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Chapter 9

DRIVESHAFT AND
UNIVERSAL JOINT THEORY

OBJECTIVES
After studying Chapter 9, the reader should be able to: 4. Identify the different types of U-joints and CV joints.
5. Identify where each U-joint and CV joint style is used.
1. Identify the parts of RWD and FWD driveshafts. 6. Explain the requirements for good driveshaft operation.
2. Name the purpose for each driveshaft part.
3. Explain the operation of a U-joint and CV joint.

KEY TERMS
Ball and trunnion joint (p. 243) Hooke joint (p. 239)
Brinelling (p. 241) Hotchkiss (p. 248)
Cardan joint (p. 239) Inboard joint (p. 239)
Circlip (p. 250) Lash (p. 245)
Constant-velocity (CV) joint (p. 239) Outboard joint (p. 239)
Countertrack (p. 245) Phasing (p. 240)
Cross and yoke joint (p. 239) Plunge joint (p. 239)
Cross groove joint (p. 246) Rzeppa joint (p. 245)
Crosstrack (p. 245) Slip joint (p. 239)
Double-Cardan joint (p. 245) Slip yoke (p. 239)
Double-offset joint (p. 247) Swage (p. 242)
Driveline (p. 239) Torque tube (p. 248)
Driveshaft (p. 248) Tripod joint (p. 246)
Fixed joint (p. 239) Tripod tulip joint (p. 247)
Grease (p. 252) Universal joint (U-joint) (p. 239)
Halfshaft (p. 239)

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 239

FIGURE 9-1 A RWD vehicle uses a driveshaft to connect the transmis- FIGURE 9-2 A driveshaft transfers power to an axle that moves up
sion to the rear axle (a). A FWD vehicle uses two driveshafts to connect the and down (a).To do this,the U-joints must change angle and the driveshaft must
transaxle to the front wheels (b). change length or move in or out of the transmission (b).

the outer, or outboard, end of the shaft (Figure 9-3). The

INTRODUCTION inboard joint (i.e., inner joint) is a plunge joint that can
change length. The outboard joint (i.e., outer joint) is a fixed
A RWD vehicle has one driveshaft connecting the transmis-
joint that does not change length. In order to function prop-
sion to the rear drive axle assembly; a FWD vehicle has two
erly, the bending portion of this joint must stay in line with the
driveshafts that connect the transaxle to both front wheels
vehicles steering axis.
(Figure 9-1). Most driveshafts are metal tubes or shafts with ei-
ther a universal joint (U-joint) or constant-velocity (CV)
joint at each end. RWD driveshafts are often called drive- UNIVERSAL JOINTS
lines, propeller shafts, or prop shafts. FWD driveshafts and
the shafts connecting the rear drive wheel to the gear assem- The most common style of U-joint is the Hooke or Cardan
bly of independent rear suspension (IRS) are commonly called joint. It is also called a cross and yoke joint. This joint uses
halfshafts or side shafts. two yokes that are connected by a cross, and the cross has a
Most RWD driveshafts use a simple cross and yoke style needle bearing assembly at each arm, or trunnion, where it
U-joint that allows the shaft angle to change while spinning connects to the yoke (Figure 9-4). This arrangement usually al-
and transmitting power. The angle change is necessary be- lows up to a 15° angle change. The cross, also called a spider,
cause of the rear axle’s movement relative to the vehicle body pivots in each yoke when the shaft runs at an angle. This piv-
each time a bump in the road is encountered (Figure 9-2). The oting action allows the shaft to bend, but it also creates speed
vertical movement of the axle causes the transmission-to-drive fluctuation.
axle distance to change. A slip joint compensates for this The speed of a spinning object varies with its diameter.
length change. When the axle moves upward, the shaft Speed can be measured in two ways: by the revolutions per
must become shorter. In most cases, the slip joint is where the minute (rpm) and by the actual velocity of a given part. The
U-joint slip yoke enters the transmission; in a few cars and actual velocity is determined by the rpm and the radius, or dis-
many trucks, a slip joint is built into the shaft. tance from the center of rotation. Figure 9-5 illustrates how a
FWD driveshafts encounter the same problems as a RWD wheel spinning at 1000 rpm can have a brake drum surface
driveshaft; in addition, they must allow the front wheels to moving at 2880 feet per minute (fpm) [878 meters per minute
steer sharply for turns. These sharp angles require CV joints at (mpm)], a wheel rim moving at 3927 fpm (1197 mpm), and a
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240 CHAPTER 9

YOKE

Up to 20º CROSS
Operating Angles YOKE
(a)
Right Driveshaft Up to 40º
Operating Angles

CROSS
Left Driveshaft YOKE YOKE
Specially Designed Constant
Velocity Universal Joints
BEARING IN YOKE
(b)

