BASICS

CONSTRUCTION
MASONRY
CONSTRUCTION

CONSTRUIRE EN BOIS
Nils Kummer

CONCEPTION
PRINCIPES DE REPRÉSENTATION GRAPHIQUE
CONSTRUCTION
EXERCICE DE LA PROFESSION
PHYSIQUE DU BÂTIMENT ET INSTALLATIONS
CONSTRUCTION
TECHNIQUES
MATÉRIAUX DE CONSTRUCTION
ARCHITECTURE DU PAYSAGE
URBANISME
THÉORIE
BASICS

www.birkhauser.com
Nils Kummer

Masonry
­Construction
Nils
BertKummer
Bielefeld - Sebastian El Khouli

Entwurfsidee
Masonry
­Construction

Birkhäuser
BIRKHÄUSER
Basel
BASEL
 Contents
Foreword _7

Introduction _8
Masonry _8
The brick _9
Mortar for masonry _9

Rules of construction _11

Dimensions and modules _11
Unit dimensions and designations _15
Brick courses _18
Masonry bonds _18
Regular constructions _22
Joint configurations _29
Finishing rules _30
Building in stone _31
New approaches _32

Masonry structures _35

Structural behaviour _35
External walls _36
Internal walls _50
Slots and gaps _54

Building materials _56

Masonry unit types _56
Standard masonry units _57
Types of mortar for masonry _64

In conclusion _67

Appendix _68
Standards _68
Literature _69
Picture credits _69
The author _70
 Foreword
“The brick is another master-teacher. How profound that little format
is, handy, how useful for every purpose. What logic its structure shows
in bond. How lively is that play of joints. And what richness even the sim-
plest area of wall possesses. But what discipline this material demands.”
What Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969), one of the most influ-
ential artists of the 20th century and the last director of the Dessau
­Bauhaus, is enthusiastically celebrating here is nothing other than one
of the lowest common denominators and at the same time essential ­basic
elements of any architecture: masonry. It appears in so many different
forms that it is scarcely possible to provide a complete survey. Whether
you look at ancient amphitheatres, Babylonian temples, modern muse-
ums or simple houses: without bare brick combined with simple mortar,
architecture as we know it today can scarcely be explained.
But the well-nigh infinite creative variety afforded by masonry con-
ceals strict rules that have to be obeyed if the desired overall impression
is to be guaranteed. The pathway from the brick to the wall, to the room
and finally to the whole building is neither short nor simple.
The “Basics” series of books aims to present information didactically
and in a form appropriate to practice. It will introduce students to the
various specialist fields of training in architecture. Content is developed
stage by stage, using readily understandable introductions and explana-
tions. The essential points of departure are built up systematically and
explored further in the individual volumes. The concept is not to provide
a comprehensive collection of expert knowledge, but to introduce the
subject, explain it, and provide the necessary expertise for skilled imple-
mentation.
The present volume aims to introduce students systematically to the
subject of masonry. Bricks and mortar, the elemental basic components,
are used to devise rules for building a wall. The emphasis is on the over-
all systems and material-dependent properties that are essential for
­understanding a “wall”. The interplay of bricks, the forms of masonry
bonds, and the aesthetic of masonry walls with apertures, projections
and recesses are explained soundly and methodically – from brick to
wall – so that students can understand the essence of masonry and ­apply
their insights directly to their designs and projects.

Bert Bielefeld, Editor

8:14
7 AM
Introduction
Masonry buildings cannot be reduced to any particular tradition,
fashion or style: timeless in their flexibility, fundamental to both classi-
cal and avant-garde architecture, open to stylistic trends throughout the
ages, capable of being both ordinary and experimental. The facades of
contemporary high-rise buildings and modern glass structures may man-
age without classical masonry as a basic architectural principle, but it is
difficult to find buildings without a masonry wall somewhere inside, thus
reconfirming the existential character of masonry.

The book will present the “Basics” of masonry, together with the
­ emands it makes. First of all we need to look at its basic components,
d
bricks and mortar. The rules for fitting these elements together to make
a wall form the theoretical and creative basis in the second chapter for
understanding the wall constructions explained in the third. Then, mov-
ing from plain brick construction to the completed wall, we arrive in the
fourth chapter at the question of which building materials are suitable for
the types of work described earlier, thus ending up with the brick again.

masonry
Masonry is not a building material like wood or steel, but a combina-
tion of two individual materials, bricks and mortar, handled according to
the rules of a craft. It is frequently classified as a composite material, and
thus more like reinforced concrete than concrete, for example, as the
quality of the end product depends on the quality of both the materials
and the execution.

Masonry is used primarily for constructing walls, as a loadbearing or

partitioning shear wall, as facing to protect or clad, or as infilling between
columns and beams. Bricks are also found in vaults or coping, and also
as a floor covering.

There are different kinds of bricks and mortar for all these functions
and structures. It is therefore important to know the most important prop-
erties of the two materials as well as about construction, so that the ideal
combination can be achieved.

8 8:12 AM
 e
fac
bed

e
fac
er
hea etch
der str
fac
e

Fig. 1: Standard brick

the brick
Asked about bricks, most people would probably sketch a uniform
shape and size: the standard brick. Developed over millennia, bricks lend
their character to most masonry facades and are firmly linked with our
idea of masonry. But there are a whole variety of different shapes and
sizes: flat Roman bricks, large manufactured blocks or octagonal moulded
bricks. And the brick forms the basis for the whole set of craft rules of
erecting a masonry building, even today. These rules govern the size of
rooms and buildings, apertures and built-in features, and they structure
facades.

mortar for masonry

The second component of masonry is mortar. It enables the bricks
to cover a full area, balances tolerances and ensures that the bricks will
hold together strongly, and its finish and colouring influence the look of
exposed masonry. It is applied both horizontally between the individual
layers of bricks (course joint) and vertically between the individual bricks
(perpend). Even though modern manufacturing methods are shrinking
the layers of mortar for reasons of cost and structural engineering tech-
nology, the combination of brick and mortar is crucial when planning con-
struction. The cohesion of mortar and brick, and thus also the choice of
individual components, are important in terms of loadbearing capacity,
so that even modern building methods without mortar follow rules based
on traditional building.

8:12
9 AM
10 8:12 AM
 Rules of construction
As masonry is a craft, there are certain rules for achieving a high-­
quality finish. The most important aims are:

—— Optimizing the loadbearing and resistance properties of the

­construction
—— Minimizing loss of material
—— Speeding up the building process
—— Executing a design that does justice to material and use

These rules form a theoretical basis for the wall structures given in
the third chapter. They show the principles and methods for creating
­masonry from its components, the preferred dimensions, and how to
form connections and apertures correctly for the material. The individ-
ual wall will be considered first.

dimensions and Modules

One of the architect’s main tasks when planning and constructing a
building is to coordinate and combine the various structural and craft
services. Shell construction (walls, columns, floors etc.) and finishing
(windows, doors, wall and floor coverings etc.) have to be matched in
­order to build efficiently. The actual building process, as well as planning
and finishing, are simplified by repeating elements and sizes. However,
fixing grid dimensions is problematical for masonry, as it is impossible
to work with the dimensions of the bricks alone, since we must allow for
the mortar joints between the bricks as well. Here, a simple device is
used to decide when the joint must be added to a wall length or not: the
distinction between specified and nominal dimensions.

