IMAGE

PROCESSING
USEFUL TIPS
Compilation
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

Lenses #1

01 The Role of the Lens 06

02 Types of Lenses Used in Image Processing 07

03 Structure of a CCTV Lens (CA-LH/LHR Series) 08

04 Lens Characteristics 09
Lenses #2

05 Depth of Field 10

06 Lens Resolution 11

07 Lens Magnification 12

08 F-Stop 12

09 Mount 12

10 Distortion 12

11 Chromatic Aberration 13

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Image Capture

12 What is a Pixel? 14

13 How Pixels Work 14

14 Shutter Speed 15

15 What is Gain? 15

16 Square Grids and Non-square Grids 16

Lighting

17 Light Sources – Types and Characteristics 17

18 LED 18

19 Diffusion Plates and Polarizing Plates 20

3
Color

20 What is Color? 21

21 Three Primary Colors 21

22 Three Properties of Color 22

23 Complementary Colors 23
24 Relationship Between Wavelength and Color 24
25 Sensitivity Characteristics (Spectral Characteristics) 24
Communication (RS-232C)

26 What is RS-232C? 25

27 Points for Setting RS-232C 25

28 Communication Speed 26

29 Outline of Communication Specifications 27

30 Handshake 27
31 Communication Protocol and Script 28

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Preprocessing

32 What is Preprocessing? 29

33 Filter Processing Area 29

34 Filter Coefficients 29

35 Typical Filters 30

36 Other Preprocessing 32
Communication (Ethernet)

37 What is Ethernet? 33

38 Default Gateway 34

39 Ethernet Communication Cable 34

40 IP Address 35
41 UDP (User Datagram Protocol) 35
42 Applications of Ethernet Communication in Image Processing 35

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

Image processing is an essential technology that raises the accuracy and efficiency of product defect
inspection. Recently, technology in this area has seen significant advances and is producing results in
on-site manufacturing. In order to correctly perform on-site image processing, it is essential to acquire a
basic knowledge on the subject.
In this chapter we will explain basic knowledge regarding image processing.

01 The Role of the Lens

In image processing, light that has entered into the image receiving element (CCD) is transformed into
electronic signals and used as data. For this process, it is important to have a lens that gathers light into the
image receiving element. Based on the principle of refraction, the lens gathers light from the target into a
single point, forming an image. During this process, the single point to which the light has been focused is
called the focal point and the distance from the center of the lens to the focal point is called the focal length.
When using a convex lens, the focal length will differ depending on the degree of thickness (bulge) of the
lens. The larger the degree of bulge, the shorter the focal length.

Center of convex lens

A
Focal
point Axis of convex lens
B

Focal C
point

Real
image

[ How light passing through a convex lens advances ]

A. Light that has entered the lens parallel to the axis passes through the focal point after being refracted.
B. Light that has entered the center advances through directly, with no changes.
C. Light that has passed the focal point before entering the lens advances parallel to the axis after being
refracted.

When seen through the mechanism of a camera, light that is emitted from a target which is outside of the
focal point of a convex lens, is refracted on the lens, drawing an image whose vertical and horizontal planes
have been reversed. This image is called a real image and if an image receiving element is placed here, a
real image will be projected.

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 Lenses #1

02 Types of Lenses Used in Image Processing

CCTV Lens
These lenses are for Close Circuit TVs, and are primarily used in inspection applications in the area of FA
(factory automation) and surveillance applications in the areas of crime and fire prevention. Due to their limited
number of lens elements and relative simplicity, these lenses are compact and low-cost. In general, these
lenses can perform uniform aberration correction regardless of distance from the target.

What makes us different

KEYENCE image processing
lenses internally use eight layers
of low-scattering glass and in
comparison to normal CCTV
lenses, utilize an optical design
that limits distortion and
chromatic aberration to a
minimum.
CV-L Series general CCTV lens CA-LHR Series low-distortion lens

Telecentric Lenses
These are lenses that have been arranged to pass principal light through the focal point at a 0° angle of view.
In other words, these lenses have been designed to have principal light advance parallel to the optical axis of
the lens. Because the optical axis is parallel, distortion is difficult to generate and it is possible to acquire the
size and position of the target with high-accuracy. Telecentric lenses demonstrate their true value in cases
where high-magnification, low-distortion, and a deeper depth of field are required for image processing.

Normal Lens Object-Side Telecentric Lens

Aperture
CCD-side
CCD-side

Object-side
Object-side
Margin of error

The Efficacy of Telecentric Lenses

Telecentric Lenses
The image is in focus, leaving the size of the
target unchanged.
When the distance between the
camera and target has shifted
by 3 mm 0.12"
Normal CCTV Lenses
Original image
The focus is blurred, changing the size of
the target.

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

03 Structure of a CCTV Lens (CA-LH/LHR Series)

Floating Structure
Floating structure is a function that separately moves the front and rear groups of a multi-lens assembly.
Through this, it is possible to obtain high-resolution and contrast from close-distances to infinity.

[ An optical design optimized via multiple lenses and floating structure ]

In order to bring out the best performance of multiple lenses, a floating structure that independently moves
each internal lens group (front and rear groups) is used. When the front group of the lens assembly is moved
during focus adjustment, the structure moves the rear group to the best position in order to optimize distortion
correction. High performance is achieved by constantly maintaining the positional relationship of the lens
groups in optimal condition between ranges from close proximity to infinity.

[ Illustration of lens structure ]

Infinity Close Proximity
Front group Rear group Front group Rear group

The rear group is moved

during focus adjustment,
Correction amount for rear group Correction amount for rear group correcting distortion.
(Floating) (Floating)

Adopting Aspherical Lenses

Through the adoption of aspherical lenses, [ Spherical lenses and aspherical lenses ]
which possess a shape that is non-
spherical, it is possible to limit optical Spherical Lenses Aspherical Lenses
Spherical
aberration and obtain clearer images. aberration

Optical Optical
axis axis

Focal point of light rays passing through the periphery of the lens
Focal point of light rays passing through the near-center of the lens
Optical axis
Lens Mounts
Lens mounts, which act as joints between the CCD camera and the lens, come in a variety of types and if the
pre-existing requirements of each side of the lens mount are not met together, it is not possible to maintain
compatibility between the CCD camera and lens. Due to the occurrence of mechanical issues that include
joint structure and dimension, and optical issues related to the CCD-side flange focus, it is necessary to
confirm the mount of the CCD camera that will be used when selecting lenses. A mount for CCD cameras that
is often used in the FA industry is called a C-mount. This type of mount has a 25.4 mm (1 in.) inner-diameter, a
0.794 mm pitch (32 TPI).