SHAFT
CAP AND NEEDLE
SEAL RETAINER
BEARINGS
SEAL

SEAL AND
RETAINER
Plunging RETAINER
Inboard CV SLIP YOKE
Joint CROSS
RETAINER
SEAL RETAINER

SEAL
CAP AND NEEDLE RETAINER
BEARINGS CAP AND NEEDLE
BEARINGS
FIGURE 9-3 When the front wheels of a FWD vehicle move up or
(c)
down,the CV joints must change angle and length;the outer CV joint must also
change angle as the vehicle is steered. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company) FIGURE 9-4 A simple Cardan U-joint (a & b) and a disassembled Car-
don U-joint (c) as used in many RWD driveshafts. (c is courtesy of Daimler-
Chrysler Corporation)
tire tread moving at 7854 fpm (2934 mpm)—all at the same
time. This relates to a U-joint in that the driving plane of one
yoke and the driven plane of the other yoke change radius
twice per revolution (Figure 9-6). This results in two periods
in which the driven yoke will speed up and two periods in
which it will slow down, or two speed fluctuations per revo-
lution. This is an angle-related speed fluctuation; a greater an-
gle will generate a greater speed fluctuation (Figure 9-7).
These velocity changes usually do not create a problem
because normally two joints are used on a shaft, so that one
joint will cancel out the other. It just needs to generate an
equal but opposite speed fluctuation. This is done by placing
one joint’s driving motion exactly 90° (one-quarter turn) be-
hind the other, which is called phasing. Also, the operating
angle of each joint is kept equal (Figure 9-8). When done cor-
rectly, the leading joint causes the shaft to increase speed. The FIGURE 9-5 This wheel is spinning at 1000 rpm, so all the parts are
trailing joint will slow the speed down by the same amount, so rotating at the same speed; but because of their different diameters, the parts
an even, steady spinning motion arrives at the rear axle drive are traveling at different velocities.

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 241

DRIVESHAFT ANGLE
U-JOINT ANGLE PINION SHAFT ANGLE

TRANSMISSION
SHAFT ANGLE U- JOINT ANGLE

FIGURE 9-8 A driveshaft must have the two U-joints operating at

the same angle to eliminate vibrations.Also note that the two driveshaft yokes
are parallel and in phase.

FIGURE 9-6 The power flow through a Cardan U-joint is from one
yoke,through the cross,and out the other yoke (a).As the joint rotates,the radii
of the driving and driven yokes change (b).
FIGURE 9-9 This journal on a U-joint cross shows a brinelling type of
Cardan or Universal Joint at 30º Shaft Angle wear pattern. Note the impression left by the bearing needles. (Courtesy of
One Revolution Dana Corporation)
Driven Shaft

30º
1.2
cups. Lack of needle movement on the cross will cause a wear
1.1
Driving 1
pattern called brinelling (Figure 9-9).
Shaft
.9
.8
0º 90º 180º 270º 360º
Construction
Degrees
Angular Velocity Constant Angular
Variations of Velocity of The yokes of a Cardan U-joint are usually made of forged steel
Driven Shaft Driving Shaft and are either welded onto the shaft, made as part of the slip
90º yoke that slides over the transmission shaft, or made as part of
Driven Shaft the flange of the axle pinion shaft (Figure 9-10). The bearing
cups are normally pressed into the bearing bosses of the first
180º 0º
two styles, secured to the axle flange with U-bolts, or bolted
directly to the flange using wing-style cups (Figure 9-11).
270º Driving Shaft
The U-joint cross is also forged steel and has a smooth
FIGURE 9-7 This chart illustrates the velocity variation through a journal for each of the bearing surfaces and a ground bearing
Cardan U-joint operating at a 30° angle. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company) surface at the very ends (Figure 9-12). The critical dimensions
for a cross are also shown in the illustration. Note that the
length of the cross is a critical dimension. This distance pro-
pinion shaft. If the joints get out of phase or the operating an- vides a slight clearance at the inner ends of the bearing cups
gles become unequal, an annoying vibration usually results. so that the cross will be centered to the yokes, which, in turn,
As the running angle of a U-joint increases, the efficiency center the two shafts to each other.
will decrease, because of the power lost to friction in the joint. The bearing cups are located in the yokes so that the cross
In contrast, a U-joint should never be run perfectly straight. and the two yokes will be centered to each other. They are
The needle bearings need to move so that they can wear held in this location by a retaining ring, a plastic intrusion, or
evenly against the bearing journals of the cross and inside the swaging. The retaining ring is in a groove, either at the ends

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242 CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-12 The critical dimensions of a cross with and without

BEARING PLATE bearing cups. JL, joint length; JD, trunnion diameter; BD, bearing diameter.
DESIGN (Courtesy of NEAPCO)
SNAP RING
DESIGN

