Applied Failure Analysis (AFA) 1

Dosen: Ir. Wahyu Anhar, S.T., M.Eng.

Politeknik Negeri Balikpapan

Tahun Akademik 2019/2020
Course introduction (course structure)

Fundamentals of metallurgy (iron and steel, shaping and forming, hardening

process, production methods, and material and process problems)

Politeknik Negeri Balikpapan

Tahun Akademik 2019/2020
Course objectives

This course will help you develop a good understanding of metallurgy, fractures,
wear, and visual examination techniques. You’ll learn to use a process called the
“Eight Steps of Applied Failure Analysis” to indentify the causes of failures and
take the necessary corrective actions to assure problems are fixed and stay
fixed. And, you will strengthen your ability to determine root cause of failures and
take appropriate corrective action to stop repeat failures.
Course structure

Fundamentals of applied failure analysis is made up of four modules.

Module 1 – fundamentals of metallurgy and course introduction

Module 2 – analyzing fractures explains how to obtain meaningful information

from fractured parts

Module 3 – analyzing wear explains how to obtain meaningful information from

worn parts

Module 4 – Visual examination and managing failure analysis

Objectives

Fundamentals of metallurgy explains the basic terms and concepts of

metallurgy. This module takes a simple, organized approach to the standards
required for refining, forming, and heat-treating metal parts, and the problems
encountered during these processes.
Iron and steel

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to describe the differences and
similarities between cast iron and steel, interpret a standard steel numbering
code, and categorize a steel part based on its carbon content. You will be able to
describe the chemical contents of cast iron and steel, how to measure hardness,
and why toughness and ductility are important. You will be able to identify which
properties determine a part’s ability to resist permanent stretching and fracture
after single or repeated load applications.
Refining
Chemistry

This topic addresses the similarities and differences of cast iron and steel
chemistry. You’ll learn about the important elements found in cast iron and steel,
and distinct differences between these elements such as grain structure and
carbon content.
Similarities

Cast iron and steel have several common ingredients but the main one is iron.
Carbon is the element that most affects hardness and strength. Other elements
which affect the properties of cast iron and steel are manganese, molybdenum,
chromium, and boron. Phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur are impurities often found
in cast iron and steel.
Metal structure

Cast iron and steel share a common structure, consisting of grains that form
when the metal solidifies during the refining process. Grains are randomly
shaped crystals that form boundaries where they touch surrounding grains. Any
impurities that are insoluble and remain aftter refining become trapped at the
grain boundaries.
Cell structure

Cast iron and steel grains are composed of iron atoms that arrange themselves
into a unit cell. A unit cell forms when iron atoms arrange themselves into cube,
with an atom at each corner and one in the middle. This is called a body center
cubic cell, or BCC for short. By adding unit cells in all directions, a complete
grain is formed. A part can consist of as few as one or as many as thousands of
grains.
Differences

The amount of carbon contents is the major chemical difference between cast
iron and steel. Because cast iron contains more carbon, their properties are
different.
Carbon content

Different types of steel, such as high, medium, and low carbon steels, are made
by removing carbon from cast iron. If you take all the carbon out, the results is
pure iron.
Excess carbon

Another differences between cast iron and steel is plainly seen under a
microscope. Two percent carbon is the maximum that iron can dissolve. Steel is
iron with less than 2% carbon. If more is present, the excess comes out of the
iron into the grain boundaries. Cast irons contain more than 2% carbon, and
their grain structures differ from steel.
Cast iron grain – graphite flakes

Cast iron has black graphite pockets between grains because of the higher
carbon content. This is graphitic carbon – the same substance as the lead in
pencils. The extra carbon gives cast iron special characteristics – such as ease
of machining and vibration dampening.
Steel grain – no excess carbon

Steel has a grain structure that resembles tightly packed pebbles. Due to the low
carbon content, no graphite flakes are present. This gives steel its excellent
ductility and formability.
Cast iron classifications

Cast iron is classified into four categories based on graphite structure:

Gray iron

Nodular iron

Malleable iron

White iron
Gray iron

Gray iron contains graphite flakes.