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 Lenses #1

04 Lens Characteristics
In the FA industry, the distance between the inspection target and the lens in image processing is generally
called WD (working distance) and the image area is called the field of view. The field of view is determined by
lens type and the size in inches, of the WD and CCD.

Working Distance (WD)

This signifies the distance from the end of the lens to the target when the focal point is in alignment with the
target. This is also called operating distance. With a CCD, it forms a proportional expression that says
Working Distance is to Field of View as Focal Length is to CCD Size (Working Distance : Field of View = Focal
Length : CCD Size).

Focal Length
“Focal length” exists as one of the specifications of a lens. As representational models, lenses used for
factory automation come in 8 mm 0.32", 16 mm 0.63", 25 mm 0.98", and 50 mm 1.97" specifications. The WD
(working distance) can be equated to the position that aligns with the focal point from the field of view and
focal length required for the target that you would like to capture.

Lens
Example
3.6 mm
0.14"

Field of 16 mm
CCD size
view 0.63"

45 mm WD=200 mm
1.77" 7.84"
WD Focal length

The size of the WD and the field of view is determined by the focal length of the lens along with the size of the
CCD, and in ranges that are at the closest possible distance, where a close-up ring is not required, or at
distances above this, the relationship can be represented with the following proportional expression.
Example: Using a lens with a 16 mm 0.63" focal length and
WD : Field of View = Focal Length : CCD size CCD with a size of 3.6 mm 0.14", selecting a 45 mm 1.77" field of
view will yield a WD of 200 mm 7.84".

Field of View
This is the image area within the range of the working distance. In general, the longer the working distance
between the target and lens is, the wider the field of view (view angle). Additionally, the width of the field of
view is determined according to the focal length of the lens. The angle of the range in which the lens can be
used to capture images in regard to the field of view is called the angle of view or the view angle. Because the
angle of view becomes larger as the focal length of the lens becomes shorter, the field of view will widen.
Conversely, it’s possible to enlarge distant targets when the focal length is long.
CCD image receiving element CCD image receiving element

Angle of Angle of
view view

Focal length Focal length

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

05 Depth of Field
Depth of field means the range that appears in focus through
In the image below, an inclined surface that
the lens (target-side distance). When the range is wide, it is
has been affixed with tape displaying height
called a “deep depth of field”. Conversely, when the range is is shown. To the left of this image, is a
narrow, it is called a “shallow depth of field”. Strictly comparison between an instance where the
aperture has been reduced and an instance
speaking, though only one area can be in focus, to the
where it has been opened.
human eye, images in a certain range appear to form clearly.
This range is called depth of field.

Camera

Field of view

Tape (3 mm)
0.12"

15 mm
0.59"

When aperture is reduced When aperture is open 45°incline

(CA-LH25) (CA-LH25)

COLUMN 1
Does a CCD whose size per pixel (cell size) is large
have a deep depth of field?

The logic behind depth of field Image 1

An explanation will be given using an instance
1 CCD pixel
where a CCD is used as an image receiving
element. It is easy to know if an image is blurred
by the size of individual pixels (unit cell size) on
the CCD. Image 1 shows a state in which it is
optically most in-focus. The apex of the light
refracted with the lens matches perfectly with the
top of the CCD, making it an ideal state.
So what about Image 2 and 3? S1 S2

The position of the light apex is misaligned with Image 2 A: State in which the target is misaligned in a far direction
the position of the CCD, but it does not overlap
with neighboring CCDs.
Images 1 through 3 are actually all in focus.
This is because even if the size of the focal point
within in the range of a single CCD pixel has
fluctuated, images that have been output
through electronic signals will not be reflected at
all (won’t be understood). In this way, the S1 S2
changing range of the working distance, which
limits the size of the focal point in a defined Image 3 B: State in which the target is misaligned in a close direction
range, is called depth of field.
In other words, when using the same size and
same optical magnification, because the
allowable range in which CCDs with larger per
pixel sizes is wide, it has a deep depth of field.

S1= Focal length + Thickness of close-up ring

S2= Working distance
S1 S2

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 Lenses #2

COLUMN 2 The reason why depth of field changes with aperture and focal length

Considering the principles that were explained in column 1, the answer is easy. No matter which lens, as the aperture
is reduced, depth of field becomes deeper. This is because the aperture mechanism can make the angle smaller
while maintaining the values for S1, and S2. This makes the size of the focal point smaller and widens the focus
range.

A: State in which the target is misaligned in a far direction

By physically reducing the aperture, the
By reducing the aperture, the spot is forcibly made smaller.
size of the focal point
becomes smaller.

S1 S2

06 Lens Resolution
Not limited to image processing, lens resolution is used in lenses for all optical measurement devices and it
signifies the minimum interval in which observation is possible. A lens with a resolution of 10 μm 0.39 Mil can
soundly observe striped lines that have been arranged in 10 μm 0.39 Mil line widths and 10 μm 0.39 Mil
pitches. When the resolution is insufficient, 2 lines will appear as if they are stuck together, making the
resolution unsuitable for an inspection that requires accuracy. Lens resolution is expressed in the formula for
the Rayleigh limit*1 listed below.

λ
ε = 0.61 × N.A.*2
(Rayleigh’s equation)

λ: Operating wavelength N.A.: The numerical aperture of the target lens

(For visible rays, this is generally calculated with λ as 0.55 μm 0.02 Mil)

β
N.A. =
2F
β: Optical magnification F: Effective No.

To improve resolution, it is important to raise the numerical aperture (N.A.) of the target lens.

*1 R
 ayleigh limit
An evaluative standard for lenses. This was defined by the English physicist, Lord Rayleigh.

*2 N
 umerical aperture (N.A.)
An index for the purpose of calculating the performance of a lens, including resolution. Brighter images
can be obtained as the numerical aperture increases in size.

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

07 Lens Magnification
Magnification is a ratio between the actual size of the measurement target and the size that can be seen
through an optical measurement device. Conventionally, optical magnification was used when observing
through the eyepiece of a microscope, but recently, the idea of monitor magnification is spreading from the
increase of systems that display observation targets on an LCD monitor.