U-BOLT DESIGN Plastic Injection

BEARING STRAP
DESIGN

FIGURE 9-10 Four styles of yokes used with Cardan U-joints. (Cour-
tesy of Dana Corporation)
(c)

(d)

FIGURE 9-13 The most common methods of retaining the bearing

cup in a yoke are by an inner retaining ring (a), an outer retaining ring (b), or
plastic injection (c). In some joints the cups are retained by swaging the cup or
a retainer in place (d). (a and b are courtesy of NEAPCO)

Tech
Tip
FIGURE 9-11 Four styles of bearing cups used with Cardan U-joints. U-joints with an outside retainer ring are some-
The round bearing cup (at top with U-bolt) is the most common. (Courtesy of times referred to as Spicer-style joints, whereas
NEAPCO) inboard retainer joints are sometimes called Cleveland-,
Detroit-, or mechanics-style U-joints. The critical dimen-
sions of the joint vary in these different joint styles.
of the bores in the yoke for the outside lockup style of joint or
in the bearing cup inside of the yoke for the inside lockup style
of joint (Figure 9-13). sheared when the joint is disassembled, and the U-joint is re-
Removal of the retaining ring allows the joint to be disas- placed with one having an inside lockup style of bearing cups
sembled. When a plastic intrusion is used, the plastic is and retaining rings. A few manufacturers swage (upset or de-

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 243

Superior Case Crowned

Hardening: Bearing Race
Inside and Out 2-Zerks I.D.:
Standard: Minimizes Brinnel-
Improves and ing by Distributing Tapered Thrust
One-Way Check
Simplifies Load Evenly under Pad:
Valve:
Maintenance Varying Angles Minimizes End
Prevents Lubricant
Galling and Flaking
Drainback

Truncated
Bearing Plate:
Offers Closer
Controlled
Tolerances and
Displays Part
Production Date

Trunnion "Long-Life"
Grooves: Trunnion
Improve Lubricant Conical End Forged Journal Seals:
Flow to Needles Rollers: Cross: Withstand
Offer Superior Needle Made from Alloy Heat, Retain
Bearing Retention Steel Carburized Lubrication at Any
and Hardened Speed and Exclude
to Rc 59-64 Harmful
Surface Hardness Contaminants

FIGURE 9-14 Some U-joint crosses are drilled and include a zerk fitting to lubricate the bearings;note that this heavy-duty joint uses two zerk fittings.Also
note the seal between the bearing cup and cross to retain the grease in the bearing. (Courtesy of Dana Corporation)

form) the yokes to lock the bearing cups in place, and these Some driveshafts include a rubber coupling (Figure 9-16).
joints normally cannot be rebuilt in the field. When a plastic This is a doughnut-shaped rubber ring that is bolted to yokes
intrusion or swaging is used to secure the bearing cups, the on the driving and driven shafts. The coupling is used to
manufacturer can assemble the joint and correct any runout or dampen torsional vibrations and reduce noise, vibration, and
off-center problems before locking the bearing cups in place. driveline shock.
The bearing cups are lubricated with grease and use a seal
to keep the grease in and dirt and moisture out. Some crosses
include a zerk (grease) fitting so that the joint can be lubri- CONSTANT-VELOCITY
cated periodically (Figure 9-14). JOINTS
U-Joint Variations There are several types of CV joints used for power transmis-
sion where constant velocity is necessary or desirable. In RWD
Before the mid-1960s, Chrysler Corporation vehicles used a vehicles they are used where comfort, quietness, and smooth-
ball and trunnion style of U-joint at one or both ends of the ness of ride are important. They can be found on some 4WD
driveshaft. This type of joint transmits power through a trun- vehicles, where sharp operating angles result from short-
nion pin that has a ball at each end; a set of needle bearings is wheelbase or high-ride height. They are also used on FWD ve-
used to allow easy ball rotation (Figure 9-15). The balls fit into hicles because of the large angle change required at the
two long grooves, or raceways, in the housing. This allows the outboard joint. The outboard joint must have enough angular
housing to move lengthwise over the pin and balls and to pivot movement to allow for all possible steering and suspension
in the directions needed for U-joint action. In one plane, the travel. Because CV joints are used, it is not necessary to keep
housing is centered by the balls; in the other plane, it is cen- the inboard and outboard operating angle equal.
tered by the centering buttons at the ends of the pin. This joint There are several ways of obtaining constant velocity in a
is packed with lubricant and sealed by the bellows-style boot. single joint. The double-Cardan joint is simply two Cardan