Nodular iron

Nodular iron contains graphite spheres.

Malleable iron

Malleable iron contains graphite flakes.

White iron

White iron contains carbide.

Steel classifications

Steel contains between 0,025% and 2% carbon. Carbon content has a place in
the standard steel numbering system. This system classifies all types of steel
with anumber code. The first two digits are a code for alloy content. The alloy
code for plain carbon steel in this example is 10. The remaining digits show
hundredths of percent of carbon. In this example, the steel has about 0,20%
carbon content.
Carbon content

The amount of carbon in steel determines the steel category. There are three
basic categories: low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, and high carbon steel.
Study this chart to see how these steel categories vary in carbon content.
Hardness, toughness, ductility

In the science of metallurgy, the word “properties” means the “characteristics” of

cast iron and steel. For example, hardness is a characteristic of steel, toughness
is another. The way cast iron and steel are treated will determine their
properties.
Hardness

Hardness is important property because by changing a steel’s hardness, you

affect all other properties, especially its resistance to denting and wear. So by
increasing the hardness of a part, you increase its strength and wear resistance.
Hardness, wear resistance and strength are all increased when the metal is heat
treated.
Measuring hardness

Hardness in steel is easily measured. The more difficult its becomes to dent
steel, the harder the steel is. So, to rate hardness, you dent the steel by using a
known force. If the same denting force is used, then the deeper the dent, the
softer the steel.
Rockwell system

Our simulted hardness test is much like the way the Rockwell system measures
hardness in steel. The depth of indentation is measured then translated into a
Rockwell hardness number. Soft materials have lower Rockwell numbers and
harder materials have higher Rockwell numbers.
Brinell system

Unlike the Rockwell system, the Brinell system measures the diameter of
indentation.

Rockwell measure a wide range of materials. Generally, the scale best suited for
the hardness range in steels at Caterpillar is the Rockwell C scale, abbreviated
Rc.
Strength and wear resistance

Strength and wear resistance are two most important by-products of hardness.
These two characteristics are critically important for motor grader cutting edges.
Motor grader cutting edges

Made from tough, through-hardened DH-2 steel, these edges are hardened to a
minimum of Rockwell C 43 to ensure high strength and long life in these high-
stress, abrasive conditions.
Brittleness

In metallurgical terms, brittleness means metal that breaks or chips easily.

Brittleness occurs when a metal part is too hard. As hardness increases, so does
brittleness. There is a fine line between obtaining maximum hardness without
making parts brittle.
Toughness

Toughness is a metal’s ability to absorb considerable energy before breaking.

Generally, the softer a piece of metal is, the tougher it is – to a point. A piece that
is too soft is not considered tough because it deforms too easily.
Ductility

Ductile metal can tolerate considerable stretching or twisting without breaking.

Comparing ductile and brittle

Ductile material can elongate (stretch) considerably before breaking as the left
graph indicates. Brittle material shows an absence of ductility (right).
Yield, tensile and fatigue strengths

In this topic you will learn about the strength properties of cast iron and steel:
yield strength, tensile strength and fatigue strength.
Yield strength

Yield strength is the load a piece of metal is able to carry before stretching
permanently (beyond its “spring-back point” or elastic range).
Cylinder rod

On Caterpillar machines, hydraulic cylinder rods must withstand many different

forces without bending or stretching beyond their spring-backpoint. By definition,
this means they must have high yield strength.
Measuring yield strength

Yield strength is measured in pound per square inch (psi) or Mega Pascal
(MPa). Certain parts must be able to carry heavy loads without stretching
beyond the metal’s elastic range or yield point.
Tensile strength