[ Optical magnification ]
With a digital camera, optical magnification is calculated by dividing the dimensions of the effective camera elements by
the field of view.

[ Monitor magnification ]
Monitor magnification is calculated by dividing the diagonal length of the monitor by the diagonal length of the camera
elements, and then multiplying that by the optical magnification.

08 F-Stop
This value (also called F-number) signifies a standard that displays the brightness of a lens. Accurately
speaking, it is a value that divides the focal length of the lens by its diameter (gauge). F: The “F” in F-stop
derives from the word focal.

f F : F-stop
F= D : Lens diameter
D f : Lens focal length
In practice, the lens won’t transmit all the light; part of it will be reflected by the lens. Additionally, in order to
reduce optical aberration, multiple lenses are used, reducing the amount of transmitted light. Through this,
lenses that have a large amount of light transmission obtain bright images and are said to be “bright” and
lenses that have a small amount of light transmission are said to be “dark”.
The relationship between lens focal length and diameter, or in other words, the F-stop, is one element that
greatly influences the brightness and darkness of a lens. A lens with a small F-stop value will be a “bright
lens” and one with a large value will be a “dark lens”. With a general compact camera, the side of the lens will
be marked with something like “F=2.5” or “1:2.5”. This means that the F-stop is 2.5. For the performance of
the camera lens, if the F-stop is around 2.0, it can be said that its class is rather bright.

09 Mount
A mount is a mechanism that secures the lens for image processing equipment that can replace the lens. It is
also called a lens mount and in general, lens mounts for SLR cameras are well known. In image processing,
C-mounts and CS-mounts are often used.

10 Distortion
Distortion signifies a state where an image reflected through the lens is deformed. In truth, a perfectly-shaped
lens does not exist. Due to this, ideally, direct light that has passed through the lens should advance
unaltered, however the light that has passed through the lens will distort along the outer or inner areas. The
former is called “barrel distortion”, while the latter is called “pincushion distortion”.

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 Lenses #2

Distortion will appear as barrel distortion with a wide-angle

lens and will appear as pincushion distortion with a zoom
lens. In order to correct distortion, an aspherical lens is
used.

What makes us different

With original optical design, KEYENCE lenses drastically
reduce distortion when compared to standard lenses. Pincushion distortion Barrel distortion

The CA-LH Series uses a floating structure, and

the CA-LHR Series uses a floating structure and
* For information on aspherical lenses, refer to
aspherical lens* to correct distortion.
“Lenses #1”.

11 Chromatic Aberration
Principles of Chromatic Aberration
Chromatic aberration signifies when the refractive index differs depending on the wavelength of the visible
beam, causing the image that is generated after being transmitted through the lens to be misaligned. A
differing refractive index means a differing focal length. So, the colors of each wavelength each, individually
form an image and reflect an image that looks blurred.

The mechanism of chromatic aberration (axial chromatic aberration)

Normal optical glass Low-scattering glass

Blurred Non-blurred
Blue Green Red image image

Small chromatic aberration

Large chromatic aberration

Types of Chromatic Aberration

There are two types of chromatic aberration: axial and transverse.
Axial chromatic aberration:
 state in which the refractive index differs by wavelength of light, which then changes each focal point, resulting in an image that is entirely
A
blurred.
Transverse chromatic aberration:
A state in which the magnification of the image differs by color, causing colors to bleed as you approach the edges of the lens.

How to Prevent Chromatic Aberration

A method used to resolve the problem of chromatic
aberration involves utilizing a lens with a different refractive
index, called an achromatic lens. Other methods include
using lens materials that have low dispersion such as
fluorite (calcium fluoride crystal) or ED glass.

Chromatic aberration correction

with an achromatic lens

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

12 What is a Pixel?
A pixel signifies the smallest structural unit of a digital image. An image on a computer is rendered in pixels, a
collection of points that have been aligned in an orderly fashion. Every single point possesses color
information called hue or tone and through this, it’s possible to draw a color image.

For example, with an LCD, “resolution:

1280 × 1024” is displayed. This indicates
that the amount of pixels lined-up
horizontally is 1280 and vertically it’s 1024.
With this display, the total amount of pixels
comes to 1280 × 1024 = 1,310,720. Images
can render more details as the pixel
amount increases, so from this we can say
that an image has “high resolution”.

13 How Pixels Work

All pixels for the image sensor (image receiving element), which is represented by the CCD, do not function to
output image signals. There are total pixels, which signify the pixels of the entire image sensor, in addition to
valid pixels and virtual pixels, which are the actual functioning pixels.

Valid pixels:
The pixels amongst the total pixels that handle image signals. When showing the performance of a digital camera, its
performance is determined by guidelines that ask you to use the number of valid pixels.

Virtual pixels:
The pixels amongst the valid pixels that guarantee the performance of the product.

Total pixel area

(Number of horizontal × vertical pixels)

Diagonal length (image size)

Valid pixel area

(Number of horizontal × vertical valid pixels)

Virtual pixel area

(Number of horizontal × vertical virtual pixels)

* Defines the image size

14
 Image Capture

14 Shutter Speed
This signifies the period of time in which a charge is accumulated in the image sensor of a CCD or CMOS. If
the shutter speed is 1/250, then period of time in which it will gather light is 1/250 seconds. When the shutter
speed is fast, the amount of light that hits the sensor is small. Conversely, when it is slow, the amount of light
that hits is large. In other words, it can be said that shutter speed serves as a function that adjusts the amount
of light. Shutter speed and the amount of received light (accurately speaking, the amount of accumulated
charge) have the following relationship.

[ EXAMPLE ] When a shutter speed of 1/1000 sec. (1 ms) is considered standard...

- When the shutter speed is 1/500 sec. (2 ms), the amount of light that will hit will double.
- When the shutter speed is 1/2000 sec. (0.5 ms), the amount of light that will hit will be halved.

15 What is Gain?
Gain signifies the electrical amplification of image signals. CCD cameras for image processing have a built-in
function that amplifies signals when capture has been performed in dark areas, making it so that they appear
bright. They also have a gain control function, which automatically adjusts the gain in response to the
brightness of the target.