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244 CHAPTER 9

Centering Button
Button Spring

Ball and Rollers

Grease Cover Clamp

Gasket Clamp
Thrust Washer Boot

Pin

Nut
Thrust Washer Body
Propeller Shaft
Ball and Rollers
Lockwasher
Shaft Bolt Button Spring

Centering Button

FIGURE 9-15 Ball and trunnion U-joint;the trunnion pin is pressed through the hole at the end of the propeller shaft. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

RUBBER
COUPLING
HALF
ROUND
COUPLING YOKE
SHAFT
DRIVESHAFT
ASSEMBLY

NUT

CENTER
BEARING
ASSEMBLY

FIGURE 9-16 This driveshaft includes a rubber coupling to dampen torsional vibrations. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

joints built together in phase with a centering mechanism that sive assemblies with very critical dimensions and tolerances,
keeps the joints at the same operating angles. The tripod joint so they are enclosed in a bellows-type boot with a special lu-
uses three driving balls kept to a fairly tight radius. The Rzeppa bricant (Figure 9-17). Originally, the boots were made from
joint uses six balls to produce a driving plane that bisects the neoprene rubber. This material works well except that it will
operating angle. harden over time and begin to crack and break up. High tem-
A CV joint, except for the double-Cardan joint, must be peratures will shorten its life considerably. Silicone compound
kept in a clean, well-lubricated environment. These are expen- boots are used for high temperature conditions. These boots

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 245

Drive Driven
Plane Plane
Cage Outer
Race
Inner
Race

Drive Driven

(a) Bisecting
Plane

FIGURE 9-17 To keep it clean and full of grease,a CV joint uses a rub-
ber boot held in place by a pair of clamps. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

COUPLING YOKE
(b)
CENTERING BALL
FIGURE 9-19 Cutaway (a) and exploded (b) view of a Rzeppa CV
joint. This is the most common type of fixed, outboard joint. (a is courtesy of
Ford Motor Company; b is courtesy of Moog Automotive)

consists of an inner race, six steel balls, a cage, and an outer

race (Figure 9-19). The inner and outer races have grooves or
raceways in which the balls operate, and these grooves are
curved to match the operating radius of the balls. The balls, all
FIGURE 9-18 A double-cardan CV joint uses a coupling yoke and of which are aligned by the cage, transfer power between the
centering ball to join the two crosses and shafts. The spring-loaded centering two races, and when the vehicle turns, the balls will seek an
ball keeps halves operating at the same angle. operating plane that bisects the operating angle. This joint can
operate through a range of about 45°–22.5° to each side of the
straight ahead. Rzeppa CV joints were used on the 1936 FWD
can be identified by a harder and more slippery feel and shiny Cord and were called ball-type U-joints.
color, other than dull black. Silicone boots are more difficult to
seal against the metal CV joint or driveshaft and require spe-
cial clamps or retaining rings.
Countertrack
The Countertrack is a newly designed fixed joint from GKN
Double-Cardan Joint Driveline. It promises to be 8% smaller and 15% lighter than
present fixed joints while having less internal lash and a
The double-Cardan joint is used in the driveshaft of larger sharper steering angle, up to 52°. The most noticeable feature
RWD passenger vehicles, the rear driveshaft of short-wheel- of this joint, other than the smaller size, is that it uses eight
base 4WD vehicles, and the front driveshaft of some 4WD balls and ball tracks (Figure 9-20). The shape of the ball tracks
pickups. It is simply two Cardan joints built as a single assem- has been changed slightly. Like other CV joints, Countertrack
bly (Figure 9-18). The center, connecting yoke transmits joints will also be used on RWD driveshafts.
power from the leading cross to the trailing cross and phases
these two 90° apart. There is a spring-loaded centering mech- Crosstrack
anism to ensure that the centerlines of the input and output
shafts will intersect at the center of the center yoke. This en- The Crosstrack is a newly designed plunge joint from GKN
sures that the operating angles of the two halves will be equal. Driveline with similar features to the Countertrack joint. A
unique feature of this joint is that half of the inner and outer
Rzeppa Joint race ball tracks are straight while half of them run at an angle
(Figure 9-21).
This design is the most popular outboard CV joint used in The reduced diameter of these joints should reduce the
FWD vehicles. It is a fixed joint, which means that it will not chance of vibrations and NVH problems while the reduced
change length. The Rzeppa (pronounced “Sheppa”) joint sizes should give us lighter FWD driveshafts.

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246 CHAPTER 9

OPPOSED SET OF TRACKS S-SHAPE TRACKS

(a)

FIGURE 9-20 A Countertrack CV joint uses eight balls and has a

slightly smaller diameter (a).The uniquely shaped ball grooves allow a sharper SX-SIDESHAFT FIXED JOINT
vehicle radius (b). (Courtesy of GKN Driveline) (b)

FIGURE 9-22 Tripod CV joint.This is a fixed, outboard joint. (Cour-

SETS OF ANGLED TRACKS + SETS OF STRAIGHT TRACKS
tesy of Ford Motor Company)

(a)

FIGURE 9-23 Cross groove CV joint; this is a plunging CV joint.