Tensile strength is the load a piece of metal is able to carry before breaking. Like
yield strength, tensile strength is expressed in psi or MPa. This is done so
engineers can determine total load on different shapes and sizes of metal.
Caterpillar bolts

If a bolt fails in a critical part, costly repairs and downtime can result for the
customer. Standard Caterpillar bolts are hardened to Rc 33 or higher and have a
minimum tensile strength of 150.000 psi.
Fatigue strength

Fatigue strength is a metal’s ability to endure repeated load cycles without

breaking. Fatigue strength is about one half of part’s tensile strength. Fatigue
testing is performed primarily to determine the fatigue limit on given part.
Connecting rods

Engine connecting rods must withstand tremendous compressive and bending

forces hundreds of times a minute. Consequently, fatigue strength is a critical
property of these components. Forged from alloy steel, Caterpillar connecting
rods are heat treated for excellent fatigue strength.
Fatigue testing

In fatigue testing, the parts is subjected to stress, then the stress is released.
This is repeated until the part finally breaks. The stress is then lowered and the
test is repeated. The stress value which no longer breaks the part is called the
fatigue limit or fatigue strength.
Shaping and forming

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to identify the properties of iron
and steel which have been processed by the casting, rolling, powder metal,
forging, and extrusion methods.
Casting

Casting is one of the first steps in forming cast iron and steel into many
Caterpillar products. Casting means heating metal to a liquid state, pouring it into
a mold and allowing it to cool and harden to the desired shape. The casting can
then be machined and further processed into final products or parts.
Process
Properties

Cast iron: Cast steel:

Widely used and inexpensive Resistant to shock loading

Reduces vibration and noise Easier to weld than cast iron products

Easily machined Stronger than cast iron

Wear resistant
Grain structure

In the cast iron and steel unit you learned that cast iron and steel differ in both
carbon content and grain structure. Cast iron contains graphite flakes whereas
cast steel does not. When molten iron or steel cools in a mold, it has an internal
structure made up of randomly arranged grains. These grains resemble tightly
packed sand. The grain structure can be modified by various forming and
processing methods which change the metal’s properties.
Examples

Caterpillar uses a variety of cast parts, such as this cast iron engine block and
cast steel truck axle.
Powder metal

Powder metallurgy involves pressing metal powder into shape and heating the
shape until the particles fuse and become more dense.

The grain structure of powder metal is similar to cast iron except no graphite is
present. The grains have a random distribution with no grain flow.

By using different powders, complex shaped parts can be formed from almost
any combination of alloying agents. This process produces a unique range of
qualities such as high tensile strength or hardness.
Process
Properties

Powder metal parts have a variety of properties depending on the blend of

powders. Some powder metal parts have high tensile strength and are able to
withstand heavy loads. More often, powder metal parts are used in low shock
load applications requiring high wear resistance.
Examples

Small parts with complex shapes are candidates for powder metal production
methods. Fuel injection and governor components, gears and flanges are all
examples.

1. Fuel injector component

2. Governor components

3. Hydraulic coupling split flange

4. Small gear
Rolling

Rolling is a key step in commercially processing steel. It has two primary

purposes:

1. To get the steel into usable shapes, such as billets or plates, which are then
shaped further into Caterpillar products.

2. To change the properties of the steel.

Process
Properties

As steel is rolled from cast ingots, the grain structure is refined into an elongated
shape and lined up in rows. These rows are called flow lines. The flow lines
make rolled steel stronger and tougher than cast steel.

1. Cast

2. Rolled
Examples

Many Caterpillar parts are manufactured from rolled steel. Most of the large
structures such as frames, scraper bowls and loader buckets are fabricated from
rolled plate steel. Track links, track shoes and other forgings are made from
rolled billets.
Forging

Forging involves heating metal until it is soft, and then hammering it into a shape
through the use of force.
Process
Properties

When you compare forged steel to cast and rolled steel, you will see that forged
steel has flow lines which follow the contours of the part being produced. These
flow lines make a part stronger in the direction of the flow and help the part resist
cracking across them.

