12: Liquids—General

Determining the viscosity of crude ..................................................... 376 Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible
Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly .......................................... 377 fluids in pipes ................................................................................... 384
Liquid gravity and density conversion chart ...................................... 378 Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes..................... 385
Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid hydrocarbons Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations .................................... 387
at high pressure................................................................................ 378 How fast does oil move in a pipeline?................................................ 389
Calculate viscosity of a blend .............................................................. 380 Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot
Calculate specific gravity of a blend ................................................... 380 using the inside diameter ................................................................ 389
Convert viscosity units.......................................................................... 380 What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels per mile? ................... 389
Convert specific gravity to API gravity and API gravity Estimate leakage amount through small holes in a pipeline ............ 390
to specific gravity ............................................................................. 380 Table gives velocity heads for various pipe diameters and
Calculate bulk modulus........................................................................ 382 different rates of discharge ............................................................. 391
Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries ................................. 382 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids ....................................................... 392
Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes..................... 384

375
376 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Determining the viscosity of crude

If the viscosity of a gas-saturated crude oil at the saturation of 1,200 psia. Notice that 4,200 psia is 3,000 psi above
(bubble-point) pressure is known, using this homograph you the saturation pressure. Connecting 3,000 on the
can quickly estimate the viscosities at higher pressures. pressure difference scale (left) with 30 on the curved
scale for viscosity at the bubble-point pressure, the
Example. Find the viscosity at 4,200 psia for a crude intersection with the scale on the right at 48 cp is the
oil when its viscosity is 30 cp at the saturation pressure desired value.
 Liquids—General 377

Chart gives API gravity of blends quickly

API gravity of a crude oil blend may be readily estimated gravity of 22 as read from the nomograph. Calculated result
from the gravity of the components and their percentage from gravity tables would be 22.1 API.
composition. It is a simple procedure to use these curves to Results found using this nomograph checked out within
find the resulting API gravity of the blend. 1 API over the range of gravities and percentage of
components (1) and (2) in the nomograph below. Estimates
from the nomograph are based on the assumption that
Example. If you blend a 14 API pitch (60%) with a volumes of blends are additive and that no light components
36 API cutting stock (40%), the resulting fuel oil has an API flash off in blending.
378 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Liquid gravity and density conversion chart

This line chart provides an easy method for converting perpendicular to the scale line through a known value and
units of liquid gravity and density. Draw a horizontal line read the equivalent value on any other scale.

Nomograph for calculating viscosities of liquid hydrocarbons at high pressure

Lockhart and Lenoir developed a graphical correlation is based primarily on data of Hersey and Hopkins,2 including
showing the effect of pressure on viscosity of liquid pure hydrocarbons, lubricating oils, bright stocks, and
hydrocarbons. This correlation is shown in Figure 1, which distillates. Data from Reference 1 have also been included.
 Liquids—General 379

To use the nomograph, the characterization factor of scale at 2.6. The viscosity of the oil is (2.6)(90) ¼ 234
Watson, Kw, and the viscosity of the liquid at atmospheric centipoises.
pressure are required.
The accuracy of the correlation decreases as pressure
Source
increases.
Lockhart, F. J. and Lenoir, J. M., Petroleum Refiner, 40,
No. 3, 209 (1961).
Example. What is the viscosity of an oil at 5,400 psia,
if its characterization factor is 11.8 and its viscosity at
atmospheric conditions is 90 centipoises? References
Enter 5,400 psia in the pressure scale to the viscosity line
of 90 and proceed horizontally to the middle reference scale. 1. Griest, and others, J. Chem. Physics, 29, 711 (1958).
Follow the curve lines to intersect the vertical line drawn at 2. Hersey, M. D., and Hopkins, R. F., Viscosity of
Kw ¼ 11.8 and read the ratio of viscosity on the extreme left Lubricants under Pressure, ASME, 1954.