The effect of increased sensitivity

A comparison of images at 1/10000 shutter speed

* A comparison on a like-for-like basis with fluorescent lighting.

Before increasing sensitivity After increasing sensitivity

What makes us different

All of our CCD cameras for image processing use KEYENCE developed cameras.
Our cameras have built-in specialized integrated circuits called ASIC (See below), and it’s possible to freely set items
such as image area, process area, shutter speed, and transfer system from the controller side. These functions are
not implemented with support from the controller side, but with support from the camera-side only. As a result, there
is no added processing time even if the settings are changed. This is also the effect of having the specialized ASIC
built-in.

Conventional ASIC built-in

Only processes Processes received

images from images after indicating Camera Image adjustment
the camera optimized images indication
Camera Image Controller Controller
transfer Image transfer

COLUMN 3 What is ASIC?

It is an abbreviation of Application Specific Integrated Circuit. It is a general

customized LSI (large scale integration), and signifies an integrated circuit that
was created for the purpose of being used for specific operating applications.

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

16 Square Grids and Non-square Grids

A square grid (array) indicates that the vertical and horizontal pixels of the unit cell are in equal proportion.
Because it is a 1 : 1 ratio, it has the benefit of being able to maintain high-accuracy without adjusting the
image.

 When using a square grid  When using a non-square grid

(Aspect ratio 1 : 1) (Aspect ratio 1.28 : 1)

1 1

1 1.28

Pixel

CCD receiver

[ Case study ] What happens when a circle 10 mm 0.39" in diameter is captured?

 When using a square grid  When using a non-square grid

After image capture,

non-square grids are
converted to a ratio that
10 mm 0.39" Square grids is equal to a square
diameter circle remain grid.
unchanged

When image data that has been captured with a non-square grid CCD is displayed in direct image
processing pixels ( 1 : 1 ), circles will appear horizontally elongated, making it necessary to correct the image.

16
 Lighting

Many different kinds of lighting are used in factory automation (FA) for positioning, inspections, and
other applications.
When selecting appropriate lighting for each application, it is necessary to understand the
characteristics of light sources.

17 Light Sources – Types and Characteristics

LED
“LED” stands for “light-emitting diode” and describes a diode (an
elemental semiconductor) that emits light. While fluorescent lights
use discharge phenomena to convert electrical energy into light
indirectly, LEDs convert electrons into light directly. Thus, they are
highly efficient at converting energy and are energy-saving light
sources. Moreover, LEDs have long lifespans, emit an abundance
of wavelengths (colors) and have many other advantages, so they
have been widely used in image processing in recent years.

Fluorescent Lights
Fluorescent lights emit visible light when ultraviolet rays generated by arc discharge phenomena hit the
fluorescent substance inside of their glass tubes. Typically, the insides of the tubes are coated with the
fluorescent substance and contain encapsulated mercury. The tubes are then sealed and electrodes for
discharging electricity are placed at each end.
Fluorescent lights have been widely used in the past because they last longer than incandescent bulbs. They
emit white light and daylight colors, and there are three-wavelength fluorescent lights that emit colors very
similar to natural light. They come in various shapes such as bulbs and straight or circular tubes.

Halogen Lamps
Halogen lamps feature bulbs with inactive gases, such as nitrogen, and halogen gases, such as iodine,
enclosed inside. They emit light using the same principle as incandescent bulbs but shine brighter and last
longer. They are used in car headlights, spotlights at commercial facilities and photography studio lights. The
light is limited to the color of the bulb.

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IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

Xenon Lamps
Xenon lamps are gas discharge lamps that emit light similar to natural light. Xenon gas is enclosed inside of
silica tubes. Compared to incandescent bulbs, xenon lamps are brighter, consume less energy, and last
longer. They are mainly used as light sources for projection devices and projectors.
Xenon lamps include short-arc lamps, long-arc lamps, and flash lamps.

Metal Halide Lamps

Metal halide lamps are a type of high-intensity discharge (HID). A mixed vapor consisting of metal halide
(halogenated metal) and mercury is enclosed inside the lamps, and they emit light from arc discharge.
Advantages of metal halide lamps include high intensity, low energy consumption and long lifespans.
Metal halide lamps have long been used on roadways and in tunnels, and are used to light the insides of
large architectural structures, aquariums for ornamental fish, and night games at athletic facilities.

Relative Characteristics of Different Types of Lighting

Brightness Lamp Lifespan Colors Power consumption
LED Somewhat inferior Long Abundant Conserves energy
Fluorescent Lights Somewhat inferior Somewhat short Few Conserves a bit of energy
Halogen Bright Somewhat short Few Many
Xenon Bright Long Few Conserves a bit of energy
Metal Halide Bright Long Few Conserves energy

18 LED
Basic Structure
LEDs emit light when electrons collide with positive holes inside of joined N-type and P-type semiconductors
with electricity flowing through them.
The wavelength (color) of the light depends on the size of the bandgap of the semiconductor (the region
where electrons cannot exist).
Thus, many different semiconductor materials for many different wavelengths have been created.
Applications in display, lighting and other areas have increased greatly in recent years thanks to the invention
of blue LEDs that use gallium nitride as well as white LEDs.
Electric Current Flow Direction

P-type Semiconductor N-type Semiconductor

Light resulting from the collision of electrons and positive holes.

18
 Lighting

Why are LEDs used so heavily in image processing?

Compared to fluorescent, halogen, and other lighting, LEDs are better at switching, last longer, and have
better shapes.
Their main characteristics are as follows:

Fast Response Speed

LEDs use elemental semiconductors and have superior switching capabilities. Thus, the response speed of
single elements is characteristically on the order of a nanosecond.

Long Lifespan
With half-lives of tens of thousands of hours, LEDs last tens to hundreds of times longer than fluorescent
lights, and, unlike fluorescent lights, repeated switching does not shorten their lifespans. This long lifespan
makes it possible to save on costs and on the bother of replacing lamps.

Continuous Lighting (Blue Line) vs Intermittent Lighting (Red Line) (Representative Example)

100
Relative Light Intensity [%]

90

80

70

60 This figure represents the change in relative light

50 intensity when lights are on for one unit of time and
off for four units (ON:OFF = 1:4).
40
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000

Operating Time [h]

Shape Advantages in Image Processing

The small size of LEDs enables creation of highly-flexible lighting fit to production lines.