1. Cast

2. Rolled

3. Forged
Examples

Parts that work in high stress applications are often manufactured from forged
steel. An engine crankshaft is a good example. It must withstand the immense
forces inside a diesel engine. Other examples include a connecting rod and
ground engaging tools.

1. Crankshaft

2. Connecting rod

3. Ground engaging tools

Extrusion

Extrusion-like forging-involves forcing a piece of metal into a desired shape.

Extrusion occurs with hot or cold metals. Parts are cold extrusion unless their
size requires hot extrusion.
Process
Properties

There are several advantages to using the extrusion process:

It conservers metal because the metal is displaced rather than cut or trimmed
away. And extrusion minimizes secondary machining operations.

Extruded parts are tough. Remember, it is the shape and uniformity of flow lines
that determine the relative toughness of a part. You can see how the extruded
part has finer flow lines than the other processes we have discussed.

Extrusion produces a smoother part with more uniform dimensions.

Examples

Extrusion is the preferred production method for many tubular parts, such as:

1. Track bushing

2. Hose couplings

3. Engine piston pin

Hardening process

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to choose the correct heating
process, quenching method and tempering temperature for a material with a
particular carbon and alloy content. You will be able to determine the right
combination of material and heat treatment to produce the desired surface
hardness and depth of hardening of a finished part.
Introduction
Goals

Caterpillar have two goals in mind when heat treating our parts:

1. To make the surface of a part so hard it can withstand wear for a long time.

2. To harden the part to a certain depth for better strength and fatigue life.
Hardness potential

The type of material you start with determines its hardness potential-or
maximum surface hardness; and its hardenability-or maximum depth of
hardening. But you have to apply the proper heating, quenching, and tempering
to reach that surface hardness and depth of hardening. That’s why it takes just
the right combination of material and heat treatment to produce the desired
properties of a finished part.
Surface Hardness

Surface hardness does just what its name suggests, makes a part’s surface hard
for better wear life.

Maximum surface hardness depends on the amount of carbon in the steel.

Remember carbon? Up to a certain point, the more carbon steel, the greater the
steel’s hardness potential.
Controlling carbon content

The carbon content in steel is controlled in two ways:

1. By adjusting carbon content during the initial steel refining process.

2. By adding more carbon to the part’s surface in a special controlled

atmosphere furnace.
Case depth

What about depth of hardenability, or case depth? Case depth means how deep
the hardness penetrates inside the part. Maximum case depth depends on the
kinds of alloy used and how much is in the steel.
Alloy content

Alloy content in steel is adjusted during the initial steel refining process.
Overview

Four important steps are critical for achieving the right kinds of properties
needed for all types of parts. You’ll learn more about each step as you progress
through this unit:

1. Choose the material with the right carbon and alloy content.

2. Choose the correct heating process.

3. Choose the right quenching method.

4. And choose the correct tempering temperatures.

Heating

Heat treatment involves three basic steps: heating, quenching, and tempering. In
the heating step, temperature is vital. There are three important factors in the
heating process:

Lower critical temperature

Upper critical temperature

Heating time
Lower critical temperature

During heating, changes to the internal structure of a part begin to occur in all
plain carbon (low, medium and high carbon) steels when a certain temperature is
reached. 1333 degress Fahrenheit (723 degress C) is the lowest temperature at
which internal changes in plain carbon steel occur. The lower temperature is
important because we know that parts are heated above this temperature to
produce desired changes in part hardness.
Upper critical temperature

Just as there is a lower critical temperature at which internal changes in steel

begin to occur, there is an upper critical temperature above which these
structural changes become complete. Generally, steels used by Caterpillar must
be heated above 1500 degress Fahrenheit (816 degress C), then properly
cooled to reach maximum hardness. Of course, this upper critical temperature
varies depending on the part’s carbon content. The right match of upper critical
temperature and carbon content must be used during heating.
Heating time