The specified dimension is the basic theoretical measurement, the Specified dimension
grid or the module multiplied to put together the whole masonry con- and nominal dimension

struction system. The nominal dimension, however, is the dimension that

is actually executed and entered on the construction drawing. This dis-
tinction can be used to systematize construction types with joints, and
particularly masonry constructions.

Although the nominal and specified dimensions are identical when

building without joints, they are treated as follows in construction for
building types with joints:

7:51 AM
11
 The specified dimension consists of the nominal dimension executed
and the corresponding joint, i.e.:

brick dimension + joint

Conversely, the nominal dimension is the brick dimension alone,

without joint.

If you now imagine a masonry wall with window apertures and trans-
verse walls, you will very quickly realize that there are different dimen-
sions for the wall width, aperture and projections because of the mortar
joints.

External dimension The external dimension is the wall thickness. One joint must always
be subtracted from the specified dimension as there is always one joint
missing, regardless of the number of bricks.

External dimension (E) = specified dimension – joint

Aperture dimension The interior dimension of an aperture always contains an additional

joint.

Aperture dimension (A) = specified dimension + joint

nominal joint joint

dimension nominal dimension

specified
specified dimension
dimension

Fig. 2: Specified dimension and nominal dimension

12 7:51 AM
 The projection dimension measures the piece of wall between open- Projection dimension
ing and wall or wall projections. Here, the missing joint in the external di-
mension and the additional joint in the aperture dimensions balance each
other out.

Projection dimension (A) = specified dimension

wall ½ brick thick wall 1 brick thick wall 1½ bricks thick

external dimension external dimension external dimension

joint joint
nominal nominal nominal nominal nominal
dimension dimension dimension dimension dimension

specified specified specified specified specified

dimension – joint dimension dimension – joint dimension dimension – joint

Fig. 3: External dimensions

external aperture external projection

dimension dimension dimension dimension

projection aperture projection

dimension dimension dimension

Fig. 4: Shell construction dimensions

7:51 AM
13
 aperture dimension

specified specified
dimension dimension

joint specified specified

dimension dimension

Fig. 5: Aperture dimension

projection external projection

dimension dimension dimension

specified specified specified

dimension dimension – joint dimension

Fig. 6: Projection dimension

14 7:51 AM
unit dimensions and designations
These hitherto theoretical definitions have left open the question of
actual dimensions, which are independent of the brick and joint sizes
chosen. These sizes can vary, and have led to different standards in
­different countries, according to local traditions.

In Germany, masonry is based almost exclusively on the octametric

system, which uses an eighth of a metre = 12.5 cm as the specified
­dimension. The standard brick, so-called “normal format”, measures
24 × 11 × 7.1 cm (nominal dimensions). When the joint sizes of 1 cm for
the vertical head joints and 1.23 cm for the horizontal course joints are
added, this gives specified dimensions of 25 × 12.5 × 8.33 cm, multiples
of which produce a metre. ◼◯

Joint sizes can also vary, without changing the system. New manu-
facturing technology and the need to meet the greater-than-ever demands
on masonry for heat and sound insulation, and in terms of loadbearing
capacity, mean that masonry technique is no longer based on the centi-
metre joint. Modern manufactured blocks are finished to such low toler-
ances that joints need be only a few millimetres thick.

However, to maintain the usual specified dimensions, the unit dimen-

sions have been adapted to ensure that the overall dimensions still fit in
with the system:

For example:
Traditional: German normal format brick 24 cm + 1 cm joint = 25 cm
Modern technique: Manufactured block 24.7 cm + 3 mm joint = 25 cm

◼ Tip: In Germany, these dimensions are fixed by the ◯ Note: Different countries have other standard
DIN 4172 standard dimension in the building industry, bricks, based on national traditions or different units
which has prescribed a basic module of 25 cm for shell (e.g. inches), e.g. 21.5 × 10.25 × 6.5 cm in England,
construction since the post-Second World War rebuild- 19 × 9 × 6.5 cm in Belgium, and 8 × 4 × 2.25 inches
ing, basing itself on traditional formats. The later DIN (20.3 × 10.2 × 5.7 cm) in the USA.
18000 modular standard for building, which promised
to be simpler to use with its decimetric basic module
of M – 10 cm, has not caught on in Germany.

7:51 AM
15
 11 5 17 5
11 5 24
11 5 24
24
24

115
115
71

52
German normal German thin 2DF (1½ NF) 3DF (2¼ NF)
format (NF) format (DF)

24
24 5
30 36

24
30

24

24
115

5DF 10DF 12DF

Fig. 7: Brick formats

24 24
115 1 115
115

115

whole brick ½ brick

1775 5 25
115

115

¾ brick ¼ brick

Fig. 8: Cut bricks

Small formats are also distinguished:

L × W × H = 24 × 11.5 × 7.1 cm – normal format (NF)

24 × 11.5 × 5.2 cm – thin format (DF)

Larger bricks are made up of several thin formats as a basic module

◯ with the corresponding joints, and are thus defined as 5DF, for example.

16 7:51 AM
 2DF (1½ NF)
NF format DF format 3DF (2¼ NF)
Germany Germany Germany

+1.00 12x +1.00 16x +1.00 8x

+0.94
+0.91 5
+0.87 5 +0.87 5
+0.83 5
+0.81 5
+0.75 +0.75 +0.75
+0.69
+0.66 5
+0.62 5 +0.62 5
+0.58 5
+0.56 5
+0.50 +0.50 +0.50
+0.44
+0.41 5
+0.37 5 +0.37 5
+0.33 5
+0.31 5
+0.25 +0.25 +0.25
+0.19
+0.16 5
+0.12 5 +0.12 5
+0.08 5
+0.06 5

Fig. 9: Height comparison

Examples for dimensions in the octametric system:

—— Specified dimensions: 12.5 cm; 25 cm; 37.5 cm; 50 cm … 100 cm

etc.
—— Nominal dimensions: 11.5 cm; 24 cm; 36.5 cm; 49 cm ... 99 cm etc.
—— External dimensions: 11.5 cm; 24 cm; 36.5 cm etc.
—— Aperture dimensions: 51 cm; 1.01 m; 1.26 m etc.
—— Projection dimensions: 12.5 cm; 25 cm; 1.00 m etc.

When bricks are cut, always remember to subtract a joint:

¾ brick = specified dimension/4 × 3 – joint = 6.25 cm × 3 – 1 cm

= 17.75 cm

◯ Note: As the same number of thin-format units can

be combined in different ways, different formats
­produce the same designation, e.g. 8DF = 24 × 24 × 
23.8 cm and 8DF = 24 × 49 × 11.3 cm.

7:51 AM
17
 Cut units are specially designated in the top view on laying drawings:
the ¾ unit (17.75 cm) by a diagonal, the ½ unit (11.5 cm) by a cross, and
the ¼ unit (5.25 cm) by a point or a circle.

The octametric numerical values are used for height as well. To

achieve the specified dimension height (25 cm, 50 cm, 1 m etc.), the hori-
zontal mortar joints serve as a height levelling course, and thus measure
between 1.05 and 1.22 cm.

brick courses
The individual rows in a masonry structure are called courses.
A ­distinction is made according to the run of the bricks:

—— Stretcher course: bricks are laid parallel with the axis of the wall
—— Header course: bricks are laid transversely to the wall axis
—— Brick-on-edge course: bricks are laid transversely and standing
edgewise on their long sides
—— Soldier course: bricks stand edgewise on their narrow sides as an
upright header course

While the stretcher and header courses are combined with each other
in different ways as bonds, the edge and soldier courses with their larger
head joints offer greater bond strength between the bricks and better
pressure dispersal, as they do not break as easily as a horizontal brick.
They are therefore used for lintels, seatings and cornices.

masonry bonds
To produce high-quality masonry with a good loadbearing capacity
from bricks and mortar there are certain craft rules that must be followed
when laying bricks – the bond rules. These rules distinguish between four
so-called school bonds – those most commonly taught – according to
the sequence in which the brick courses are laid on one another, and the
way they are offset from each other.