Range of Colors and Homogeneity of Light

LEDs are known for their abundance of wavelengths. In addition to visible blue, white, and red, they
can also emit ultraviolet and infrared light, allowing for the selection of any color to suit the workpiece.
And with no irregularity in intensity, the homogeneity is superb.

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19 Diffusion Plates and Polarizing Plates

Diffusion plates and polarizing plates are used in order to make lighting fit the objective and for efficient
application.

Diffusion Plates
Diffusion plates are sheets or films that diffuse light evenly across entire surfaces. Polished glass filled this
role in the past. Nowadays, diffusion plates are used as part of the backlights fitted into the back of LCD
panels.

Polarizing Plates
Natural light includes many vibration planes facing in different directions. This is where polarizing plates are
used to produce light only from a given plane. Polarizing plates have extremely thin slits cut into them, and
light shone through one polarizing plate produces only the ray on the same vibration plane as the slit. When
two polarizing plates are used together, sometimes light will not shine through.
The display boards on LCDs make use of this phenomenon that helps display images depending on whether
or not light is transmitted.

Includes light
Transmitted Light
from various
vibration planes

Natural Light

Only the light from the vibration

plane identical to the direction of
the polarizing plate is transmitted

a Light shines through when directions are the same

Polarizing Plate Polarizing Plate

Polarization
Light

Without Polarizing Filter

Light fully transmitted on the
surface of a CD case.

b No light transmitted when directions differ

Polarizing Plate Polarizing Plate
Polarization
Light

With Polarizing Filter

The polarizing filter reduces the
transmission of light.

20
 Color

How do human eyes and cameras recognize color?

This chapter provides an explanation of important color concepts that affect image processing.

20 What is Color?
All objects have color. However, in order to recognize that color, two other elements are essential: light and an
eye that can recognize that color. In short, ‘color’ is perceived visual stimuli, specifically the light reflecting off
an object, received through the eye and transmitted to the brain.

Light source Vision (Eye)

Brain

Object

Light
Reflected light

21 Three Primary Colors

Color is defined on the basis of the three primary colors. The primary colors are colors that cannot be
produced by mixing other colors.
The three primary colors are the source of all other colors.

The difference between RGB and CMY

The three primary colors of light are red, green, and blue. Taking the first letter of each color, the three primary
colors of light are collectively called “RGB.” When all three colors of light are mixed, white is produced.
On the other hand, the three primary colors of pigment are cyan, magenta, and yellow, which are collectively
referred to as CMY, from the first letters of the colors. Mixing the three colors of pigment will give you any tone
and/or shade between (and including) white and black depending on the brightness of the introduced
pigments.

Three Primary Colors of Light Three Primary Colors of Pigment

Y (Yellow)

M+Y R (Red)
R (Red) Y+C+MBk (Black)

B+RM (Magenta) R+GY (Yellow) Y+C G (Green)

R+G+BW (White)
B (Blue) G (Green)
G+BC (Cyan) C+M B (Blue)

M (Magenta)
C (Cyan)

21
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

22 Three Properties of Color

Color can be defined using a number of different schemes, and one of them is by using the three attributes of
color: Hue, saturation, and brightness (value). The individual colors can be identified using these attributes.

Hue
Color can be classified into a group of chromatic colors, or
A B
colors that have a hue, or a group of achromatic colors (white,
Reddish color Bluish color
black, pure grays), or colors that do not have a hue.
Among chromatic colors, the color variation (red, blue, and
yellow) is called a “hue.”

Major hues include red, yellow, green, blue, and purple. A

circular arrangement of hues based on the color spectrum that
centers on these hues is called a “color wheel.” By using a color
wheel, you can create intermediate colors and complementary
Color
wheel colors.

Saturation
Saturation is the level of vividness of a color and indicates chromatic purity. A highly chromatic, vivid color is
described as “saturated” while a less chromatic, pastel color is described as “desaturated.”
The most saturated colors are the “pure colors” while the most desaturated colors (colors with no vividness)
are neutral colors.

Saturated Desaturated
(Highly chromatic) (Less chromatic)

1 2

If you add gray…

The proportion of yellow is

reduced by the amount of gray

22
 Color

Brightness
Brightness (also called “Value”) represents the brightness or darkness of color. Both chromatic and
achromatic colors have brightness.
Bright colors are described as “bright” while darker colors are described as “dark.”
The brightest color is white and the darkest color is black, and this applies to both the chromatic color group
and achromatic color group. In other words, the brightness of a chromatic color can be expressed by the
level of neutral color that corresponds to that brightness.
High

9.5
8.5
7.5
6.5
Brightness

5.5
4.5
3.5
2.5
Low

1.5
Brightness of a chromatic color is represented by the value
of gray with the same brightness.

23 Complementary Colors
Complementary colors are any two colors on opposite sides of the color wheel, such as red and green, blue
and orange.
Mixing the complementary colors will produce a neutral color. When complementary colors of pigment are
mixed (subtractive color mixing), you will get black. When complementary colors of light are mixed (additive
color mixing), you will get white.

Color wheel Complementary colors are two colors on opposite

sides of the color wheel
The two colors on the color wheel opposite one another are called “physical
complementary colors.” In addition to “physical complementary colors,” there are
“psychological complementary colors”, which are the colors that appear as an
afterimage caused by the visual system of the human eye. For example, if you stare
at a red color for an extended period of time and then look at something white, you
will ‘see’ a light afterimage of cyan.

23
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

24 Relationship Between Wavelength and Color

When natural light is split by a prism, the ‘white’ light appears to nm = nanometer

be seven different colors of light. The difference in the color of Violet 400 to 435 nm
Blue 435 to 480 nm
light varies depending on its wavelength. As the wavelength
Green-blue 480 to 490 nm
gets longer, the color changes from violet to blue, then green Blue-green 490 to 500 nm
and yellow, before finally hitting red. The wavelength of each Green 500 to 560 nm
color is shown below. Yellow-green 560 to 580 nm
Yellow 580 to 595 nm
Orange 595 to 610 nm
Red 610 to 750 nm
Red-violet 750 to 800 nm

Invisible Invisible
Visible light
light light
Ultraviolet Infrared
Violet Blue Green-blue Blue-green Green Yellow-green Yellow Orange Red
light light

380 430 480 490 500 560 580 595 650 780
(Unit: nm)

Image of optical refractive index (natural light)

When natural light travels through a prism,

the refractive index of light closer to violet
Natural light
is greater while the refractive index of light
Prism Max
closer to red is smaller. That is, the shorter
Refractive index the light’s wavelength is, the greater its
Min refractive index.

