Thermosensitive Sensors, Part-2

(Thermocouple and Pyrometers)

Prepared and Compiled By

P. N. Kapil
 Lecture Overview
• Thermocouple

• Pyrometers
 Thermocouple
In the year 1821, a physicist namely “Thomas Seebeck” revealed that when two different metal wires were
linked at both ends of one junction in a circuit when the temperature applied to the junction, there will be a
flow of current through the circuit which is known as electromagnetic field (EMF). The energy which is
produced by the circuit is named the Seebeck Effect.
What is a Thermocouple ?????
The thermocouple can be defined as a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure the temperature at
one specific point in the form of the EMF or an electric current. This sensor comprises two dissimilar metal
wires that are connected together at one junction. The temperature can be measured at this junction, and the
change in temperature of the metal wire stimulates the voltages.
The amount of EMF generated in the thermocouple is very minute (millivolts), so very sensitive devices must be
utilized for calculating the e.m.f produced in the circuit. The common devices used to calculate the e.m.f are
voltage balancing potentiometer and the ordinary galvanometer. From these two, a balancing potentiometer is
utilized physically or mechanically.
Thermocouple Construction and Working

The construction of the thermocouple is shown below. It comprises of two

different metal wires and that are connected together at the junction end. The
junction thinks as the measuring end. The end of the junction is classified into
three type’s namely ungrounded, grounded and exposed junction.

Generally, a thermocouple is designed with two different metal wires namely

iron and constantan that makes in detecting element by connecting at one
junction that is named as a hot junction. This consist of two junctions, one
junction is connected by voltmeter or transmitter where the cold junction and
second junction is associated in a process that is called as a hot junction
The thermocouple schematic diagram is shown in the below figure. This
circuit can be built with two different metals, and that are coupled
together by generating two junctions. The two metals are surrounded by
the connection through welding.

In the above diagram, the junctions are denoted by P & Q, and the
temperatures are denoted by T1, & T2. When the temperature of the
junction is dissimilar from each other, then the electromagnetic force
generates in the circuit.

The magnitude of the electromagnetic force induces in the circuit relies

on the sorts of material utilized for thermocouple making. The entire
flow of current throughout the circuit is calculated by the measuring
tools.

The electromagnetic force induced in the circuit is calculated by the

following equation
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2

Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple

junction end as well as the reference thermocouple junction end, a & b
are constants
 Thermocouple Working Principle

Seebeck Effect Peltier Effect Thompson Effect

This type of effect occurs This Peltier effect is This effect states that as two
among two dissimilar metals. opposite to the Seebeck disparate metals fix together & if
When the heat offers to any effect. This effect states they form two joints then the
one of the metal wire, then that the difference of the voltage induces the total
the flow of electrons supplies temperature can be conductor’s length due to the
from hot metal wire to cold formed among any two gradient of temperature. This is a
metal wire. Therefore, direct dissimilar conductors by physical word that demonstrates
current stimulates in the applying the potential the change in rate and direction of
circuit. variation among them. temperature at an exact position.
Effects Governing Working of Thermocouple:
Peltier Effect
Whenever current passes through the circuit of two dissimilar conductors, depending on the current direction, either heat
is absorbed or released at the junction of the conductors. This is called as "Peltier Effect". Depending upon the direction of
flow of electric charge, these electrons will either transfer their excess energy to the surrounding atoms, or absorb energy
from them. As such, in the former, heat is dissipated, while in the latter, it is absorbed.

The Peltier effect occurs due to the fact that, the average energy of the electrons involved in the transfer of electric
current is different for different conductors. It is dependent on several factors, including the energy spectrum of the
electrons, their concentration in the conductor, and their scattering under the influence of applied voltage.
At the junction of two dissimilar conductors, the electrons pass from one conductor to another.
Thompson Effect

Heat is absorbed or produced when the current flows in material with a certain temperature gradient. The heat is
proportional to both the electric current and the temperature gradient. This is called as "Thomson Effect".

Positive Thomson Effect :

For metals like copper, silver, zinc, Antimont and Cadmium etc., portion at high temperature is considered at higher
potential than a potion at lower temperature. Hence heat energy is absorbed when current flows from a point at lower
temperature to a point at higher temperature.

Let a copper wire LL be heated at its middle point H to a temperature say 100°C and the two ends kept at 0°C, then
two points A and B equidistant from H on either side will be at the same temperature. Due to positive Thomson effect
point H is at higher potential than the points L and L. Now if a current is sent in copper wire LL we observe that heat is
absorbed in the portion LH and evolved in the portion HL. Therefore, the point B will be at higher temperature than
the point A due to the positive Thomson effect.
Negative Thomson Effect:

For metals like Bismuth. Cobalt, Platinum and Nickel, portion at higher temperature possesses lower potential than a
portion at lower temperature. Heat energy is therefore absorbed when the current flows from a point at higher
temperature to a point at a lower temperature.