Some of the bond rules are general, and give us the first two school
bonds.

Rules:
—— All the courses must be laid horizontally.
—— The brick height should not be greater than the brick width.
—— Only bricks of the same height should be used in a single course
(only at wall ends can there be exceptions in every second course).

18 7:51 AM
 stretcher course

header course

brick-on-edge course

soldier course

Fig. 10: Brick courses

—— The largest possible number of whole bricks should be used.

—— The offset between the courses is at least ¼ brick length for all
perpends.

The brick offset is crucial for the wall’s loadbearing capacity. The
greater the offset, i.e. the more shallow the racking back of the bricks,
the greater the resistance to longitudinal cracks. ◯

◯ Note: The designation “brick length” also relates to

the corresponding standard brick in terms of brick
­offsetting. But the joint must al­ways be taken into
account. Thus, with a specified dimension of 25 cm:
¼ brick length = specified dimension/4 – joint =
25 cm/4 – 1 cm = 5.25 cm. The same applies to the
brick width or the wall thickness: a wall two bricks
thick = 2 × 25 cm – 1 cm = 49 cm (external dimension).

7:51 AM
19
 wall ½ brick thick
½ brick offset

Fig. 11: Stretcher bond

wall 1 brick thick

¼ brick offset

Fig. 12: Header bond

stretcher course
begins with
¾ bricks

wall 1 brick thick

repetition after two courses

Fig. 13: English bond

wall 1 brick thick

special case
where wall begins repetition after four courses

Fig. 14: English cross bond

20 7:51 AM
 In stretcher bond, all courses in the masonry are made up of stretcher Stretcher bond
courses offset by the length of ½ brick. As this bond does not permit an
offset running transversely to the wall axis, it can only be used for wall
½ brick thick, e.g. for internal walls, facer skins and chimneys. A wider
wall can be built only with larger bricks. Stretcher bond offers good com-
pressive and tensile strength because of the large brick offset. It is also
possible to use an offset of ¹/³ or ¼ of a brick length, but this entails some
loss of loadbearing capacity.

In header bond, all the courses consist of header courses offset by Header bond
the length of ¼ brick. This bond can only be used for one-brick walls.
­Because of the low overlap the bond has less loadbearing capacity and
inclines to diagonal cracks because of the steep racking. It is however
particularly suitable for narrow masonry radii.

Combining these bonds and following two more rules gives the last
two commonly taught bonds.

Rules:
—— Stretcher and header courses alternate.
—— One stretcher course begins with a ¾ brick (for thicker walls, with
correspondingly more ¾ bricks).

English bond consist of alternate courses of stretchers and headers. English bond
The offset is ¼ brick. This produces usefully shallow racking by ¼ and ¾
brick lengths in each case.

Like English bond, English cross bond begins with alternate stretcher English cross bond
and header courses. But the perpends of the stretcher courses are ­offset
against each other by ½ brick, so the joint pattern repeats only every four
courses. This bond has a more varied joint pattern, but it is also more
steeply racked and therefore more prone to diagonal cracks.

There are also some decorative bonds, but these are only of histori-
cal or regional significance. Examples are double Flemish bond, Yorkshire
bond and Flemish bond. > Fig. 15

It is also possible to achieve a lateral offset within the wall, and so

to construct walls with a thickness greater than one brick, by alternating
stretcher and header courses.

Additional rules apply here:

—— Only headers should be used if possible for wide walls.
—— Perpends should run through the total thickness of the wall if
­possible.

7:51 AM
21
 double Flemish bond

Yorkshire bond

Flemish bond

Fig. 15: Historical bonds

—— The offset should also be at least ¼ brick length as the courses

rise for the intermediate joints as well (perpends inside the wall).
—— The offset must be maintained longitudinally and horizontally.

Regular constructions
Corners in walls For corners, niches, projections and columns, there are special
points of detail covered by the bond rules.

Rules:
—— The stretcher courses run through at corners, junctions and joints;
the header courses abut.
—— Parallel walls should have the same sequence of courses.
—— Only one perpend in each course should start from an inside
­corner.

22 7:51 AM
 English bond

wall 2 bricks thick

English cross bond

Fig. 16: Wall ends in 2-brick walls

outside corner tying in lateral wall

English bond English bond
1-brick wall 1-brick wall

Fig. 17: Corners of walls

7:51 AM
23
 1½ bricks thick
1brick thick
1½ bricks thick 2 bricks thick ¼ brick rebate

Fig. 18: Masonry columns

—— Windows and door strips should be constructed like wall ends

with projections – for the headers by displacing one brick in the
­direction of the projection, for the stretchers by advancing the
◯ ­stretchers.

Masonry columns Two points should be noted when constructing masonry columns:

◯ —— Square columns have the same bond in every course, turned

through 90° each time.
—— Rectangular columns start with ¾ bricks on the narrow sides,
like wall ends. The gap is filled with whole or half bricks.

◯ Note: Because of new brick formats and techniques ◯ Note: Chimneys are almost always built of special-­
for constructing loadbearing walls, which are generally purpose bricks today, so the exposed masonry is simply
built using “random masonry bond” (not following the cladding. The masonry structure shown here merely il­-
rules of bonding, but keeping to the standard minimum lustrates the possibilities and rules of bonded masonry.
dimensions for the offset), these school bonds are gen-
erally used only for exposed masonry (see Chapter
Masonry structures, External walls).

24 7:51 AM
 wall junction wall junction
English cross bond English bond
1 brick thick 2 bricks thick/1 brick thick

Fig. 19: Wall junctions

external dimension aperture dimension

wall projection wall niche

English cross bond English cross bond
1½ bricks thick 1½ bricks thick

Fig. 20: Wall niche and wall projection

chimney with chamotte chimney bond

Fig. 21: Masonry chimneys

7:51 AM
25
 aperture dimension

aperture dimension

Fig. 22: Window rebate

individual load
max.25

pressure force
60
˚

ceiling load

loading masonry horizontal

thrust
˚
60

60
˚

support width

vertical load
loads above wall openings horizontal thrust in
(vault effect) masonry arches

Fig. 23: Wall loads

Masonry apertures Apertures for windows, doors or passageways in the wall are subject
to craft rules and traditions, as well as the wall itself.

Side rebates for windows and doors can be constructed according

to bonding rules; this simplifies installation and improves the fittings’
­resistance to rain and wind. > Fig. 22

26 7:51 AM
 The top of the door or window can also be built according to the rules.
As masonry cannot absorb bending forces, apertures cannot be topped
with bonded masonry without “support”, so beams, formerly made of
wood or stone, and now of concrete, can be placed over the aperture. The
beams dissipate the imposed load from the masonry above into the side
walls through the structural conditions in terms of bending, restricting the
possible size of the aperture according to the material used for the beam. ◯

Another aperture suitable for masonry is an arch with masonry above Masonry arches
it, which transforms all the imposed loads into pressure forces and trans-
fers them to their points of support. The difficulty of this construction
lies in the horizontal thrust that the loaded arch exerts on the masonry.
This thrust, which increases in shallower arches, must be absorbed ­either
by the wall or by additional piers.