25 Sensitivity Characteristics (Spectral Characteristics)

The wavelengths of light that a camera or image sensor can respond to are defined by its sensitivity
characteristics or spectral characteristics.
For example, the human eye is sensitive to light with a wavelength between 380 and 760 nm, peaking at
560 nm. This indicates that the human eye is most sensitive to the color green, which is at the center of the
visible spectrum.
In general, CCD cameras are made based on the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye. There are also
CCD cameras that have sensitivity characteristics that support ultraviolet light and infrared light.

1.0
0.9 Blue appears brighter than red
Spectral sensitivity characteristics

0.8
0.7 The figure shows an example of sensitivity characteristics of
0.6 a CCD camera if 560 nm, the wavelength the human eye is
0.5 most sensitive to, is ‘1.’
0.4
Here, you can see that blue (460 nm) appears approximately
1.3 times brighter than red (660 nm).
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Wavelength (nm)

24
 Communication (RS-232C)

RS-232C is a communication method used to output the result of image processing, or to control an
image processing instrument from a PC or PLC. The following describes details of the RS-232C
communication.

26 What is RS-232C?
Communication protocol for serial type transmission
RS-232C is a type of serial transmission used for communication between computers (or PLCs) and sensors
or other peripheral devices. Another serial type communication protocol is USB. This type is generally
incorporated into personal computers.
RS-232C is an abbreviation for “Recommended Standard 232 version C.” It is a designation of the
communication protocol used to transmit digital signals and is standardized by Electronic Industries Alliance
(EIA) in the United States. The maximum communication speed is 115.2 kbps.
There are two types of digital signal transmission: Parallel and serial.
The former transmits data of 8 or 16 bits simultaneously through multiple lines. The latter transmits one bit of
data at a time through two lines, one for sending and the other for receiving. Consequently, it is noticeable
that the parallel transmission is faster in terms of communication speed.
However, the parallel transmission involves complicated wiring. The serial transmission is slower in terms of
communication speed, but its wiring is far simpler.
At present, parallel transmission is used for signal transmission inside a device, such as internal transmission
inside a computer; and serial transmission is used for transmission between devices.
RS-232C terminal pins (D-sub 25-pin) RS-232C terminal pins (D-sub 9-pin)

1 13 1 5

6 9
14 25

27 Points for Setting RS-232C

RS-232C communication specifications
RS-232C communication requires setting of the following specifications.
Specifications Setting description
Baud rate Number of bits transmitted in one second
Data bit length Number of bits of data
Parity check Setting for communication error detection
Stop bit length Number of stop bits
Data delimiter Symbol used to separate data

RS-232C communication cable

There are two types of RS-232C communication cables: Straight type and cross type. In general, a straight
type is used for connecting a computer (or PLC) and peripheral devices (including sensors). A cross type is
used for connecting computers.
The most common way to distinguish between these cable types is a straight type cable has “male and
female connectors” at the ends, and a cross type cable has “female connectors” at both ends. The maximum
length of an RS-232C communication cable is 15 m 49.21'.

25
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

<To connect an image processing instrument and a PC>

PC Vision Systems

RS-232C communication cable

Straight type

<To connect an image processing instrument and a PLC link unit>

PLC link unit Vision Systems

RS-232C communication cable

Straight type

To establish RS-232C communication between an image processing instrument and

a PLC, connect a “straight type” communication cable to the “PLC link unit”.

Gender changer
When a PC (or PLC) and a peripheral device are connected with more than one cable for extension, an
“extension adapter” is used to connect the cables.
Normally, the RS-232C connector on the device is “female”, and the connectors at both ends of the cable are
“male”.
Therefore, a “female-to-female” gender changer (device to change between male and female) is required to
connect two cables.

Gender changer to convert from D-sub

9-pin female to D-sub 9-pin female

28 Communication Speed
Baud rate and bps
Although both the baud rate and bps (bit per second) are used as the unit to transmit digital signals, the baud
rate does not equal the bps rate. The Baud rate is a unit to express the number of modulation/demodulation
actions which a modem or other device can make in one second. On the other hand, bps is a unit to express
the amount of signals which can be transmitted in one second.
The unit to express communication speed is bps.
For example when a modem can make 2400 modulation/demodulation actions in one second and can
transmit a signal of 2 bits in one modulation/demodulation, its baud rate is 2400 and communication speed is
4800 bps.

26
 Communication (RS-232C)

29 Outline of Communication Specifications

The RS-232C communication starts with a start bit and outputs other items in the order of data bits, a parity
bit, and a stop bit. One byte of signal can be sent in this process.

Data bits

Parity bit
Start bit

Stop bit
t

Start bit
This bit notifies that communication will start from now. The start bit is always fixed to 0 (zero).

Data bits
The data bits normally consist of 7 or 8 bits. The number of bits can be specified as desired.

Parity bit
This bit is used to check whether the sent data is correct or not. The setting can be selected from “Odd”,
“Even”, or “None”.

Stop bit
This bit notifies that one byte of communication has finished. One (1) is always sent as a stop bit.

Delimiter
To send a communication command from the RS-232C port of a PC (or PLC), you need to set a symbol to
separate each command between the PC (or PLC) and peripheral device. This separating symbol is called a
delimiter. In most cases, “CR (Carriage Return)” or “CR + LF (Carriage Return + Line Feed)” is used.

30 Handshake
To enable the RS-232C type communication, the terminals at both of the sender and receiver sides need to
read/write signals at the same communication speed. However, if the signal processing on the receiver side
delays, the sent signals may be lost. Handshake is a mechanism to prevent this problem, where the terminals
on both sides confirm the communication status of each other. If the processing in the receiver terminal
delays, the sender temporarily stops sending signals and resumes sending when the receiver can accept
signals.
There are three types of handshake: Hardware handshake, software handshake, and Xmodem.

27
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

31 Communication Protocol and Script

The communication protocol is the “conventions” or “procedures” used when a PC (or PLC) and peripheral
devices communicate.

