STPM

Physical
Chemistry

Introductory
Class

Prepared by:
Julian Voong
012-8906389
julianvoong@gmail.com

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Chapter 1: Atoms, Molecules and Stoichiometry
Fundamental Particles in Atom:
a) Atoms are made up of subatomic fundamental
particles known as protons, neutrons and electrons. Property Proton Electron Neutron
Symbol P e- n
b) Details of the fundamental particles are shown in table.
Relative charge +1 -1 0
c) Please note that: Actual Charge +1.6 x 10-19C -1.6 x 10-19C 0
atomic mass unit (a.m.u.) = relative atomic mass Relative mass 0.000543
(R.A.M) 1.007 1.009
(a.m.u.) (1/1840)
Approximate
Relative mass 1 0 1
(a.m.u.)
* 1 a.m.u = 1.66 x 10-27kg

Electric Field effect on Subatomic Particle: Magnetic Field effect on Subatomic Particle:

Proton, electrons and neutrons behave differently in a Proton, electrons and neutrons behave differently in a
electric field because of their relative masses and charges magnetic field because of their relative masses and charges
Beam of protons ➔ deflected towards negative pole Beam of protons ➔ deflected towards south pole
Beam of electrons ➔ deflected towards positive pole Beam of electrons ➔ deflected towards north pole
Beam of neutrons ➔ NOT affected by electric beam Beam of neutrons ➔ NOT affected by electric beam
Electrons are deflected to a greater extent than proton because they are much lighter

Proton Number:
Number of proton in the nucleus of an atom is called the Since atoms are equally neutral, there must be an equal
proton number, Z. number of protons and electrons in an atom, thus
Proton Number, Z = Number of proton = Number of Electrons

Nucleon Number:
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called
its nucleon number.
Nucleon number = number of proton + number of neutrons
We can write the symbol for the chlorine-35 atom as:
* proton number determines the identity of the atom ( e.g. 1 proton number = hydrogen, 3 proton number = lithium)

Isotopes:
Atoms of the same element that have the same
Elements Isotopes Proton No Nucleon No No of Neutrons
proton number but different nucleon number
Hydrogen 1 1 0
are called isotopes.
Hydrogen Deuterium 1 2 1
Tritium 1 3 2
Isotopes have the same chemical properties but 35Cl
different physical properties, eg deuterium has 17 35 18
Chlorine 37Cl 17 37 20
higher boiling point and density than hydrogen

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Stable Isotopes:
Many isotopes occur naturally, but artificial isotopes can be made by
bombarding an element with either neutrons or protons in an atomic reactor.
The stability of nuclei depends on the relative numbers of protons and
neutrons.
The dotted curve in figure shows the variation in neutrons with the same
number of protons for stable, non-radioactive isotopes.
The straight line corresponds to an equal number of neutrons and protons.

Unstable Isotopes:
If the nucleus of the isotope is unstable, it will emit radiation
Radiation Symbol Description
and the isotope is said to be radioactive.
Positively charged helium
Isotopes that undergo spontaneous radioactive decay are Alpha, α
nuclei
called unstable isotopes or radioisotopes. Beta, β High speed electron
Uranium , thorium and radium are unstable High energy Electromagnetic
Gamma, γ -
isotopes and are radioactive radiation

Questions on Relative Atomic Mass Calculation:

Write equation for the following radioactive decay reaction. Answer:

Identify X and Y.

Relative Isotopic Mass: Relative Atomic Mass:

The carbon-12 isotope is chose as the standard mass for Most elements exist as two or more isotopes.
comparing the masses of other isotopes. This is known as
the carbon scale and exactly. The relative atomic mass is the average mass of an
atom of the elements compared to 1/12 the mass of one
The relative isotopic mass of an isotope is defined as the atom of carbon-12. Its symbol is Ar.
ratio of the mass of one atom of the isotopes to 1/12 of
the mass of one atom of carbon-12. The relative atomic mass can be calculated as follows:
Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element =
Relative isotopic mass on the 12C scale =
mass of one atom of the isotope (% abundance + (% abundance + ……..
1/12 x mass of one atom of 12C x mass of isotope 1) x mass of isotope 2)
100
fsd

Questions on Relative Atomic Mass Calculation:

Chlorine gas is made up of two isotopes, 75% and Solution:

25% . Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

The naturally occurring isotopes of neon are 20Ne, 21Ne and Element No of proton No of electron No of neutron
22
Ne. The abundance of these isotopes in a sample of neon
20Ne
were found to be 20Ne (90.92%), 21Ne(0.26%) & 22Ne (8.82%)
21Ne
(i) Show in the form of a table the number of protons and
electrons and neutrons present in each isotopes 22Ne

(ii) Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon.