Round arches are semicircles of masonry that transfer the imposed

load into support points, which are usually horizontal. The radius of the
arch is thus half the width of the aperture and lies at its midpoint. To
achieve this radius the joints between the bricks should be wedge-shaped.
A thickness of at least 5 mm may be reached on the inside of the arch
(intrados) and a maximum of 20 cm at the other extremity (extrados). This
means that when dealing with larger radii and aperture widths, several
rows of bricks must be placed on top of each other. Wedge-shaped bricks
can also be used for tighter radii.

If the radius is increased to the full width of the aperture and circles
are drawn around the two support points, a pointed arch is produced.
Both types of arch should consist of an uneven number of bricks, so that
a keystone, which starts the load distribution, can be placed at the apex
of the arch, rather than a perpend. The keystone should end in a bed joint
of the masonry, so that the filler courses above the apex of the arch do
not become too large. For window rebates, arches can be built in two
rows of bricks, displaced vertically.

◯ Note: Because of the so-called “vault effect” of

the masonry, which transfers the loads around the
aperture, only the self-weight of the masonry above
the apertures affects the beam, relating to a triangular
load take-up area. In addition there are single loads,
provided that they are not more than 25 cm above the
tip of the take-up areas, and ceiling loads, if they are
with­in the take-up area (see Fig. 23).

7:51 AM
27
 radiu
s=a
pert
ure w
idth
radius = aperture/2
th
ure wid
= apert
radius

round arch pointed arch

Fig. 24: Round and pointed arch

If the surrounding loadbearing structure is able to absorb greater

horizontal forces, a shallower arch structure may be chosen. For a seg-
mental arch a circular sector with a greater radius is built; here the rise
of the arch (the difference in height between the lowest and the highest
point of the inside of the arch) must not be greater than 1/12 of the
­aperture width. The support points are tilted to point towards the centre
of the arch.

If the aperture is built over almost horizontally as a result of the side-

ways tilt of the bricks, the term “straight arch” is used. Here the rise is
reduced to a maximum of 1/50 of the aperture width.

The aperture width is strictly limited for both these construction

methods. The following formula can be used as a rule of thumb:

—— 1.2 m for segmental arch with bricks 24 cm high

—— 0.8 m for straight arch with bricks 25 cm high

Masonry arches are very elaborate structures, commonly associated

with churches and prestigious buildings, and are now only rarely built.
­Today the arches can be manufactured with steel reinforcements and
built in as finished parts.

28 7:51 AM
 abutment
rise approx.

rise
2 cm

segmental arch straight arch

Fig. 25: Segmental arch and straight arch

Joint configurationS
In addition to masonry bonds, the configuration of the mortar joints
can make a considerable contribution to the appearance of the masonry.
The colour or depth of the joints can emphasize them or make them
­inconspicuous for design purposes. ●

Executing joints correctly also makes the structure more resistant,

and helps it to last longer. There are two kinds of joint:

For trowel-finished joints the mortar pushed out at the sides when a Flush pointing
brick is put in place is struck off and smoothed down a little later with a
piece of wood or a hose. The advantage of this method lies in the good
seal it creates for the joint and the need to apply the mortar to the whole
surface, which improves the loadbearing capacity of the masonry.

● Example: Frank Lloyd Wright emphasized the hori-

zontal orientation of his Robie House in Chicago by
recessing the bed joints and using flush perpends.

7:51 AM
29
Fig. 26: Joints

Subsequent pointing However, if the uniformity of the joints is important in terms of col-
our and design, it can be advantageous to point subsequently. Here, the
fresh mortar is scratched out with a wooden lath to a depth of about
20 mm and the opening cleaned; if absorbent bricks, which draw the
­water out of the mortar, are being used, the opening must be moistened
before being closed again with the pointing mortar. Attention must be
paid to high-quality finish because of the two kinds of mortar; this will
● guarantee the loadbearing capacity and density of the construction.

Finishing rules
Masonry must be bonded, and also built horizontal, true and plumb.
The first course is crucial, as it compensates for uneven terrain. The rows
of bricks should then be laid from the corners. This can be done by hand
up to a weight of 25 kg per brick, above which auxiliary equipment is
needed. The mortar must be applied to the full area of the bed joints; for
small bricks with a trowel, for larger sizes with a mortar template, which
keeps the height of the joints consistent over the full length of the wall.
The perpends must also be closed to ensure that the masonry is rain- and
wind-proof, either by covering the full surface with mortar or by flushing
mortar pockets in the middle of the brick. To save time and expense,

● Example: Arno Lederer chose this colour design

option for his office building in Stuttgart. He used a
black brick and pointed the perpends in black as well,
but the bed joints are white. This gives the facade an
unmistakable appearance (see Fig. 26, second picture
from the left).

30 7:51 AM
 correct joint configuration incorrect joint configuration

rain

damp
penetration

Fig. 27: Joint configuration

­masonry is sometimes built without using mortar for the perpends. But
here it is essential to meet all the demands of weather protection (by
­using a layer of rendering or cladding) and sound insulation (good
sound-reducing bricks). Bricks using a tongue and groove system are
­preferred for this.

If highly absorbent bricks are being used, care should be taken ­before
laying them to dampen the wall, as the bricks will draw too much water
out of the drying mortar. The bricks will then also absorb fewer salts from
the mortar that would later be visible on the surface of the brick as
­“efflorescence”. At the same time, a completely soaked brick will prevent
proper binding with the mortar. Bricks and masonry should therefore
be protected against rain, as well as against unduly strong sunlight. In
frost, bricks can only be laid if precautions are taken, as mortar hardens
more slowly with falling temperatures, and stops hardening altogether
at –10 °C. Building materials should be covered as soon as the temper-
ature falls to 5 °C, and at temperatures under 0 °C bricks and mixing
­water should be warmed. Frozen materials should not be used, and parts
of the wall that have already been damaged must be removed.

building in stone
Natural stone is the Ur-form of masonry. From the simple, mortar-
less piling up of unworked stones in various sizes (drystone walling) to
stones of equal sizes laid according to bonding rules (ashlar masonry),
there are various special types of natural stone masonry. However, nat-
ural stones are now used less for actual masonry than as curtain facade
material for walls, and therefore they will not be dealt with more fully
here. Exceptions are primarily found in monument protection and land-
scape architecture.

7:51 AM
31
 new approaches
In addition to the traditional building method prescribed by the bond-
ing rules, new approaches have developed, based on new manufacturing
methods and building materials, intended above all to make masonry con-
struction cheaper and less time-consuming.

Moulded brick For moulded brick masonry, the dimension tolerance of the bricks
­masonry has been minimized so that the joint height can be reduced to 1–3 mm
(thin bed). The mortar is applied with a roller, or the bricks are dipped
in  the water. As the joint proportion is minimized and homogeneous
­masonry produced, material and time are saved, and favourable statical
values achieved, > Chapter Masonry structures, Structural behaviour  and there are
◯ fewer thermal bridges.

As the brick rows can only accommodate low tolerances, the first
layer should be laid with great care. Small offset blocks can be used for
this purpose. They are available in different heights and with good insu-
lation properties.