Figure 1. Isothermal effect of pressure on viscosities of liquid hydrocarbons at low reduced temperatures. (Reproduced by
permission Petroleum Refiner, Vol. 40, No. 3 page 209, copyright 1961, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.)
380 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Calculate viscosity of a blend

Viscosity is not an additive function of percentage Example.

composition. The viscosity of a blend can be calculated
with the following equation: G1 ¼ 10,000 bbls V1 ¼ 45 SUS
2 32 G2 ¼ 20,000 bbls V2 ¼ 50 SUS
G3 ¼ 5,000 bbls V3 ¼ 37 SUS
6 G1 þ G2 þ G3 7
V b ¼6
4 G1 :7
5
G2 G3
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi 2 32
V1 V2 V3 610000 þ 20000 þ 5000 7
Vb ¼ 6
410000 20000 5000 :5
7
where:
pffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffi þ pffiffiffiffiffi
Vb ¼ Viscosity of blend 45 50 37
G ¼ Volume (gals., barrels, etc.)
V ¼ Viscosity in SUS Vb ¼ 46:4 SUS

Calculate specific gravity of a blend

The specific gravity of a blend may be calculated directly Specific Partial

by a ratio of the specific gravity of each component in the Volume, bbls Gravity Specific Gravity
blend. 10,000 0.8551 0.1900
15,000 0.8337 0.2779
20,000 0.8481 0.3769
Total 45,000 0.8448

Example. Assume a blend consisting of the following Partial specific gravity ¼ (10000/45000)  0.8551 ¼ 0.1900
parameters: Specific gravity ¼ sum of partial blends

Convert viscosity units

Convert SUS to centistokes: SUS ¼ cS  4.6673, if cS > 500, SUS ¼ cS  4.6347

cSt ¼ 2.24(SSF  184/SSF) for 25 < SSF  40
V ¼ 0:2260 VSUS  135=VSUS where VSUS > 100 cSt ¼ 2.16(SSF  60/SSF) for SSF > 40
V ¼ 0:2260 VSUS  195=VSUS where VSUS  100

Convert centistokes to centipoises (cP)

cP ¼ VCS  density, gm=cm3

Convert specific gravity to API gravity and API gravity to specific gravity

141:5
API ¼  131:5
S 60
where: S 60 ¼ specific gravity @ 60 F
141:5
S 60 ¼
API 60 þ 131:5
 Bulk modulus, psi
300,000

250,000

200,000
60°F
Bulk modulus, psi

80°F

150,000

100,000

50,000

0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
API gravity @ 60
Based on Chapter 11.2.1, API MPMS, Compressibility Factors for Hydrocarbons, May 21, 1992.

Liquids—General
381
382 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Calculate bulk modulus

The bulk modulus, K, of a liquid is the reciprocal of where:

its compressibility. The bulk modulus for water is P ¼ Average pressure
K ¼ 300,000 psi. The compressibility factors for most liquids
can be found in Chapters 11.2.1 and 11.2.2 of the API
Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards. The follow-
ing relation, known as the ARCO formula, can be used to
calculate the bulk modulus for crude oil.

K ¼ 1:286ð106 Þ þ 13:55P  4:122ð104 ÞT1=2

Adapted from Fluid Flow Consultants, Inc., Grove, Oklahoma.
 4:53ð103 ÞAPI  10:59 API2 þ3:228T API Reprinted with permission.

Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries

This nomogram is based on the Hatschek equation for Example. What is the viscosity of a slurry having a
estimating the viscosity of slurries in an aqueous suspension. volume fraction of solids of 0.06 at a temperature of 39 C?
w
¼ Connect T ¼ 39 C with x ¼ 0.06 and read w ¼ 1.1 centi-
1  x0:333
poises on the middle scale.
where:
 ¼ Viscosity of slurry, centipoises
w ¼ Viscosity of water at the temperature of the slurry,
centipoises Source
x ¼ Volume fraction of dry solids in the slurry.
Davis, D. S., Brit. Chem. Eng., 4, 9, 478 (1959).
The nomogram (Figure 1) shows a scale calibrated in
terms of the temperature of the water instead of its
viscosity. Thus, the actual water viscosity is not needed.
 Liquids—General 383

Figure 1. Viscosity of slurries. (Reproduced by permission, British Chemical Engineering, vol. 4, page 478, copyright 1959.)
384 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes

The mean velocity of any liquid flowing in a pipe of thousands of lb. Conversely, knowing the flow rate and
circular cross section can be calculated from the following velocity, the pipe diameter may be calculated.
formula:
Example. What is the velocity of fuel oil at 60 F
q Q W flowing through a 2-in. schedule 40 pipe at a rate of
v ¼ 183:3 ¼ 0:408 2 ¼ 0:0509 2 45,000 lb/hr. The oil density is 56.02 lb/gal.
d2 d d

where: v ¼ Average fluid velocity, feet per second Connect With Mark or Read
d ¼ Inside diameter of pipe, inches W ¼ 45  ¼ 56.02 Q ¼ 100 cu. ft /sec
q ¼ Rate of flow, cubic feet per second Q ¼ 100 d ¼ 2-in. schedule 40 v ¼ 10 ft /sec
Q ¼ Rate of flow, gallons per minute
W ¼ Rate of flow, pounds per hour
 ¼ Fluid density, pounds per cubic foot
Source

The Nomograph for Calculating Velocity of Liquids in Pipes Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe,
(see Figure 1, p. 351) can be used to calculate the liquid Technical Paper No. 410, 3–7, Crane Company, Chicago,
velocity when the rate of flow is in cubic feet, gallons, or (1957).

Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible fluids in pipes

Connect With Mark or Read
The mean velocity of a compressible fluid in a pipe can be 850 F 600 psig line (vertically) 600 psig
computed by the following formula, which is obtained after 600 psig Horizontally to V ¼ 1:21
dividing the rate of flow in appropriate units by the cross- V ¼ 1:21 W ¼ 30,000 Index
sectional area of the pipe: Index V ¼ 8,000 d ¼ 3.7, use 4-in.
schedule 80 pipe

3:06WV 3:06W
V¼ ¼ 2 If a 4-in. schedule 80 pipe is used, the actual velocity is
d2 d
found by connecting the Index with 4-in. schedule 80 to get
V ¼ 7,600 ft / min.
where: V ¼ Mean velocity of flow, feet per minute Note: If a different fluid is involved, the value of the
W ¼ Rate of flow, in pounds per hour density (or specific volume) needed to make the calculation
V ¼ Specific volume of fluid, cubic feet per pound can be obtained from Section 9 of this book, under ‘‘Density
d ¼ Internal diameter of pipe, inches and specific volume of gases and vapors,’’ p. 226.
 ¼ Density of fluid, pounds per cubic foot

Source
Example. Steam at 600 psig and 850 F is to flow
through a schedule 80 pipe at a rate of 30,000 lb/hr. Find Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipes,
the pipe size if the velocity is to be limited to 8,000 ft / Technical Paper No. 410, 3–16, Crane Company, Chicago,
min. (1957).
 Liquids—General 385

Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes

Figure 1. Velocity of liquids in pipe.

 386
Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook
Figure 2. Velocity of compressible fluids in pipes.
 Liquids—General 387

Derivation of basic ultrasonic flow equations

The actual measurements performed by ultrasonic flow- X

but cos
¼ ð5Þ
meters are of flow velocity, with all other variable effects due S
to temperature, pressure, density, viscosity, etc., being  
cancelled via a differential sensing technique. S2 1 1
Therefore; v ¼  ð6Þ
Multiplication by the cross-sectional pipe area readily 2X t2 t1
enables the output to be conditioned to read in volumetric
flow rate scaled to engineering units. Refinement of the The circuitry that performs the reciprocal time computa-
technique enables density and other physical properties to tion produces an output frequency, since:
be measured as well so that mass flow rates and other 1
parameters pertaining to various process variables can be ¼f ð7Þ
t
determined.
1
Therefore; ¼ f2 ð8Þ
t2

1
and ¼ f1 ð9Þ
t1

1 1
and  ¼ f2  f1 ¼ Df ð10Þ
t2 t 1
Substituting in Equation 6 we have the basic velocity
equation:

Let D ¼ Pipe diameter S2

v¼ Df ð11Þ
X ¼ Axial displacement of transducers 2X
S ¼ Path length between transducers or

¼ Angle of transducers to flow stream
c ¼ Velocity of sound in the flowing medium v ¼ k1 Df ð11aÞ
v ¼ Velocity of flowing medium
tl ¼ Flight time of upstream pulse S2
t2 ¼ Flight time of downstream pulse The relationship k1 ¼ ð12Þ
2X
is the flow velocity scaling factor and is usually expressed in
S
then t2 ¼ ð1Þ ft per second or ft per minute. Note that it is a function of
c þ v cos
the square of the distance between the transducers. This is
an important consideration when providing for re-zeroing of
S the meter calibration each time the transducers are removed
t1 ¼ ð2Þ
c  v cos
and re-inserted.
For volumetric flow, the velocity must be multiplied by
To cancel the effects of variations in the velocity of sound the cross-sectional area of the pipe, and the following
c in the medium itself, the circuitry is arranged to compute considerations are involved:
the reciprocal of each flight time and to subtract one from
 2
the other. This difference of the flight time reciprocals leads D
to the relationship: A¼p ð13Þ
2
1 1 2v cos
Volumetric flow
 ¼ ð3Þ
t2 t1 S
V  vA ð14Þ
Solving for v
Therefore, volumetric flow
 
S 1 1 S2 D2 Df
v¼  ð4Þ Vp ¼ ð15Þ
2 cos
t2 t1 8X
388 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

The relationship For a given gas, B is essentially constant.

S2 D2 B
k2 ¼ p ð16Þ Therefore, ¼ k4 ð24aÞ
8X k3 2
is the volumetric flow scaling factor and is usually expressed is a fair representation
in cubic ft per minute. X
Then  ðdensityÞ ¼ k4 f 2 ð25Þ
Further information on the physical properties of the
flowing medium is also acquired in the process of the basic An interesting relationship may be derived at this point,
measurement. Specifically, the velocity of sound in the namely, an equation for mass flow. Since
medium itself can be measured independent of the velocity
of its motion. mass flow ¼ V ð26Þ
Equation 3 computed the difference of the reciprocals of
the upstream and downstream flight times. In the instru- and since V ¼ k1 Df ð11aÞ
ment this is performed in the delta computing channel.
Supposing an addition of the reciprocals of the respective k4
and  ¼ P 2 ð25Þ
upstream and downstream flight times is performed in a f
separate computing channel, called the sigma channel.
The following relationships ensue: Df
then mass flow ¼ k1 k4 P 2 ð27Þ
1 1 c þ v cos
c  v cos
2c f
þ ¼ þ ¼ ð17Þ
t2 t 1 S S S or, letting k1k4 ¼ k5
Df
SX mass flow ¼ k5 P 2 ð28Þ
then c ¼ f ð18Þ f
2
Further, the density of a gas is related by the equation
S P
Let k3 ð19Þ ¼ ð29Þ
2 T
be the sound velocity scaling factor. where: P ¼ Pressure
X T ¼ Temperature ( K)
Then c ¼ k3 f ð20Þ
Therefore, if the pressure is known, the temperature may be
The speed of sound c in a medium is a function of its bulk extracted from the sigma channel in this way:
modulus and its density and is expressed by the following X
P
equation: From Equation 25, ¼ k4 f 2 ð30Þ
T
sffiffiffiffi
B X
c¼ ð21Þ and T ¼ k4 P1 f 2 ð31Þ

Let us go back to Equation 24. If the chemical properties
where: B ¼ Bulk modulus of elasticity of the gas or the ratio of the mixture between two or more
 ¼ Density gases change, then B is not a constant. If separate
From this, the equation for density may be derived thus: transducers are used to measure density, say via the
pressure/temperature relationship, then the variation of B
B can also be measured.
c2 ¼ ð22Þ
 X 2
Thus;  ¼ Bð k3 fÞ ð32Þ
B X
and  ¼ ð23Þ
c2 and B ¼ ð k3 f Þ2 ð33Þ
Substituting the value of c from Equation 20 into 23 gives The above relationship holds for liquids or gases.
In the case of a gas, we may further say:
¼
B
ð24Þ P X 2
P B ¼ ð k3 fÞ ð34Þ
ðk3 fÞ2 T
 Liquids—General 389

How fast does oil move in a pipeline?