Modem definition file

Modem settings used for the RS-232C communication are described. Using the file containing the definition
enables smooth communication.

Communication command
The commands for executing communication through the RS-232C port.

Script
A series of commands used when communication is made through the RS-232C port. A script is written in a
more simplified language than programming languages.

Ladder language
A programming language used to write a logical circuit used by a PLC. Since the program is written based on
two rails and rungs between them, the written program is called a “ladder diagram”. This programming
language provides visually recognizable relationships between the input conditions and outputs.

000 001 500

Ladder example: “AND circuit” which turns on output relay 500 when both input relays 000 and 001 are ON

28
 Preprocessing

To allow stable inspections using image processing technology, it is crucial to minimize noise in images.
This chapter introduces preprocessing filters which reduce noise which cannot be eliminated only by
improving optical conditions.

32 What is Preprocessing?
To perform quality inspections or measurements using image processing, it is essential to first obtain images
of a high enough quality for their respective purposes. Images simply captured by a camera are not always
suitable for these purposes due to the type of light source, material of workpiece or image capturing
environment, which may result in an inconsistency in inspection results.
To avoid this problem, the captured images are sometimes processed (converted) using image filters in
accordance with the intended use of images.
This processing procedure is called image
preprocessing. Image preprocessing can
enhance the clarity of captured images, make
the elements required for applications
(shapes, colors, etc.) more distinct or
eliminate undesirable components (noise).
When preprocessing with filters, materials
such as image processing devices and PC
photo retouch software are used. There are
Example of image preprocessing many different types of filters, and it is
Filters eliminate noise to provide a clear image.
important to understand their characteristics to
select the optimum filter for the respective
applications.

33 Filter Processing Area

When an original image is preprocessed with filters, a large image could require long processing time.
For this reason, it is important to specify the areas to filter.

34 Filter Coefficients
The typical filters used for preprocessing consist of filter coefficients of
“3 × 3”, “9 × 9”, “16 × 16”, etc. With the “3 × 3” type, which is the most
commonly used, the image data for 3 horizontal and vertical pixels are
Example of filter coefficient
referenced, and the filter is applied to the pixel in the center.
Filter coefficient used for averaging
For example, if an image is composed of 320 horizontal pixels and of an image

240 vertical pixels, the image is filtered 76,800 times (320 × 240). 1 1 1
9 9 9
1 1 1
9 9 9
1 1 1
9 9 9

29
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

When the filter coefficient in the below figure is used, a preprocessed pixel value for each 3 × 3 area is
obtained by multiplying respective pixel values of nine pixels in the original image by 1/9 and then adding
them up. The filtered image can be obtained by repeating this calculation for each 3 × 3 area by shifting one
column at a time.
Example of calculation using filter coefficient

1 3 2 4 6 1 2 3 3 …

3 4 2 6 0 5 Filter 2 3 … …
processing
1 2 0 4 3 5 2 3 … …

1 2 3 4 3 4 … … … …

2 3 4 5 4 3

Pixel values Operator

1 ×1 + 1 ×3 + 1 ×2
1 1 1 9 9 9
1 3 2 9 9 9
+ 1 ×3 + 1 ×4 + 1 ×2
1 1 1 9 9 9
3 4 2 × 9 9 9
+ 1 ×1 + 1 ×2 + 1 ×0 = 2
1 1 1 9 9 9
1 2 0 9 9 9
Multiply pixel values by 1 and add up
Replace a pixel value for each pixel with an 9
the obtained values.
average of pixel values of surrounding pixels.

35 Typical Filters
The following section introduces major filters typically used for image preprocessing. In actual applications,
the combined use of multiple filters to obtain images which meet application needs has become a mainstream
method.

Expansion filter
This filter eliminates noise components (dirt) which are undesirable for image processing. It replaces the pixel
value of the center pixel in the 3 × 3 area with that of the highest value among nine pixels.
When an expansion filter is applied to a monochrome image, it will make all nine pixels white if any one of pixels
surrounding the center pixel in the 3 × 3 area is white.

Shrink filter
Expansion
A shrink filter is also effective to eliminate Replace a pixel value of 2 5 9
noise components. In contrast to the the center pixel with a

expansion filter, the shrink filter replaces the

maximum value of “9”. 3 9 3
2 5 9
pixel value of the center pixel in the 3 × 3 area
0 1 2
with that of the lowest value among nine 3 5 3
pixels. 2 5 9
When the shrink filter is applied to a 0 1 2
Shrink
monochrome image, it will make all nine pixels Replace a pixel value
3 0 3
black if any one of pixels surrounding the of the center pixel
with a minimum value 0 1 2
center pixel in the 3 × 3 area is black.
of “0”.

30
 Preprocessing

Even if fine noise components such as dirt are captured as part of an image, an expansion or shrink filter can
remove them to make the image clearer.

Example of filter
processing

Original image After applying an expansion filter After applying a shrink filter

Averaging filter
The filter improves image quality by smoothing (softening) shading on them. It averages pixel values of all
nine pixels including the one in the center. The impact of noise components can be also reduced by softening
images. The filter also helps position measurements such as the edge detection of workpieces or pattern
search stable.
To provide more natural smoothing, a weighted average filter can be used.

1 1 1
9 9 9
1 1 1
9 9 9
1 1 1
9 9 9

Original image Averaging

Median filter
The filter sorts pixel values of nine pixels and then assigns their median to the center pixel as its pixel value.
Unlike the averaging filter, it can reduce noise components without blurring images. The filter is effective
especially for removing noise which is caused by pixels of very different color and intensity from those in their
area.

Original image Median

31
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

Sobel filter
It is a type of filters which are effective for edge
extraction. It emphasizes the edges on images with
small contrast. In addition, the processed images
look more natural.
Besides the Sobel filter, there are more filters used for
the edge extraction, including Prewitt, Roberts and
Laplacian filters.
Original image Sobel

36 Other Preprocessing
Color extraction
It is processing to extract specified color elements from a captured color image.
The color video signals are converted into R (Red), G (Green) and B (Blue) digital data. The color extraction is
performed using these data.
This processing binary-converts each pixel into an extracted pixel or an unextracted one. For this reason, the
process not only ensures a stable extraction even for dark colors but also diminishes the amount of color
information data to be processed, eventually allowing high-speed post-processing.