Dry masonry Dry masonry uses no mortar at all. For reasons of loadbearing
c­ apacity, however, such wall constructions are restricted to low storey
and building heights. The ceiling loads on the walls must be even, so that
this pressure can compensate for the lack of adhesion from the mortar.

Masonry kits To save the time needed for cutting large stones to size, masonry kits
offer the possibility of assembling whole sections of walls in the right di-
mensions in the factory, and delivering them to the site as individual parts
with a laying plan. This method is a reasonably priced alternative, par-
ticularly if there are many diagonals (gable walls) or apertures.

◯ Note: Thermal bridges are weak points that cause

heat loss from a building. They can be determined, geo-
metrically if the areas absorbing heat are smaller than
those giving it out (e.g. at the corners of buildings); by
the material, if different materials are used; or structu-
rally by heat-conducting fastenings and penetrations.

32 7:51 AM
 This method takes prefabrication a little further at the factory stage: Prefabrication
manufacturers deliver whole storey-height walls, including apertures, to construction method

the site. The bricks have to be reinforced to stabilize the structure and
erection requires a crane or mobile crane. The expense is set off against
the consistent quality of the factory work (although the erector is of
course responsible for the wall connection points).

7:51 AM
33
34 7:51 AM
 Masonry structures
The structures listed below refer to the wall in its built state. The con-
struction rules explained above apply in principle to all masonry struc-
tures, and deal merely with assembling bricks and mortar. There are var-
ious ways of finishing a construction, combinations with other building
materials and dependencies on other parts of a building. These relate to
the location where the building is to be used and the role of the wall
­structures.

Masonry walls can be loaded vertically from ceilings and other parts
of the building, by self-weight and also by horizontal forces such as wind,
soil pressure and impact forces, or cantilever loads from projecting or
suspended elements.

For these reasons the walls must be connected non-positively with

the adjacent building parts, i.e. the loads must be transferred via other
loadbearing sections or directly into the foundations. The wall is stabi-
lized by tie walls that prevent buckling, and by even vertical loading. When
dimensioning these walls, there are more requirements relating to the
building science of fire protection to meet. Walls supporting nothing more
than their own weight from one floor and forces occurring horizontally to
the wall level can also be built as non-loadbearing.

Structural behaviour
The loadbearing capacity of masonry is determined by the bonding
of brick and mortar. The adhesion or friction between brick and mortar
affect how horizontal forces are absorbed and provide vertical load dis-
tribution over the full area; the joint compensates for brick tolerances.
Its ability to absorb compressive forces is far greater than its acceptance
of tensile or tensile bending forces, i.e. a precisely bedded brick can
transfer loads as compressive force but would break without this bed-
ding surface. The brick and its mortar joint are pressed together from
above in vertical loading. The brick conducts the compressive forces, and
the mortar, which is more easily deformed, tries to sag. These different
behaviours produce stress at the point of contact between bricks and
mortar, and then to compressive stress in the mortar and tensile stress
in the brick. At the same time, this lateral tensile stress in the brick
­reduces its compressive strength. If the load becomes too great, verti-
cal cracks will appear in the brick and the mortar will collapse. Uneven
application of mortar increases tension peaks and the danger of collapse.
Greater join thicknesses and the use of lightweight mortar are also

8:00 AM
35
 loads compressive force
self-weight

wind

brick failure
suction cantilever loads stone
tensile stress
wind
pressure mortar compressive stress mortar
deformation
tensions caused by
different deformations at
impact load
stone the contact point

Fig.28: Loads Fig. 29: Structural behavior

­ azardous because of their greater deformability. Heavy bricks with a

h
◯ high specific density transfer forces well.

Aerated bricks and cavities weaken the cross-section and thus load-
bearing capacity. Adhesion between bricks and mortar also allows force
to be absorbed horizontally.

The brick’s compressive strength is another crucial factor. Brick and

mortar must also be matched to each other to avoid the joint collapsing.
Compressive strength classes are given as characteristic values for both
bricks and mortar.

external walls
External masonry walls are loadbearing walls, except for infill within
other loadbearing systems (frame construction, construction slabs etc.),
or free-standing walls. They also separate the inside of the building from

◯ Note: Specific density is the ratio of mass to volume.

As it is increased by absorbing water, this value is usu­
ally given for dry bricks, the dry density, in kg/m³.

36 8:00 AM
the outside, and so must give protection against cold, rain, snow and
sound from the outside. At the same time, design questions play a part
in decisions about whether the masonry should be visible from the out-
side or not.

External walls with just one wall built in bond are called single-leaf Single-leaf masonry
masonry. This structure, simple to erect in terms of craftsmanship, has
to perform all the functions of an outside wall.

Single-leaf exposed masonry, a wall structure that is visible from both Single-leaf exposed
sides or at least from the outside, displays a disparity between thermal masonry

insulation and weather protection. In order to meet today’s thermal in-

sulation criteria, aerated bricks providing offering good insulation must
be used. As still air has a very low capacity for specific thermal heat
­conductivity and very low density, bricks with a high proportion of air in
the form of pores or cavities, and thus a low specific density, provide
good thermal insulation, but at the same time scarcely any protection
against weather. ◯

Their pores quickly become permeated with moisture, they are not
frost-resistant and thus not suitable for unprotected use. Conversely,
weather-resistant bricks with a high specific density offer little resistance
to heat penetration and would require uneconomic wall thicknesses. This
structure can therefore no longer be used in this way. ◯

For facing masonry, on the other hand, a wall several units thick be- Facing masonry
tween two different kinds of masonry is used inside the bond, so that the
bricks showing on the outside offer good protection against weather and
frost, and the inner series takes over the thermal insulation. Here the
whole cross-section including the facing can be added to the load disper-
sal; the brick with the lowest compressive strength provides the basis for
calculations. A joint between the two series of stones, offset course-wise,
2 cm thick and closed with seal mortar, offers protection for the inner set
of units. This is an elaborate structure, and the units in it must be well

◯ Note: The specific thermal conductivity (λ) indicates ◯ Note: The thermal transfer resistance (R) indicates
how much heat a structural element will transfer under a structural element’s insulation capacity, according to
fixed conditions. The smaller the value, the better the its thickness. It is calculated from the ratio of course
thermal insulation. thickness to specific heat conductivity. The transitions
at the extremities of the element are also calculated,
and the individual values added for multi-course ele-
ments.

8:00 AM
37
 facing masonry with external/ with internal compound thermal with cladding
thermal insulation insulation
insulation
rendering

Fig. 30: Single-leaf masonry

matched to each other, in order to avoid different settling rates and defor-
mations. Very precise planning is also needed, because unit formats ­often
differ. This structure is recommended only for visual or formal reasons,
or if a special brick is to be used or there is a request to manage without
expansion joints in the exposed masonry. > Chapter External walls

Because of all these interdependent features, additional measures

have to be taken with single-leaf masonry to protect it from the weather.

Single-leaf masonry Thus, for example, external rendering can be applied; this improves
with external thermal insulation as thermal insulation rendering. The visual effect of
­rendering
bonded masonry is lost in single-leaf masonry with external rendering,
but large-format units can be used, built in random bond with a thin mor-
tar bed. They have better insulation properties, and are economical to
use. As the whole cross-section of the wall contributes to the thermal in-
sulation, weaknesses must be avoided to prevent thermal bridges. Spe-
cial constructions are needed, especially for lintels and ceiling supports.

Ceiling supports Ceilings must be connected with the enclosing walls by their sup-
ports on the wall via adhesions and friction. As a rule a bearing edge of
◯ 10–12 cm is needed.