Consider an iron wire for which Thomson effect is negative. Let this wire LL be heated at its mid point H to a
temperature of 100°C and the ends kept at 0°C. then the two points A and B equidistant from point H on either side
will be at the same temperature. Due to negative Thomson effect point H is at lower potential than point L and L. If a
current flows along LL, as shown in then it is seen that heat is evolved in the portion LH because the current flows from
higher potential to lower one and heated is absorbed in the portion HL because the current is to be driven from lower
potential to higher one hence the point B is at lower temperature than the point A due to negative Thomson effect.
 Thermocouple Laws
1. Law of Homogeneous Circuits

If two thermocouple junctions are at T1 and T2, then the thermal emf generated is independent and unaffected
by any temperature distribution along the wires.

In above Figure, a thermocouple is shown with junction temperatures at T1 and T2. Along the thermocouple
wires, the temperature is T3 and T4. The thermocouple emf is, however, still a function of only the temperature
gradient T2 – T1.
2. Law of Intermediate Metals

The law of intermediate metals states that a third metal may be inserted into a thermocouple system without
affecting the emf generated, if, and only if, the junctions with the third metal are kept at the same
temperature.

When thermocouples are used, it is usually necessary to introduce additional metals into the circuit This
happens when an instrument is used to measure the emf, and when the junction is soldered or welded. It
would seem that the introduction of other metals would modify the emf developed by the thermocouple and
destroy its calibration. However, the law of intermediate metals states that the introduction of a third
metal into the circuit will have no effect upon the emf generated so long as the junctions of the third metal
are at the same temperature, as shown in Above Figure.
3. Law of Intermediate Temperatures

The law of intermediate temperatures states that the sum of the emf developed by a thermocouple with its
junctions at temperatures T1 and T2, and with its junctions at temperatures T2 and T3, will be the same as
the emf developed if the thermocouple junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3.

This law, illustrated in above Figure, is useful in practice because it helps in giving a suitable correction in case
a reference junction temperature other than 0 °C is employed. For example, if a thermocouple is calibrated
for a reference junction temperature of 0 °C and used with a junction temperature of 20 °C, then the
correction required for the observation would be the emf produced by the thermocouple between 0 °C and
20 °C.
Thermocouple Types
Type of Environment

Mild Oxidizing, Reducing. Vacuum or

Inert. Good where moisture is present
Reducing Vacuum, Inert. Limited use in
oxidizing high temperature.
Oxidizing or Inert. Limited use in
Vacuum or Reducing.
Clean Oxidizing and Inert. Limited use
in Vacuum or Reducing.

Same as K Type Thermocouple

Oxidizing or Inert Atmospheres.

Oxidizing or Inert Atmospheres.

Advantages
• Accuracy is high
• It is Robust and can be used in environments like harsh as well as high
vibration.
• The thermal reaction is fast
• The operating range of the temperature is wide.
• Wide operating temperature range
• Cost is low and extremely consistent

Disadvantages
• Nonlinearity
• Least stability
• Low voltage
• Reference is required
• least sensitivity
• The thermocouple recalibration is hard
 Pyrometers

Total Radiation Type Optical Type

(Radiation Pyrometer) (Disappearing Filament Type Pyrometer)

Pyrometers are the temperature measuring devices used to detect the object’s temperature and electromagnetic
radiation emitted from the object. The basic principle of the pyrometer is, it measures the object’s temperature by
sensing the heat/radiation emitted from the object without making contact with the object. It records the
temperature level depending upon the intensity of radiation emitted. The pyrometer has two basic components
like optical system and detectors that are used to measure the surface temperature of the object. The biggest
advantage of this device is that, unlike a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), Thermistor and Thermocouple,
there is no direct contact between the pyrometer and the object whose temperature is to be found out.
Optical Pyrometer (Disappearing Filament Type Pyrometer)
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature. As a measure of the reference temperature, a
colour change with the growth in temperature is taken. The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of the object
whose temperature is to be measured, with that of a reference temperature. The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose
brightness can be adjusted till its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the source object. For an object, its light intensity always
depends on the temperature of the object, whatever may be its wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing
through it is measured using a multi-meter, as its value will be proportional to the temperature of the source when calibrated. The
working of an optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below.
Total Radiation Pyrometer (Radiation Type Pyrometer)
The main theory behind a radiation pyrometer is that the temperature is measured through the naturally emitted heat radiation by the
body. This heat is known to be a function of its temperature. As shown in the figure below, the radiation pyrometer has an optical
system, including a lens, a mirror and an adjustable eye piece. The heat energy emitted from the hot body is passed on to the optical
lens, which collects it and is focused on to the detector with the help of the mirror and eye piece arrangement. The detector may either
be a thermistor or photomultiplier tubes. Though the latter is known for faster detection of fast moving objects, the former may be used
for small scale applications. Thus, the heat energy is converted to its corresponding electrical signal by the detector and is sent to the
output temperature display device.
Advantages
• It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the
object. This is called Non-contact measurement.
• It has a fast response time
• Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.
• It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances

Disadvantages
• Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive
• Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like
dust, smoke, and thermal radiation.
 REFERENCES
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Thanks !!!!