Example of color extraction

Only the color element of green is extracted from the original image.

Gray-scale processing
The gray-scale processing, which is also known as shade-scale processing, is used to obtain the shade-scale
information for an image captured with a camera. This processing divides the shade gradation of pixel into
8 bits (= 256 levels) and utilizes all of these 256-level shade data. Therefore, this processing significantly
increases the accuracy in the detection of workpieces. It is very useful in the applications like the detection of
workpieces which are difficult to detect with monochromatic binary processing.

32
 Communication (Ethernet)

In image processing applications, there is a growing need for data storage not only for measurement
data but also images. This data is communicated between image processing devices and controllers to
be stored in memory or on HDDs. Recently, Ethernet is more often used for this communication.
Ethernet, which enables faster communication than RS-232C and USB, is suitable for the transmission
of large volumes of data, and it is expected to have further widespread use.

37 What is Ethernet?
Overview of Ethernet
Many different types of communication functions are used for control systems. One of them is LAN (Local
Area Network), which is the communications network connecting a group of computers to each other or a
computer to other devices including measurement instruments and sensors.
LAN is a communications network used within a relatively limited area such as a office or factory, and Ethernet
is widespread as major communication standard for LAN. In our daily life, Ethernet is used for the computer-
to-computer or PC-to-Internet connections.

Positioning of Ethernet among communication standards

The forms of communications networks are roughly divided into two groups: wired communication and
wireless communication. Ethernet is one of the wired communication technologies. The Ethernet network
basically uses metal cables. However, in the standard with a transfer rate of 100 Mbps, fiber optic cables are
used.
Wired communication is further categorized into serial communication and parallel communication according
to the number of communication wire. Serial communication requires a single wire while parallel
communication uses two or more. Ethernet is a type of serial communication like USB and IEEE1394
(FireWire).

Major communication standards by communication distance (Wired)

Very short distance (PAN) RS-232C, USB, SCSI, IEEE1394

Short distance (LAN)

Ethernet, PLC, RS-422
Medium distance (MAN)

Long distance (WAN) FTTH, DSL

Communication standards categorized by communication wire type

No. of communication wires

Serial communication Parallel communication

Metal cable Ethernet, USB, IEEE1394, RS-422 SCSI

Fiber optical cable FTTH, GbitEther

33
IMAGE PROCESSING USEFUL TIPS

38 Default Gateway
LAN is a network built up with multiple computers Default gateway is a “gate” to connect different networks to each other.
and peripheral devices which are interconnected
each other. In other words, it is a closed network PC D
since the devices on the network, which can Z.Z.Z.10

communicate each other within the network, cannot

connect to other networks or Internet. To PC B
X.X.X.20
communicate the devices on any other network
beyond the boundary of its own LAN, the device
must use a gateway, which means a “gate” or
“entrance”. Among gateways, a default gateway is a
Default gateway
typical “gate” used for the communication with PC A
server
PC C
external networks. Generally, a device called a router X.X.X.10 Y.Y.Y.10

plays a role of default gateway.

39 Ethernet Communication Cable

Ethernet uses a communication cable called a twisted pair cable, which is generally known as LAN cable.
There are roughly two types of LAN cables: straight cable and crossover cable. In addition, the cable
specifications differ depending on the transfer speed and transmission band. When setting up a new network,
it is necessary to select suitable LAN cables according to the types of devices to connect to each other and
the communication conditions.
To distinguish a straight cable from a crossover cable, check the connectors with its both ends placed side
by side. If the alignment of colors of jacketed wires is identical in both connectors, it is a straight cable.

Straight cable ................................................................................................................................................................................

It is a LAN cable used to connect a computer to a switch (like a hub) , a hub to a router, and so on.
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 Wires are aligned in3the same order 3
4 4 4 assigned to
at both ends. (Colors 4
5 5 5 in the same
respective wires stay 5
6 6 order.) 6 6
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8

Crossover cable .......................................................................................................................................................................

A crossover cable is used mainly for the following connections: computer to computer, hub to hub, router to
router and computer to router.
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 Wires are aligned in different orders
4 4 4 4 at both ends. (Colors assigned to
5 5 5 5 respective wires are left-right
6 6 6 6 reversed.)
7 7 7 7
8 8 8 8
Crossover wiring

34
 Communication (Ethernet)

40 IP Address
Overview of IP address
The devices on an Ethernet network communicate with each other using a protocol called TCP/IP. The same
goes with the access to the Internet. In these communications, each computer or peripheral device is
recognized with its IP address, which is an identification number assigned to each device. The IP address is
unique to each device to represent its location on the network.
The IP address consists of four sets of numbers from 0 to 255; for example “192.168.36.91”. In an internet
connection, no identical IP addresses can exist.
The total number of currently available IP addresses (IPv4) is approximately 4300 million, but the world is
expected to run out of available IP addresses under IPv4 due to the global spread of the Internet. To cope
with this problem, switching the protocol to IPv6 (340 trillion × 1 trillion × 1 trillion addresses) is now under
discussion.

Global IP address
Among the IP addresses, a global IP address is a unique address assigned to a communication device such
as a computer when it is connected to the Internet. The global IP address is assigned to devices to be
connected to a LAN and/or WAN (Wide Area Network).
This was originally controlled by an organization called the IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority), but
now the actual control work is performed by the ICANN.

Private IP address
The global IP address is needed for the connection to the Internet, whilst a private IP address is an address
assigned to a device on a LAN. The device uses the private IP address for the communication within the LAN,
but when it accesses external networks like the Internet, the private IP address is converted into its global IP
address.

41 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

This is a part of TCP/IP suite, representing a protocol (communication procedure) used with the IP which
defines an Internet address.
Although the UDP provides a high transfer speed, data sometimes goes missing during transfer since it does
not confirm whether data transfer was successfully performed or not. For this reason, it is not suitable for data
transmission, which requires high reliability. The UDP is used mainly for the streaming transmission of voices
and videos, where the dropping of some data packets does not cause serious problems.

42 Applications of Ethernet Communication in

Image Processing
Last years Ethernet communication is utilized in various ways in
image processing. The application of ethernet is not limited only to
the communication of measurement data between image
processing devices and external control instruments such as PCs
or PLCs, but nowadays is used for an increasing number of other
applications such as the output of all captured images including
NG images to an FTP or PC.

35
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