As reinforced concrete has a lower heat transfer resistance than

­ asonry, full support for the ceiling reduces thermal insulation. This
m
­produces colder ceiling and wall areas, and moisture from warm interior
● air may condense on their inside faces.

38 8:00 AM
 heat loss cracks where
through material changes
reinforced ceiling height not
concrete in the brick grid
ceiling

same material L-shell

as rendering
support

Fig. 31: Ceiling supports for single-leaf masonry

U-shell or lintel combined U-shell

prefabricated with reinforced with rebate
lintel concrete ceiling

Fig. 32: Wall apertures in single-leaf masonry

◯ Note: If there is not enough area to support the ceil- ● Example: Condensate: Warm air can hold more water
ing, steel tie bars must be fixed into the masonry. As vapour than cold air. If warm air meets cold air, mist
this exposes the masonry to horizontal tensile forces, or water vapour is formed. If warm air meets a cold ob­
the wall areas must receive a corresponding imposed ject, excess water is released, forming a condensate.
load to counter the tensile forces. This means that ties For heated air in a room, if an outside wall is poorly
cannot be fixed in parapet areas. Gable walls can also insulated, or even not insulated at all, water will be
be attached to the roof structure with tie bars. deposited on the cold internal side or in the cooled
structural element. This then leads to structural dam-
age from frost or mould.

8:00 AM
39
 For this reason, additional insulation must be provided at the outer
edge of the ceiling. It should be noted here that single-leaf rendered walls
may be subject to cracks on the outside because of different expansion
and deformation at the point where the different materials meet, so that
rain may penetrate the building. Fabric can be applied to bridge the point
of transition and secure the rendering, but the use of L-shells is also rec-
ommended. These are made of the same material as the wall, and some
already have insulation strips. They avoid the change of material while
◯ acting as a formwork element for the reinforced concrete.

Wall apertures These weaknesses also occur for wall apertures. As masonry cannot
accept tensile or bending loads, it is impossible to build across a wall
­aperture without support. Additional beams are needed to resist the loads
and transfer them transversely into the adjacent parts of the wall. As
steel does not meet fire protection criteria, these beams are usually made
of reinforced concrete and, like the ceilings, must have additional ther-
mal insulation or be built using U-shells. These special parts can either
be made on the spot, e.g. at the same time as the concrete ceiling is cast,
or delivered to the site as prefabricated lintels, reinforced in the factory.

Tie beams/ U-shells can also be used to create peripheral tie beams and ring
ring beams beams. Other factors, such as wind forces, cause tensile forces in a build-
ing. These are transferred by the ceilings as sheets and cannot be
­absorbed by the walls alone. Peripheral tie beams can be made in the
form of reinforced concrete beams or U-shells under the ceiling, or of
­appropriately reinforced ceiling strips. They transfer forces for all exter-
nal and transverse walls. In the case of ceilings with no sheet action or
with sliding supports (e.g. under flat roofs) the peripheral tie beams
should run round the whole building as a continuous ring (ring beam).

◯ Note: L- or U-shells are available from brick manu­

facturers as prefabricated parts. As the name suggests,
the L-shell is L-shaped, to support the ceiling. U-shells
are used above wall apertures and to create ring
beams. The cavity is filled with concrete on site (see
Fig. 31).

40 8:00 AM
 To improve the wall structure’s thermal insulation properties, insula- Single-leaf masonry
tion or thermal insulation rendering can be applied to its internal side. with internal insu­-
lation
This construction is problematical in terms of building science, however,
as there is a danger that condensate will form on the inside of the cold
masonry and impregnate the construction with moisture, which may lead
to mould formation. For this reason, this method tends to be used for
­refurbishment, when it is not permissible to alter listed facades.

To avoid these problems, the insulation is not fixed inside in a lami- Laminated thermal
nated thermal insulation system, but stuck onto the masonry and fixed insulation systems
(LHIS)
with ties. To protect the insulation from the weather, however, a special
layer of water- or moisture-resistant rendering is applied directly to the
insulating material. As the rendering needs a solid ground, and as no
holes or pressure points should be created by external factors, the insu-
lation must resist compression and provide sufficient general resistance.
LHIS is a common system for reasons of economy, above all when refur-
bishing existing buildings.

Another way of protecting loadbearing masonry is to suspend an Single-leaf masonry

outer skin in front of the building. This structure made of metal, wood or with cladding

fibre cement can be attached directly to the masonry, or a space can be

left for an additional insulating layer. Care should be taken with the ­fixing
points, which could cool the masonry, and adequate rear ventilation to
prevent moisture impregnation from water that gets behind the cladding.

Basement walls are single-leaf in all structures. An approach using Basement walls
waterproof reinforced concrete (“White Tub”) is increasingly common,
but another wall structure may be preferable. Basement walls need to be
well reinforced against soil pressure, which affects the surface of the wall
vertically, and against load transfer. When fixing dimensions, wall height,
soil pressure and the superimposed load from the surface of the terrain
should be taken into account. The thermal insulation that is applied out-
side (perimeter insulation) also has to be able to stand up to the soil pres-
sure in working basement spaces with high thermal insulation demands,
and must therefore be compression resistant. It can be made of sheet
foamed glass, polystyrene particle foam or extruded polystyrene foam
sheets. Basement walls must also be sealed against moisture in the soil.
A concrete finish is preferred if there is heavy potential pressure from
water, but if the load is less and the water does not exert pressure, hori-
zontal and vertical sealing should be provided. The horizontal membrane
in the form of a sealing sheet should be applied to the full area of the con-
crete slab, and must join up with vertical sealing in the form of sheets or
bituminous coatings on the on the outside of the wall under the first row

8:00 AM
41
 ditch refilling

drainage mat with

filter fleece and
separating layer
perimeter
insulation
waterproofing

cellar wall waterproofing with no pressure cellar wall waterproofing for accumulated
from water seepage water

Fig. 33: Basement wall

of bricks. Finish as a “Black Tub” provides additional protection: here the

horizontal membrane is attached onto a base course under the floor slab
and given a protective coating. Both the vertical membrane and any pos-
sible thermal insulation can be protected against soil damage when the
excavation pit is filled, by using a protective layer of geotextile membrane
● and filter fleece, which also drains off water.

Plinth zone The plinth zone is more heavily loaded than the masonry above it by
the adjacent soil and the effects of splash water. Hence, it should be
sealed against moisture by a vertical membrane to a height of 30 cm
above the top edge of the terrain. This ends with a horizontal damp course
the full width of the wall, which prevents moisture from rising further into
the masonry above it. This damp course should be protected by a row of
weatherproof bricks, by cladding, or by applying a special water-resis-
tant plinth rendering. The transition between the renderings can be car-
ried out through the structure or by using differences in smoothness.
Plaster bases, e.g. in expanded metal, help to avoid cracks at this point.

Double-leaf In double-leaf masonry, a second wall (external or facing leaf), which

masonry protects the inner side from the weather, is built in front of an inner wall
(inner leaf), which has the primary loadbearing function. A gap is left
­between them (cavity), which can be left free, or wholly or partially filled
with insulation.