Divide the throughput, in barrels per day, by the square of Take the above example: If the wall thickness of the pipe is
3
the nominal diameter, in inches; divide this result by 100 and /8 in.
subtract 1 from the answer. The answer is the speed of the
V ¼ (0.0081)(70,000 … 144)
oil column in miles per hour.
V ¼ 3.94
Example. A 12-in. line has a throughput of 70,000 bpd
or about 4 miles per hour.
70,000 … 144 ¼ 486
486 … 100 ¼ 4.86 Example. A 20-in. pipeline has a throughput of
200,000 barrels per day. How fast does the oil move inside
4.86  1.00 ¼ 3.86
the pipeline?
The oil moves about 4 miles per hour. By the first method
This rule is rough, but seldom is an exact answer needed
for this problem. Greater accuracy can be had by using the 200,000 … 400 ¼ 500
true inside diameter of the line in the following formula: 500 … 100 … 1 ¼ 4 miles per hour
V ¼ 0.0081  Q/d 2
By the second method
where: V ¼ Speed, mph
V ¼ (.0081)(200,000 … 19.252)
Q ¼ Throughput, bpd
d ¼ Inside diameter of pipe, in. V ¼ 4.37 or about 4 miles per hour

Estimate the volume of a pipeline per linear foot using the inside diameter

To find the volume of a pipeline in gallons per ft, square To find the volume of the pipeline in barrels per ft, square
the inside diameter in inches and multiply by 4%. A more the inside diameter in inches and divide by 1,000. For
accurate answer may be obtained by adding 2% of this result greater accuracy subtract 3% of the first answer.
to the first answer.
Example. Find the volume of a pipeline with an ID of
Example. Find the volume of a pipeline having an ID 7.981 in. in barrels per ft.
of 7.981 in. expressed in gallons per ft.
ð7:981Þ2
Volume ¼ (0.04)  (7.981) ¼ 2.548 gallons per ft
2 Volume ¼ ¼ 0:0637 barrels per ft
1, 000
For greater accuracy add 2% of 2.548. For greater accuracy subtract 3% of 0.0637
2.548 þ 0.051 ¼ 2.599 gallon per ft 0.0637  0.0019 ¼ 0.0618 barrels per ft
Actual volume ¼ 2.599 gallons per ft Actual volume ¼ 0.0619 barrels per ft

What is the linefill of a given pipe in barrels per mile?

Multiply the inside diameter of the pipe, in inches, by 6.065  6.065  5.13 ¼ 188.7 barrels per mile
itself, and multiply the result by 5.13; the answer is the
linefill in barrels per mile.
If the correct inside diameter is used, the rule gives
Example. Six-in. schedule 40 pipe; inside diameter is the correct linefill in standard 42-gallon barrels per mile of
6.065 in. pipe.
390 Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook

Estimate leakage amount through small holes in a pipeline

The amount of fluid lost through a small hole in a pipeline Example. Assume the following conditions:
can be estimated using the following equation:
Hole diameter ¼ 0.125 in.
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Pressure ¼ 30 psig
Q ¼ 0:61A 2gh
Sp. gr. of fluid ¼ 0.85
where: A ¼ 0.0000852 sq. ft
Q ¼ Flow in cu. ft./second h ¼ 81.5 ft
A ¼ Cross sectional area, sq. ft. g ¼ 32.2
g ¼ Gravitational constant, ft/sec/sec pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Q ¼ 0:61  0:0000852 2  32:2  81:5
h ¼ Head, feet
Q ¼ 0:002765 cu: ft=sec
 Liquids—General 391

Table gives velocity heads for various pipe diameters and different rates of discharge
 Viscosities of hydrocarbon liquids

392
Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook
Reprinted with Permission—Gas Prrocessors Suppliers Association, Tenth Edition Engineering Data Book.