The third variable of the heating process is the length of time a part is heated. A
heating time must be selected which allows the thickest sections of a part to
reach the desired temperature. This insures that the internal changes occur. A
good rule of thumb is to allow one hour of heating time per inch of thickness.
Face centered cubed (FCC) cells

The heating process changes the iron atom arrangement in unit cells. As steel
reaches the lower critical temperature, some unit cells start rearranging into a
cube with iron atoms centered in each cube face. This is called a face centered
cube, or FCC for short. If temperatures exceed the upper critical temperature
and enough time is provided, all the BCC cells change to FCC cells. FCC cells
are larger and allow carbon atoms to enter the structure, making it stronger and
harder.
Quenching

Quenching metal means rapidly cooling it to achieve a desired hardness. Most

plain carbon steel parts are rapidly quenched. This “traps” the high temperature
carbon arrangement in the grain structure and produces a harder part. During
quenching, the crystal structure changes again from FCC to a structure called
body centered tetragonal or BCT for short. The important thing is carbon atoms
remain trapped, making the metal much harder and stronger.
Water

Water quenching is commonly used at Caterpillar. It is one of the fastest, more

severe way to cool metals, so precautions are taken to prevent parts from
cracking. Plain carbon steels below 0,25% carbon will only partially harden in
water. Steel with from 0,3% to 0,4% carbon will fully harden without danger
of cracking. And steels with above 0,4% carbon are typically not water
quenched because the stress set up caused by the abrupt change in
temperature can crack the part.
How water quenching works
Oil

Oil quenching has a slower cooling rate than water. Plain carbon steels below
0,4% carbon do not respond to an oil quench. Steels with 0,4% to 0,5% carbon
will partially harden in oil. Above 0,5% carbon steels fully harden. Oil sets up
less stress in steel than water. Parts, like gears, where distortion is a risk are
usually oil quenched.
How oil quenching works
Air

The air blast is the slowest quenching method. It is used by some Caterpillar
vendors. Air quenching is typically used on high allow steel that would crack in
oil and water.
Tempering

Tempering is the final step in heat treatment of cast iron and steel parts.
Tempering means reheating previously hardened parts below the lower critical
temperature, then allowing them to cool. We reheat parts because they distort
from internal hardening efforts when they are heated and cooled rapidly. These
stresses can cause cracking and the part may fail early in service.
Purpose

The part may also be too hard and brittle for service. Tempering relaxes internal
stress and softens the part, making it tougher. The part loose some hardness,
but gains greater toughness. Tempering requires reheating the part to a
temperature below the lower critical temperature.
How it works

Heating from 300 to 500 degress Fahrenheit slightly reduces surface hardness,
relieves stresses, and restores some toughness. Heating a part from 1100 to
1200 degress Fahrenheit reduces surface hardness even more. But these higher
temperatures do a better job at relieving stresses and greatly improve
toughness.
Production methods

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to determine how furnace
hardening produces internal structural changes in parts and how these changes
affect the properties. You will learn how heating a selected area of a part gives
its specific properties so that it can perform its job better and how three case
hardening methods alter the surface layers of steel parts.
Furnance hardening
Process
Example: D-10 undercarriage

Track-type tractors work in a wide variety of tough, demanding conditions. Track

shoes must be strong, to withstand bending forces without breaking, and wear
resistant to provide adequate life.
Example: track shoe

Rolled from modified medium carbon steel, Caterpillar track shoes are furnace
hardened, die quenched and tempered. This gives the shoes the best
combination of hardness and toughness.
Selective hardening

Selective hardening is usually achieved by localized heating and overall

quenching. The purpose is to give the selected area specific hardness properties
different from those of the rest of the part. Two of the more common ways to
selectively harden certain areas on a part are flame heating and induction
heating.
Flame heating