(ii) Relative atomic mass (Ar) of an neon:

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 The naturally occurring bromine consist of two isoptoes.
79
Br and 81Br. If the relative atomic mass of bromine is 79.9.
What is the relative abundance (in percentage) of the
isotopes 79Br in the naturally occurring bromine?

Solution:

Mass spectrometry:

The relative atomic mass of an element can be determined very accurately by using a mass spectrometer.
A mass spectrometer is an instrument that separates positive ions by their m/e ratios. It shows their masses &
abundance.
Magnesium mass spectrum above shows three lines shows that there are three isotopes of magnesium of m/e ratios of
24,25,26. The length of each vertical line gives a measure of the percentage abundance of each isotopes.

Component Function
Vaporisation Chamber Samples is vaporized and subsequently injected into ionization chamber
Vapour is bombarded with a stream of high-energy electrons which collide the
Ionisation chamber
atoms/molecules to form unipositive ions: X(g) + e- → X+(g) + 2e-
Acceleration Chamber The positive ions are accelerated by the negative plates (at P and Q) at a high, constant speed

The accelerated positive ions are deflected by magnetic field into circular paths according to
the m/e ratio. Ions with the same m/e ratio travels at the same length.
Deflection However (a) Ions with higher charge deflects more
(b) Ions with higher mass deflects less
*Stronger magnetic field causes greater deflection and vice versa

Positive ions with different m/e ratios will be deflected to the detector, which produce a flow
Detection of current, amplified and recorded as peaks called mass spectrum.
The relative height of each peak shows the relative abundance of the ions present.

Mass to charge ratio = relative mass *Usually ions produced are +1, thus: Eg ethanol mass = 46 =46
charge Relative mass = mass to charge ratio to charge ratio +1
* Occasionally, ionisation chamber will produce X2+ ion: X(g) + e- → X2+ + 3e-

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Mole And Avogadro’s Constant:
In chemistry, particles such as atoms, molecules or ions are The relationship between the number of moles of a
counted by moles. The amount of matter that contains as many sample and the number of moles (n) it contains, is
particles as the number of atom in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 given by the formula:
isotopes is called the mole. Abbreviation for mole is mol.
Number of moles = mass(g)
The number of atoms present in 12.0g of carbon-12 is called the Molar mass(gmol-1)
Avogadro’s constant. Since 12.0g of carbon-12 contains
Where molar mass = Ar or Mr in gmol-1
6.02x1023 carbon atoms, the:
Avogardro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023mol-1
The relationship between the number of moles in a
Symbol for Avogadro’s constant is L. sample and the number of atoms (or molecules ) it
contains, is given by the formula:
The relative atomic mass in grams of any elements contains
one mole of atoms. Similarly, the relative molecular mass in Number of atoms = L x number of
gram of an element or a compound contains a mole of or molecules moles
molecules. Thus: Where L = Avogardo’s constant

1 mole (24.3g) of magnesium contains 6.02x 1023 atoms of

magnesium

1 mole (16.0g) of methane (CH4)contains 6.02x 1023 molecules

of methane

Questions on Mole and Avogadro’s constant:

Sarin is a poisonous gas and acts as a nerve gas. The Solution:
formuila of sarin is:

Calculate the mass of phosphorus that is required to

prepare 35.0g of sarin
(Mr of sarin = 140.0, Ar of phosphorus = 31.0)

Mole And Avogadro’s Law:

The relationship between the volume of a gas and the number of moles From , we can infer that
of the gas is given by Avogadro’s law, which states that equal volumes the volume of a gas(V) is directly relate to
of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal the number of moles of gas (n), when
number of molecules. temperature and pressure are not changed.