(Courtesy of Moog Automotive)

(b)
Cross Groove Joint
FIGURE 9-21 A Crosstrack CV joint uses eight drive balls that run
straight and angled tracks (a & b). (Courtesy of GKN Driveline) The cross groove joint is a plunge joint—the inner race can
move sideways relative to the outer race to allow the shaft to
Tripod Joint change length as well as to make an angle change. It resem-
bles a shortened Rzeppa joint except that the raceways are an-
The tripod joint is a fixed joint and has limited use as the out- gled, not parallel. It consists of an inner race, six steel balls, a
board joint of some FWD vehicles manufactured in France. It cage, and an outer race (Figure 9-23). This joint is used as an
drives through three steel balls fitted between the shaft, which inner joint on FWD shafts and an inner or outer joint on rear
has three raceways and an outer housing (Figure 9-22). halfshafts of RWD vehicles.

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 247

Double-Offset Joint tabs or washers that are welded to the shaft. Many drive-
shafts have a cardboard tube that is fitted snugly inside the
The double-offset joint is another plunge joint commonly tube. This dampens the ringing noise if it is struck by a rock
used as the inner joint on FWD shafts. It consists of an inner or other hard object. A few driveshafts include a rubber tor-
race, six steel balls, a cage, and an outer race (Figure 9-24). Ex- sional damper (Figure 9-27). These are constructed with two
cept for the outer race, which is relatively long and straight, tubes that have a series of rubber rings pressed between
this joint resembles a Rzeppa joint. them. The rubber rings are squeezed tightly enough to trans-
mit torque and, at the same time, dampen torsional vibra-
tions that might cause noise.
Tripod Tulip Joint Some driveshafts have a slip joint in the shaft. The slip
joint is normally an internal and external spline that is lubri-
The tripod tulip joint is popular plunge joint commonly used cated with grease and sealed to keep dirt out (Figure 9-28).
as the inner joint on FWD shafts. It resembles the older ball Some slip joints use special coatings or bearings so that they
and trunnion joint except that it uses three driving balls. This can change length while loaded without binding.
joint consists of the trunnion assembly (also called a spider)
and the tulip, which is the outer housing with three raceways
(Figure 9-25). There are a variety of tulip housing shapes, de-
pending on the manufacturer: cylindrical joints, cylindrical
ones with open grooves, and several styles of elongated trian-
gular shapes. The trunnion assembly has three trunnion pins,
each with a set of needle bearings and a ball.

COATED BEARINGS
RWD DRIVESHAFTS AND SNAP RINGS

A RWD driveshaft is usually a thin steel tube between 2 and

3 in. (51 to 76 mm) in diameter with a wall thickness of about
1/16 in. (1.6 mm). In cases where weight is critical, alu-
minum tubing or a composite of fiberglass or graphite fibers
and plastic resin is used. A steel shaft is the least expensive and
probably the most durable (Figure 9-26).
The U-joint yokes are welded in phase with each other
at the ends of the tubing to form the driveshaft, and then this
assembly is balanced. Balance weights appear as small metal ALUMINUM

(a)

FIGURE 9-24 Double-offset CV joint; this is a plunging CV joint GRAPHITE

commonly used at the inboard end of the driveshaft.
(Courtesy of Moog Automotive)

ALUMINUM

(b)
FIGURE 9-26 Where weight is a critical factor, aluminum yokes are
welded onto aluminum tubing (a).Where weight,noise,or special environment
FIGURE 9-25 Tripod tulip joint; this is a common plunging,inboard conditions warrant it, a carbon graphite is used for the center of the tube (b).
CV joint. (Courtesy of Moog Automotive) (a and b are courtesy of Dana Corporation)

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248 CHAPTER 9

Rubber Rings

HOTCHKISS
DESIGN

FIGURE 9-27 Some driveshafts are two pieces with a series of rub- (a)
ber rings squeezed between them to reduce noise and torsional vibrations.
(Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

TORQUE TUBE
DESIGN

(b)

FIGURE 9-29 Most driveshafts are of the open Hotchkiss type with
two U-joints (a). Some vehicles use torque tube driveshafts with only one U-
joint and the shaft enclosed inside the torque tube (b).
FIGURE 9-28 Some driveshafts include a slip joint to allow the shaft
to change length. (Courtesy of Dana Corporation)

