö÷(2 g )2 (H )2

1 3

è3ø

This formula is functionally correct but the coefficient 0.81 is too high, and should be replaced by an experimentally
determined discharge coefficient.

For broad-crested weir

3

Theoretical flow rate, Theoretical flow rate, Q = gyc3 » 1 æç 2 ö÷(2 g ) æçç H + V1 ö÷÷
1 2 2
2
3 è3ø è 2g ø

2
We may neglect the upstream velocity head, V1 .
2g

The coefficient æç 1 ö÷ is about right but experimental data are preferred.

è 3ø

For all weir, common equation for flow rate is

3
1 æ V 2 ö2 1 3
Q = Cd × b × (g ) çç H + 1 ÷÷ » Cd × b × (g )2 (H )2
2
è 2g ø

For wide sharp-crested weir

H
Cd » 0.564 + 0.0846 , for H £ 2
Y Y
For round-nose broad-crested weir

3
æ d /Lö* 2
Cd » 0.544çç1 - ÷
è H / L ÷ø

Where d » 0.001 + 0.2 e

*

L L

For sharp-nose broad-crested weir

H H
Cd » 0.462 for 0.08 < < 0.33 and 0.22 < < 0.56
L Y
Thin-plate weirs for flow measurement:

1 3
æ Hö 2 2
Q » ç 0.564 + 0.0846 ÷bg H
è Y ø

1 3
Q » 0.581(b - 0.1H )g H 2 2
H < 0.5Y

q 1 5
Q » 0.44 tan g H
2 2
20° < q < 100°
2