Flame heating is another common method of hardening only a selected area of a

part. Selective hardening means heating a specific area of a part and then
quenching. The selected area will then have hardness properties different from
those of the rest of the part.
Example: camshaft

Flame heating is frequently used to harden the lobes of some Caterpillar

camshaft. This provides excellent fatigue strength and wear resistance.
Induction heating

Induction heating is one way of hardening a selcted area of a part. Selective

hardening means heating only a selected area of a part and then quenching. It
gives the selected area specific hardness properties to better perform its job.
How induction hardening works
Example: track link

After furnace hardening for good strength and toughness, track links are
induction heated along the rails and spray quenched.
Example: undercarriage

The hardened rail matches the track roller tread and flange hardness for
optimum wear life.
Case hardening

Case hardening is the process of hardening only a thin layer of steel at the
surface of a part. This produces harder, more wear resistant parts with tough,
resilient cores.

Three processes are used at Caterpillar: carburizing, corbonitriding and nitriding.

Carburizing

Carburizing ia a way to prepare steel for hardening. It is not a hardening

process. Carburizing is accomplished by placing a pierce of low or medium
carbon steel in a carbon rich atmosphere and heating to about 1700 degress F
or higher. After several hours, the carbon penetrates the steel and forms a layer
of high carbon material called “case”. This process increase the hardness
potential of the surface layer of the steel.
How carburizing works
Example: bevel gear

Bevel gears must have a strong, tough core to withstand the punishing forces
generated in the power train of a Caterpillar machine. But they must also have a
hard, wear resistant surface for good life. These properties are achieved by
starting with a nickel-chromium alloy steel, carburizing for good case depth,
reheating and quenching, then tempering.
Case depth of carburized parts

The depth of which the carbon penetrates indicates how deep the steel will
harden during the hardening process. This is called the case depth. Case depth
of carburized parts usually ranges from 0,01” to 0,1” depending on the process
used, the length of time the parts was in the furnance, and the amount of carbon
in the atmosphere. The higher the surface hardness, the more wear resistant the
part can be after hardening.
Carbonitriding

Carbonitiriding is another process used to prepare steel for hardening. A part is

placed in a gaseous atmosphere at about 1450 degress F, containing carbon
and nitrogen. Carbon and nitrogen penetrate the part’s surface. The hardness
potential of the surface layer is incresed by the carbon and nitrogen.
Carbonitriding requires lower temperatures than carburizing, so distortion of the
part is reduced.
How carbonitriding works
Example: transmission shaft

Transmission and other drive train shafts are frequently carbonitrided to provide
good case depth at lower temperatures. Thus shaft is cut from a plain, low
carbon steel and carbonitrided at 1600 degress for 6 hours. The result is a case
depth hardness of 55 to 60. The benefits to the customer are good wear life and
close dimensional control.
Case depth of carbonitrided parts

The case depth to which the carbon and nitrogen penetrate indicates how deep
the case will be after hardening. Case depth of carbonitriding parts is about
0,015”. Carbonitriding parts have particularly high surface hardness.
Nitriding

Nitriding is a way to case harden certain alloy steels. It is a hardening process

which often follows furnance hardening. Parts are heated to about 1000 degress
F in an ammonia gas atmosphere. The nitrogen in the gas combines with the
alloying elements in the steel to from alloy nitrides in the case. These alloy
nitrides are extremely hard and produce strong and wear resistant surfaces
without further heat treatment.
How nitroding works
Example: ring gear

Many transmission gears are nitrided to provide an extremely hard wear-

resistant surface. This ring gear is first furnace hardened and tempered for
strength and toughness, then placed in a nitriding furnace for several hours. The
hard alloy nitride case also helps prevent pitting and spalling.
Case depth of nitrided parts

Case depth of nitrided parts ranges from 0,005” to a maximum of 0,015”. The
higher the hardness, the more wear resistant the part will be after hardening.
The deeper the case, the stronger the part will be. Because of the low
temperatures used in nitriding, parts are distortion free and seldom require finish
grinding.
Material and process problem

Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to identify refining, forming, heat
treating or machining problems that can cause fractures.
Blast furnace refining problems

Iron ore contains some impurities that cannot be removed during refining in the
blast furnace. Slag that floats on top of and protects molten metal during refining,
can become mixed with the metal. Furnace brick that lines blast furnaces can
crumble and fall into the molten metal. These impurities can become trapped
during solidification and are called inclusions. They are present in most metals.
The end result can be shortened component life.
Inclusions

The best refiners use carefully controlled processes that limit the size and
distribution of inclusions in materials. However, even the best make mistakes,
and a large inclusion or cluster of inclusions can remain in the metal. When this
happens, a part may fracture prematurely, exposing the inclusion on the fracture
surface
Bull’s eye

Fractures that start at inclusions sometimes produce a distinct pattern called a

bull’s eye. It gets the name from its similarity to a target with the bull’s eye at the
center.
Stringers

If inclusions are rolled, forged, extruded or otherwise flattened and lengthened,

they become “stringers”. If we could see them inside the metal, they would look
like the lead inside a wooden pencil. On fracture surfaces, they can be
recognized as thin, flat, straight lines such as the one on this piston pin fracture.
Casting problems

Casting are produced by pouring molten into a mold. As the metal cools,
cracking can result if cooling is too rapid or too slow. The metal also contracts
and become smaller. If additional liquid metal is not available to fill the space,
shrinkage voids will be present in the finished casting.
Cracking

Casting also crack due to rough handling during manufacture or field repairs.
Casting contain graphite flakes making them brittle and susceptible to cracking
by sudden shock loads. If a cylinder liner contains such a crack, it can grow
during combustion loading resulting in a fracture.
Shrinkage voids

Shrinkage voids or cavities may initiate part failure if they are large enough. The
casting shown here has a large void that caused premature part failure.
Dendrites

A closer view of the void shows the unusual appearance of the grains. This
structure is called dendrites and is a good indicator that casting problem
occurred.
Rolling, forging, extruding problems

The rolling process can produce pipe, seams, or flakes in the finished parts if the
steel mill doesn’t control ingot quality, rolling temperatures, and hydrogen
content. The forging process can produce laps and burns if forging temperatures
are too low or too high. The extrusion process can result in internal tearing if
material and temperature are not correctly matched.
Pipe

Steel bars that contain a central hole are said to contain “pipe”. The pipe is a
result of shrinkage in the cast steel ingot. If all the shrinkage is not removed from
the ingot, the void gets rolled out into a long, flat hole near the center of the bar.
Example: track tensioner spring

This track tension spring was produced from steel containing pipe. The area
near the center of the fracture shows flow lines coming out of the fracture where
the hole exists. If applied loads are high enough, or the pipe is large enough,
fractures such as this are a possibility.
Seam

If metal is not maintained at the correct rolling temperatures, it can fold in on

itself, producing a seam that has the visual appearance like a crack running
straight down the bar’s length. If these bars are used in another hot or cold
working operation, the seam may open up, producing a “brust”.
Flaking

Hydrogen flaking occurs in steel when it has come into contact with moisture
while it is at elevated temperatures such as are used for refining, rolling, forging,
etc. Steel, at these temperature, absorbs hydrogen from the moisture. If the steel
is then cooled too quickly, hydrogen remains trapped and can create high
enough internal pressure to produce tiny internal cracks. This is called hydrogen
flaking, or just flaking.
Forging lap

Forging is similar to rolling but has the advantage of being able to produce more
complex shapes. A forging lap occurs when the metal is too cold to flow properly.
Metal on the part’s surface sticks to the forging die and folds over on itself
instead of flowing. The lap extends down into the part and can lead to cracking
under service conditions.
This connecting rod contained a forging lap that caused premature component
failure. Notice the dark stain on the lap. This black oxide is a good clue that can
be used to identify a forging lap.
Forging burn