Design Types
Almost every RWD vehicle uses a Hotchkiss style of
driveshaft (Figure 9-29). This is a traditional shaft that runs
in the open and has a U-joint at each end. At one time, several
manufacturers used a torque tube driveshaft to help control
the position of the rear axle. This driveshaft is a solid steel
shaft, about 1 to 1 1/2 in. (25 to 38 mm) in diameter, which
is enclosed inside the torque tube. The shaft couples directly
to the rear axle drive pinion shaft and has a U-joint at the trans-
mission. The torque tube is bolted solidly to the rear axle hous-
ing and has a rounded connection around the U-joint so that FIGURE 9-30 When axle torque rotates the tire to move the vehi-
it can pivot where it connects to the transmission. cle,an equal amount of torque tries to rotate the axle housing in the opposite
The purpose of a torque tube is to prevent the rear axle direction.
housing from revolving in reaction to the torque needed to
turn the drive wheels during acceleration or to retard them
during braking (Figure 9-30). In a Hotchkiss design, these tractor will lift in reaction to the rear axle torque. The left front
forces are controlled by leaf springs or rear axle control arms. will lift higher than the right in reaction to the driveshaft
The torque reaction can be seen by watching a short-wheel- torque. Remember that for every physical action, there will be
base semitruck tractor pull a heavily loaded trailer from a an equal and opposite reaction. To stop this rear axle wrap-up,
standing start. As the clutch is engaged, the front end of the some manufacturers bolt a long torque arm to the axle hous-

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 249

ing, with the forward end attached to the transmission

A B through a rubber bushing.
C Some vehicles use a two-piece driveshaft assembly that
consists of two shafts, three U-joints, and a center bearing
CENTER BEARING
(Figure 9-31). The center bearing is needed to keep the shaft
from whipping like a child’s skipping rope. The front U-joint
is positioned almost straight so that it does not generate a
SUPPORT speed fluctuation, and the other two joints are phased to pre-
BRACKET vent vibration.
Halfshafts and the front driveshaft of 4WD vehicles are
usually versions of a Hotchkiss shaft (Figure 9-32). In some
cases, CV joints are used.

CENTER
BEARING
FWD DRIVESHAFTS
Most FWD driveshafts are mounted so that the splined end of
HEAT the inboard joint connects with the axle gear inside the differ-
D SHIELD ential case and the splined end of the outboard joint connects
PROPELLER FW
with the drive hub of the front wheel (Figure 9-33). Some de-
SHAFT
signs bolt the inboard joint to a flange extending from the dif-
FIGURE 9-31 Some vehicles use a two-piece driveshaft with a ferential axle gear. Remember that a FWD driveshaft turns
center bearing to keep the front shaft aligned. (Courtesy of DaimlerChrysler slower (axle shaft speed) relative to a RWD driveshaft but car-
Corporation) ries three to four times the torque.

Top View

Rear View

(b)
FIGURE 9-32 A RWD vehicle with IRS secures the center carrier section of the drive axle to the vehicle frame (a).Two halfshafts are used to transmit the
torque to the wheels (b). (b is courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

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250 CHAPTER 9

Rzeppa
Outboard
CV Joint

Rzeppa
Inboard
CV Joint

FIGURE 9-33 Most FWD driveshafts are solid steel and splined at
each end to connect with the CV joints. (Courtesy of Ford Motor Company)

In most cases, the inboard joint is held in place by a

circlip near the end of the splines, where it enters the axle
gear. A circlip resembles a snap ring except that it has a
rounded, wirelike cross section and that it remains in place on
Circlip
the shaft. A circlip is self-releasing when a strong side pull is
exerted against it (Figure 9-34). Some early FWD vehicles se- Snap Ring
cured the inner CV joint to the differential side gear using a
snap ring. (b) (c)
The outboard CV joint is secured to the drive hub with a
nut, which is normally torque-tightened and locked in place.
If this nut were to come loose, there is a strong possibility that
the drive hub and wheel would fall off. This is a fixed joint, so
it does not change length. The bending point of the joint must
stay in alignment with the steering axis. This is the plane
where the steering knuckle pivots as the vehicle is steered.
The CV joints are secured to the splined ends of the dri-
veshaft by either circlips, snap rings, or plastic clips, with cir-
clips being the most common. The shaft itself is often a solid,
round bar of steel. Most FWD driveshafts and CV joints can be
disassembled to service the joints or boots.
Some driveshafts include a torsional damper. This unit FIGURE 9-34 The CV joint is retained on the driveshaft by either a
consists of a split two-piece shaft with a rubber bushing that circlip or a snap ring (a). A circlip self-engages and self-releases (b); a snap ring
connects the two pieces (Figure 9-35). Torsional dampers are requires a tool for removal (c); some newer CV joints use a plastic retainer (d).
designed to absorb the impact that results from drivetrain lash (a is courtesy of NEAPCO;b and c are courtesy of Perfect Circle;d is courtesy of Moog
when a vehicle with an automatic transmission is shifted into Automotive)
gear from neutral or when the clutch is let out in a manual
transmission.
Many vehicles with antilock braking systems (ABS)
mount a toothed sensor ring around the outboard joint and po-
sition the wheel speed sensor on the steering knuckle right
next to the sensor ring (Figure 9-36). The sensor ring is serv-
iceable and can be removed and replaced, if necessary. If re-
placing a CV joint, the new joint must have a sensor ring that
matches the old one and it must be in the correct location.