In other words, under the same condition of temperature and pressure, We can write as:
all gas occupy the same volume and contain the same number of
molecules. V1 = V2 * V= volume, n= no of mole
n1 n1 * pressure and temperature = constant
At s.t.p. (273K & 101kPa) , 1 mole of any gas occupies 22.4dm3.
This volume is know as molar volume at STP. Hence, if the number of moles of a gas is
At room conditions (298K & 101kPa), 1 mole of any gas occupies 24.4dm3. double, the volume of gas is doubled as
This volume is known as the molar volume at room conditions. long as the temperature and pressure remain
constant.

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Questions on Mole Concept and Molar Volume:
When 100cm3 of a hydrocarbon Y was burnt
completely in 500cm3 of oxygen, 300cm3 of carbon
dioxide and 300cm3 of steam were produced.

The volume of oxygen remaining after the

combustion was 50cm3. What is the molecular
formula of hydrocarbon Y?

Solution:

Basic formulas involving calculation:

No of mole calculations:
No of Moles = M (moldm-3) x V (dm3)

No of Moles = ___mass (g)____ No of Moles = ___Volume (dm3)____

Molar mass (gmol-1) Molar mass (dm3mol-1)

Concentration unit interconversion:

Molarity (moldm-3) = Concentration (gdm-3) / Molar mass (gmol-1)

Concentration (gdm-3) = Molarity (moldm-3) x Molar mass (gmol-1)

Dilution calculation:
M1V1 = M2V2
1= before dilution 2= after dilution

Neutralization calculation:
MaVa = a a = acid
MbVb b b= alkali (base)

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Questions on calculations using Mole concept – Mass/Volume/Concentration:
1.544g of chloride of titanium was dissolved in water and treated with excess aqueous silver nitrate. The silver chloride
precipitate was filtered, washed, dried and weighed. The mass of the precipitate was 4.302g.
(a) Write an ionic equation for the precipitation of silver chloride.
(b) Calculate the amount of silver chloride (in mol) present in 4.302g.
(c) From (b), calculate the mass of chlorine present in the silver chloride.
(d) How many moles of titanium were present in 1.544g of titanium chloride?
(e) Hence, calculate the number of moles of chlorine that combines with 1 mole of titanium.
(f) Write an equation for the reaction between titanium chloride and silver nitrate.
(g) How many chloride ions are present in 500cm3 of 0.20moldm-3 of titanium chloride solution?
(h) If 50.0cm3 of 0.50moldm-3 of titanium chloride solution were treated with excess silver nitrate, calculate the maximum
mass of silver chloride formed.

Solution:

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Additional Information (Electronic Structure of Atoms Chapter 2) - Periodic table and Electronic Configuration:

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Electronic Configuration:
Classification Description
Shell A shell can have up to 4 different subshell, namely s,p,d and f subshell
Subshell Different subshell have different amount of orbitals
Orbitals 2 electrons will fit into 1 orbital
Electrons Each of the 2 electron in the orbital will have opposite spin

Each shell can hold a certain maximum no of electrons:

Orbitals Electrons
Subshell
No of orbitals No of electron per subshell Max no of electron per shell
s 1 2
p 3 6
32
d 5 10
f 7 14

Z Element Configuration Z Element Configuration

1 H 1s1 11 Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
2 He 1s2 12 Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3 Li 1s2 2s1 13 Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Element 1-20 4 Be 1s2 2s2 14 Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Electronic 5 B 1s2 2s2 2p1 15 P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
configuration 6 C 1s2 2s2 2p2 16 S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
7 N 1s2 2s2 2p3 17 Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
8 O 1s2 2s2 2p4 18 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
9 F 1s2 2s2 2p5 19 K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
10 Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6 20 Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Fds

There are 3 rules involved in the filling of orbitals. They are:

Rules/Principle Statement

Aufbau’s Principle Electron fill up from the lowest energy

orbital first
Aufbau = building up

Pauli’s Exclusion principle Each orbital can hold only 2 electrons

No electrons can have the same set of with opposite spin
quantum numbers

Hund’s Rule No pairing of electrons in orbitals of the

Greatest parallel spin (half filled) and same energy until they are singly
fully filled ➔ greatest stability occupied

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Transition Element Electronic Configuration:

Z Symbol Electronic Configuration Z Symbol Electronic Configuration

21 Sc 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2 26 Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
22 Ti 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2 27 Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
23 V 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2 28 Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
24 Cr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1 29 Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
25 Mn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2 30 Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
dsf

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compiled in the notes.

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