42 8:00 AM
 damp course
rendering
plinth
>15

basement

Fig. 34: Plinth zone in single-leaf masonry

The cavity is there to prevent water penetrating directly into the ­inner Double-leaf masonry
leaf and thus into the interior, and causing damage such as mould forma- with cavity

tion. If moisture has penetrated the outer leaf, it is removed via the ­cavity.
To this end, ventilation apertures should be placed in the plinth area and
at the top of the wall and wall apertures. These are usually open perpends
with a horizontal damp course. This is achieved by laying a sealant strip
or film as a “Z-barrier” across the full area of the bed joint ­below the open
settlement joints, and taking it to the inner leaf with an incline of 1–2 cm
and then 15 cm upwards.

● Important: For all sealing membranes, special atten-

tion should be paid to points at which a wall or ceiling
is penetrated by sanitation pipes or service connec-
tions, which must be carefully sealed.

8:00 AM
43
 with cavity with core insulation with insulation and cavity

Fig. 35: Double-leaf masonry

To ensure adequate back ventilation, the air gap should be at least

60 mm wide, or 40 mm if the joint mortar is cleaned off or if insulation is
used. Although vertical air gaps – including the back ventilation – con-
duct little heat, for thermal insulation it is usually necessary to fit an
­insulating layer in the gap. If the entire gap between the leaves is filled,
this is called double-leaf masonry with core insulation.

Full-fill This version increases the resistance to heat transfer, but not the
cavity walls thickness of the brick, and thus the thickness of the whole wall. The
­insulation can be in the form of blankets or strips fastened to the inner
leaf, or loose granules or mixtures, which are shaken into the gap; care
must be taken to distribute them evenly. The disadvantage of this struc-
ture lies in the fact that water can get in behind the front leaf. It is diffi-
cult to remove, and reduces the thermal insulation properties of the struc-
ture, as damp building materials transfer heat better than dry ones. The
insulation material must therefore be permanently water-resistant, and
joints and connection points must prevent water from penetrating. Softer
mineral fibre strips should be packed tightly, and plastic foams given a
stepped rebate or tongue and groove. Any damage caused by fixing the
blankets or the outer leaf should be sealed. If insulation material is poured
or shaken in, care should be taken that no material can fall out of the
drainage apertures, e.g. by installing a rustproof perforated grille.

Double-leaf masonry with insulation and air gap combines the

­advantages of the two above-mentioned constructions.

44 8:00 AM
 damp course

open perpend

Fig. 36: Ventilation aperture in double-leaf masonry

A layer of water-resistant thermal-insulation blankets or mats is Partial-fill cavity walls

a­ ttached to the inner leaf and separated from the outer leaf by an air gap
of at least 4 cm. This is more elaborate to build than other constructions.
As loadbearing, insulation, damp and weather protection are strictly sep-
arated, it offers the best properties, but the whole structure will be
thicker.

In all constructions, the inner leaf serves mainly to provide structural Inner leaf
stability and transfer load. It can be built with loadbearing bricks of a high
specific density; these have low resistance to heat transfer, but offer a
high level of sound insulation. Essentially, all standard bricks and mor-
tars approved by the building authorities can be used for the inner leaf.
>  Chapter Building materials As the inner side usually has a layer of internal ren-

dering applied to it that covers the bricks, large blocks can be used, run-
ning counter to the bonding rules, as they are built in random bond and
with a thin mortar bed, but are very strong. Supporting concrete ceilings
is not a problem for insulated versions. Thermal insulation can be placed
continuously in front of the inner leaf. The full area of the ceiling can be
supported by it and thermal insulation can be additionally improved
where appropriate by placing an insulating strip in front of it.

The external leaf protects the rest of the masonry from external fac- External leaf
tors and the weather. For this reason, only materials should be used that
are appropriate for these conditions and are not sensitive to frost, mois-
ture and the effects of being on the outside. Such units are offered by

8:00 AM
45
 Fig. 37: Ceiling support in double-leaf masonry

brick, calcium silicate and concrete block manufacturers as frost-proof,

facing or vitrified units. > Chapter Building materials Mortar manufacturers also
offer special frost-resistant mortars that absorb little water and are low
in efflorescence, i.e. do not discolour as a result of salt deposits.

The outer leaf determines the appearance of the building and is ide-
ally built in the commonly taught bonds described above. But this leaf
can absorb only its own self-weight and has to be fixed to the inner leaf
by wire anchors to secure it against wind pressure or suction, and avoid
Tiping over, collapsing or bulging. The number of anchors needed and
their diameter depend on the distance between the leaves and the height
of the wall. Separate attention should be paid to open edges of apertures,
corners of the building or expansion joints, as well as rounded parts of
the structure. The appropriate measures must be taken to prevent mois-
ture from being transported from the outer to the inner leaf, such as ­fitting
plastic discs so that the water can drip off in the gap.

Underpinning In addition to wall-anchor fixing, the outer leaf must be regularly

u­ nderpinned and attached to the inner leaf, so that at greater heights the
self-weight can be transferred evenly into the loadbearing leaf, as well
as being supported by the base. Rustproof bracket anchors and angle-­
brackets or thermally isolated ceiling projections are used for this.

46 8:00 AM
 drip disc

inner leaf outer leaf

Fig. 38: Wire anchors

bracket

angle

Fig. 39: Underpinning the outer leaf

The leaf must be secured against slipping away at the base. The first
run of anchors should therefore be placed as low as possible. The lower
sealing strip should extend to the front edge of the outer leaf.

The minimum thickness for the outer leaf is 9 cm. Anything thinner
is referred to as wall cladding. > Chapter External walls For reasons of space

8:00 AM
47
 open
perpend

>30
>10

Fig. 40: Plinth zone in twin-leaf masonry

and thus of expense, the outer leaf is usually half a brick thick, so the vis-
ible bonds are not regular, as the most commonly taught bonds (except
the stretcher bond) cannot be built in this way.

Apertures For aesthetic reasons, the bond should generally run throughout the
area of the wall. Apertures, windows and doors and any projections there-
fore need special anchors to hold the units in position. Lintels are often
built in soldier bond, which is however not a regular construction, unlike
the arch constructions described above, and cannot carry any load. The
bricks should therefore be supported by brackets, which is cheap, but vis-
ible from the outside. Or there may be an invisible joint reinforcement to
hold the bricks in place. Brick manufacturers also offer U-shells, which
are reinforced and filled with concrete. These constructions transfer the
load into the wall areas adjacent at the sides. All metal parts should be
rustproof, ideally made of stainless steel, as galvanized items can be dam-
aged in transport or fitting, and flaws are hard to see or reach after fitting.

Joints The outer leaf deforms differently from the inner leaf as a result of
temperature and weather. Vertical and horizontal movement joints should
therefore be planned for the outer leaf to absorb this deformation.
As  well  as the material-dependent distances between the expansion

48 8:00 AM
 built-in
angle visible

underpinning with support

angle

underpinning for prefabricated underpinning with edge-

lintel course holder

Fig. 41: Underpinning over wall apertures in twin-leaf masonry

joints, > Tab. 1 the walls should be separated at the corners on the basis
of factors relating to the points of the compass. The west wall expands
most, and the north wall least. These joints can however be offset by half
the gap between the joints towards the middle, if this is architecturally
desirable. Cracks around window sills caused by different loading of sill
and the masonry around it can also be prevented by expansion joints on
both sides. Structural reinforcement in the upper sill area may replace
these joints. Horizontal joints should always be planned under the
­underpinning.