Torque Steer
Torque steer is a condition that causes a FWD vehicle to pull FIGURE 9-35 Some FWD driveshafts include a rubber damper to re-
to the right during hard acceleration. It is a throttle-sensitive duce torsional vibrations. (Courtesy of Perfect Circle)

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 251

Sensor in the time that it takes for the torque to reach that drive
Ring wheel, and this lag causes the steering action. Manufacturers
can do two things to reduce torque steer. One method is to
make the longer shaft in two pieces so that its longer part will
be equal to the length of the left shaft (Figure 9-37). A two-
piece shaft requires an additional U-joint and a center bearing
to prevent whipping. The other method is to make the longer
shaft from larger-diameter tubing, which has a greater resist-
ance to twisting.
Torque steer can also be caused by the rolling diameter of
Anti-Lock the drive tires. Unequal diameter will cause the vehicle to steer
Brake Sensor toward the tire with the smallest diameter. Tire inflation pres-
sure, internal construction, and tread wear can contribute to
FIGURE 9-36 This CV joint includes a speed sensor ring for ABS. this problem. Swapping the tires side-to-side is the standard test
(Courtesy of Ford Motor Company) for this; if the torque steer goes in the opposite direction after
the swap, the tires are at fault. Another factor that can cause
torque steer is the angle of the outboard CV joint. A greater op-
erating angle will cause an increased tendency for the tire to
condition in that the vehicle will drive normally under light “toe-in”—steer toward the center of the vehicle. Sharper angles
throttle and pull only under heavy throttle. Because the differ- are less efficient and absorb more torque within the joint. This
ential is to the left of the vehicle’s center, torque steer is caused effect is normally canceled out by the opposite side if the CV
by the right driveshaft being longer than the left one. When joint operating angles are equal. Sharper angles are less efficient
the torque reaches the two shafts, the longer one will have a and friction absorbs more torque within the joint. There will be
greater tendency to twist. Any twisting will cause a slight lag less torque delivered to the wheel.

FIGURE 9-37 One method of reducing torque steer is to use two equal-length driveshafts,requiring an additional shaft and support bearing (a). (a is cour-
tesy of Ford Motor Company)

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252 CHAPTER 9

FIGURE 9-37 (Continued) A second method is to make the longer shaft from a larger-diameter material (b). (b is courtesy of DaimlerChrysler Corporation)

GREASE AND OTHER ance and high-to-low temperature characteristics. Grease gets
LUBRICANTS its characteristic thickness from a thickener; lithium soap is
commonly used as a thickener for automotive grease. Other
CV and U-joints are lubricated by grease packed in the moving compounds like complex calcium soap, complex lithium soap,
parts of the joints. Grease is about 90 percent oil—either nat- and polyurea provide better high-temperature performance.
ural mineral (petroleum) oil or synthetic oil. Similar to vari- Furthermore, additives can be included to further inhibit oxi-
eties of gear oils, mineral oil–based grease is less expensive, dation, prevent rust and corrosion, and improve the antiwear
whereas synthetic oil–based grease has better oxidation resist- characteristics.

Summary

1. A RWD driveshaft has two Cardan U-joints and a slip joint. 4. Long RWD driveshafts use three U-joints with a center
2. FWD vehicle use two driveshafts, and each has two CV bearing.
joints. The outboard CV joint is a fixed joint, and the in- 5. U-joints and CV joints must have the correct amount of
board joint is a plunge joint. the proper grease.
3. RWD driveshafts must have the two U-joints in the proper
plane and both joints must have the same operating angle.