A forging burn occurs when metal is too hot for the forging process. The metal
grains melt at the grain boundaries, usually near the part’s center. As the part
cools, the boundaries remain separated, leaving internal cracks that can be very
large. If large enough, the cracks can grow under normal operating loads and
cause early failure. Forging burns can be identified by large crystalline areas on
fracture surfaces, usually near the part’s center.
Extrusion

Extrusion can be done either hot or cold, and produces a fine grain flow as the
part is shaped. Parts having a diameter of more than one inch of cross section
are usually hot extrude, while smaller diamaters can be successfully extruded
cold.
One problem that can occur during this process is internal rupture. If parts are
not hot enough, or are too large for cold extrusion, the metal may tear internally
rather than flow in the die. These tears can result in cracking when the part is
placed in service.
Heat treat problems

Poor heat treatment can result in a variety of problems, such as quench

cracking, soft parts, and brittleness.
Quench cracking

Quench cracking can result if steel hardenability is too high. The part develops a
case that is too deep and internal stresses crack the part. Quenching fluid that
removes heat too rapidly causes sudden contraction that can be severe enough
to crack the part. This is referred to as thermal shock.
Recognizing quench cracking

Quench cracks on parts usually occur at surface contour changes and extend
into the part. They can often be recognized by a blue/black color that tempering
temperatures produce on the fracture surface. Quench cracks can be deep or
shallow, depending on how severe the conditions that caused them.
Soft parts from excessive temperature

Soft parts can be the result or several heat treatment problems. One of the more
common causes is tempering at too high a temperature. This results in releasing
too much carbon from the grain structure with a loss in hardness, strength, and
wear resistance.
Soft parts from incomplete quenching

Another common problem resulting in soft parts is incomplete quenching. This

happens when parts aren’t fully immersed, or when fluid flow is interrupted. The
end result will be parts that wear excessively, or deform severely under normal
operating conditions.
Brittleness

Brittle parts are usually the result of tempering at too low a temperature. Low
tempering temperatures don’t allow enough carbon to escape from the grain
structure and the parts remain too hard with lots of internal stress.

Brittle parts can sometimes be identified by observing that they experience brittle
fracture with no apparent cause. When this occurs, it is a good idea to obtain
hardness test results and compare them to test results taken from known good
parts.
Machining problems

In this topic, we will learn what kinds of problem are caused by machining
operations such as cutting, grinding, and straightening. Then we will learn how to
identify those problems when they occur on parts.
Dimensional problems

Dimensional problems occur when tooling become dull, wrong tooling is used or
machine setup is wrong. The end result can be dimensions that are incorrect.
Most of these problems are discovered and corrected before the product is
placed in service. But occasionally, mistakes occur that can end up as service
failures.
Example of a dimensional problem

The drawing for this hydraulic cylinder rod specified a radius of 0,12 inches. The
process produced a 0,036 inch radius. The result was an abrupt contour change
that resulted in early failure. These problems can usually be found by measuring
parts or comparing failed parts to known good parts.
Grinding problems

Grinding processes must be carefully controlled to prevent problems. If coolant

flow is interrupted or misdirected, too much metal is removed too rapidly, or the
grinding wheel becomes clogged or needs dressing. The end result can be
excessive heat.
This heat can be severe enough to perform a local heating and quenching
operation, resulting in burns or surface cracks. Burns can usually be recognized
by their brown or black appearance, while cracks can be found with magnetic
particle testing.
Straightening

Straightening is a process frequently used on heat treated parts to remove

distortion that occurs during quenching. The process consists of applying
mechanical or hydraulic pressure to bend the part in a direction that will remove
the distortion.
Cracks from excessive straightening

If too much bending is applied, the part can crack. This crankshaft was
straightened too much and developed the rough textured crack seen at the top.