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Driveshaft and Universal Joint Theory 253

Review Questions

1. A ___________ ___________ ___________ vehicle typically 9. Name six types of constant-velocity (CV) joints.
has one driveshaft and a ___________ ___________ a. ___________
___________ vehicle has two driveshafts.
b. ___________
2. Most rear-wheel-drive vehicles use ___________ c. ___________ ___________
___________ to allow the shaft angle to change.
d. ___________ ___________
3. Most front-wheel-drive vehicles use ___________ e. ___________ ___________
___________ ___________ to allow the shaft angle to change.
f. ___________ ___________
4. Lack of needle bearing movement in a universal joint will cause
10. Of the six CV joints listed in question 9, which is most com-
a wear pattern known as ___________.
monly used as an outboard joint? ___________
5. Three common methods for securing the universal cups in the
11. Of the six CV joints listed in question 9, which is most com-
driveshaft yoke are
monly used as an inboard joint? ___________ ___________
a. ___________ ___________
12. In most cases, the inboard CV joint is held in place by a
b. ___________ ___________
___________ near the end of the splines.
c. ___________
13. The outboard CV joint is secured to the drive hub with a
6. Driveshafts can have ___________ liners or ___________ ___________.
rings inserted into them to reduce noise.
14. The purpose of a ___________ ___________ is to prevent the
7. A ___________ ___________ is used in a Hotchkiss-type dri- rear axle from revolving in reaction to torque during accelera-
veshaft to reduce the shaft whipping like a child’s skipping rope. tion and deceleration.
8. ___________ ___________ ___________ are used on front- 15. ___________ ___________ tends to pull a front-wheel-drive
wheel-drive vehicles because of the extreme angles that the vehicle to the right during hard acceleration.
joint encounters.

Chapter Quiz

1. When the rear tires hit a bump that moves them upward, the 3. Two students are discussing the common U-joint. Student A
(A) driveshaft must become shorter; (B) front U-joint operating says it uses a cross with a set of needle bearings at each of the
angle changes. Which is correct? three journals. Student B says it normally has two yokes. Who
a. A only is correct?
b. B only a. Student A
c. Both A and B b. Student B
d. Neither A nor B c. Both A and B
d. Neither A nor B
2. The common U-joint used in RWD driveshafts is known as a
a. Cardan joint. 4. The bearing cups are held in place in the yokes by
b. cross and yoke joint. a. a snap ring positioned in a groove in the yoke.
c. Hooke joint. b. a snap ring positioned in a groove in the bearing cups.
d. any of these. c. plastic that is injected through a hole in the yoke.
d. any of these.

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254 CHAPTER 9

5. Two students are discussing how to prevent RWD driveshaft vi- 11. A Hotchkiss driveshaft has (A) two U-joints, one at each end; (B)
brations. Student A says that the rear U-joint must always be a slip joint, so that it can change length. Which is correct?
phased exactly one-half turn from the front joint. Student B says a. A only
it should operate at the same angle as the front joint. Who is
b. B only
correct?
c. Both A and B
a. Student A
d. Neither A nor B
b. Student B
c. Both A and B 12. Torque steer is (A) caused because engine torque can more eas-
ily twist the longer, left shaft than the right shaft; (B) a more
d. Neither A nor B
common problem with RWD vehicles than with FWD vehicles.
6. In a double-Cardan joint, the two portions operate at the same Which is correct?
angle because of the (A) centering ball; (B) center yoke. Which a. A only
is correct?
b. B only
a. A only
c. Both A and B
b. B only
d. Neither A nor B
c. Both A and B
13. A Rzeppa joint uses (A) six balls to transfer power from the in-
d. Neither A nor B
ner race to the outer race; (B) a cage that keeps the balls aligned
7. The CV joint that is most commonly used for the outboard joint at a 90° angle to the inner race. Which is correct?
on a FWD driveshaft is the a. A only
a. double-Cardan joint. b. B only
b. Rzeppa joint. c. Both A and B
c. double-offset joint. d. Neither A nor B
d. cross groove joint.
14. Many RWD driveshafts include a (A) cardboard insert to keep
8. As the front wheels of a FWD vehicle move up and over a them quieter; (B) speed sensor for the braking system. Which is
bump, the inboard joint must (A) plunge to allow for a shorter correct?
or longer distance to the drive wheel; (B) remain straight. a. A only
Which is correct?
b. B only
a. A only
c. Both A and B
b. B only
d. Neither A nor B
c. Both A and B
15. A center bearing is installed in (A) two-piece RWD driveshafts;
d. Neither A nor B
(B) equal-length FWD driveshafts. Which is correct?
9. Which of the following is not a type of CV joint? a. A only
a. Rzeppa b. B only
b. triple tripod c. Both A and B
c. double-offset d. Neither A nor B
d. cross groove
16. The pickup has a transmission shaft angle of 5° and a driveshaft
10. A torque tube driveshaft gets its name (A) from the torque it angle of 8.5°. What is the operating angle of the U-joint?
transfers to the rear axle; (B) because it absorbs the torque reac-
17. The pickup in question 16 has a rear axle pinion shaft angle of
tion from the axles driving the wheels. Which is correct?
4°. What is the operating angle of the rear U-joint?
a. A only
18. Are the two joints in question 17 running at the same angle?
b. B only
c. Both A and B 19. If the joints on question 18 are not running at the same angle,
how much difference is there?
d. Neither A nor B

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