Free-standing walls are very restricted in terms of height, as they are Non-loadbearing
supported only at the base point and have no stabilizing imposed load. external walls – ­
free-standing walls
The walls must therefore be thicker or stabilized by crosswalls or columns.
As they are outdoors and exposed to frost, they must use frost-resistant
materials and foundations and be protected against moisture. Horizon-
tal dampproof courses are needed above ground level, and the top of the
wall should be protected by blocks, metal sheeting or concrete coping
and damp courses.

8:00 AM
49
 expansion north wall expansion
joint joint

elastic
sealant

west wall
foam toroid

east wall
expansion joint
expansion
joint south wall
movement joint corner arrangement

Fig. 42: Elastic sealant

Tab. 1: Distance between joints

Masonry in Distance between the expansion joints in m

calcium silicate brick, 6–8
aerated concrete block,
concrete block
lightweight concrete block 4–6
brick 10–20
From: P. Schubert: "Zweischalige Aussenwände – Dehnungsfugen in der Aussenschale
(Verblendschale)", in: Mauerwerk 6/2003, Ernst & Sohn, Berlin, p.203

Figure 44 shows a comparison between different wall structures

u­ sing the same brick. The lower the given thermal transfer coefficient U,
the better the thermal insulation. The relationship of the results is more
◯ important than the precise value.

◯ Note: The thermal transfer coefficient is the inverse

value of the sum of all thermal transfer and transition
coefficients.

50 8:00 AM
 block, edge course waterproof concrete metal coping

Fig. 43: Wall copings

internal walls
Internal walls are not directly connected to the outdoors. They are
already protected from cold, rain and snow by the external walls, ceilings
and floors. Their main function is to separate internal areas, use zones
or sightlines. The separation may require greater sound insulation, e.g.
between dwellings, between bedrooms and living areas, between office
and production areas, or it may have a fire protection function.

Some inner walls also have to carry part of the load of the building,
or stiffen the building or individual sections of wall. They can thus be load-
bearing in direct connection with the adjacent structural elements, or
non-loadbearing, in which case all they have to do to avoid falling over is
transfer their self-weight and the horizontal loads on their area to other
structural elements. These different requirements are reflected in both
the dimensioning and the detail of the connection points. Specific den-
sity affects compressive strength and above all sound insulation, and
plays a key part in relation to internal walls. Here, units with a high mass
and specific density offer both great compressive strength and good
sound insulation.

Loadbearing internal walls stiffen the building and provide ceiling Loadbearing and
supports. To stiffen a wall, the connection with it should be tension- and stiffening internal
walls
compression-resistant; building materials with approximately the same
deformation behaviour should be chosen where possible for the sake of
stability. Connection is achieved by building both walls to the same height
in bond or by leaving gaps (socket connection) or protruding bricks

8:00 AM
51
 with external with thermal insulation compound thermal
rendering rendering insulation system
light mineral rendering thermal insulation rendering compound thermal insulation
2 cm 0.31 W/mK 3 cm 0.07 W/mK system 6 cm 0.035 W/mK
transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK
internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK

U=0.417 W/m²K U=0.362 W/m²K U=0.234 W/m²K

with cavity with core insulation with insulation and cavity

facing 11.5 cm 0.68 W/mK facing 11.5 cm 0.68 W/mK facing 11.5 cm 0.68 W/mK
cavity, wire anchors 4 cm core insulation 6 cm 0.35 W/mK cavity (wire anchors) 4 cm
transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK core insulation 6 cm 0.035 W/mK
internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK transverse brick 30 cm 0.14 W/mK
internal rendering 1.5 cm 0.7 W/mK
U=0.412 W/m²K U=0.236 W/m²K
U=0.242 W/m²K

Fig. 44: Comparison of wall construction types

(­projection connection) in the wall to be stiffened, which will be worked

on subsequently. The stiffening wall can thus be erected later, an advan-
tage if additional space is needed, e.g. for scaffolding. However, this
method does require additional reinforcing bars in the joints to absorb
the ­tensile forces.

52 8:00 AM
 An efficient alternative is butt walling, which also requires tensile
bars or anchors; the joint is pointed subsequently. This connection can
be used only at internal corners, and has the advantage that when con-
necting with the external walls the thermal insulation of the external wall
is not compromised by the intrusion of interlocking bricks from the inter-
nal wall, which could be made of different materials.

Walls separating adjacent dwellings must always be twin-leaf struc- Party walls
tures for sound insulation purposes. The cavity width depends on the
mass of the partitioning leaves; a width of 5 cm is recommended. The
cavity should be filled with tightly packed mineral fibre blankets cover-
ing the full surface. Sound insulation is improved further by lagging in
two layers with offset seams. Rigid foam sheets are inadmissible. Care
should always be taken that no mortar drops into the joint. When build-
ing or attaching ceilings, the insulation should always be continued above
the edge of the wall or ceiling.

Non-loadbearing internal walls may not be used for either stiffening Non-loadbearing
or load transfer, and must not be subjected to wind loads. They carry all internal walls

their self-weight and light bracket loads (e.g. shelves, pictures etc.), and
must transfer impact loads to adjacent structural elements. Wall lengths
have been calculated according to height, the way in which the wall is
­attached to adjacent structural elements (two-sided to four-sided mount-
ing), and possible imposed loads from ceiling deformations. They are
­presented in a table that may be used without acknowledgement. ●

Connections to adjacent structural elements can be rigid or sliding.

Rigid connections should be used when there is little load from other
structural elements that could lead to indirect stresses. They have good
sound insulation and fire protection properties, and are inconspicuous
as they are carried out without mortaring, steel inlays or interlocking.

Sliding connections are made using steel sections or sliding joint

a­ nchors and can absorb some deformations. These connections are very
elaborate and may be visible, or need to be covered.

● Important: Special calculations must be applied to

masonry with unpointed perpends!

8:00 AM
53
 anchor anchor

mortar

rigid wall connection with rigid wall connection with rigid wall connection with flat steel
groove (plan view) flat steel anchor (plan view) anchor (section)

joint sealant

steel angle foam cord

and sealant

insulation

sliding wall connections sliding ceiling connection sliding ceiling connection with
(plan view) wall supported on three sides
with free upper edge

Fig. 45: Rigid and moving connections

Slots and gaps

When dimensioning walls, care should be taken when compromising
the cross-section with slots and holes, e.g. for electrical or sanitary
­installations. Limiting values must not be exceeded. Many manufac­turers
offer special masonry units that already provide apertures for ­installations.

54 8:00 AM
8:00 AM
55
Building materials
Earlier chapters describe masonry units in general terms and distin-
guish them only in terms of dimensions, geometry or the place where
they are to be used. The question now arises of which material is suit-
able for a particular construction and the functions it has to perform. Var-
ious kinds of brick and mortar are listed and distinguished below.

masonry unit types

In addition to the many types of natural stone, which will not be con-
sidered in detail here because they are so seldom used as pure masonry
units in building construction, there is an equally wide variety of artifi-
cially manufactured bricks and blocks. To fulfil the functions of masonry
– supporting, separating, facing, insulating, protecting – they are finished
in a variety of ways, and have many different properties. The following
summary can be made on the basis of the above-mentioned relationship
between the unit’s specific density and the requirements:

high dry specific density = good compressive strength

high dry specific density = good sound insulation
low dry specific densit = good thermal insulation

Masonry standards: The harmonized European product number series EN 771 (Specifica-
harmonized European tion for masonry units) is valid in the EU states. The series consists of:
product standard

EN 771-1 Clay masonry units

EN 771-2 Calcium silicate masonry units
EN 771-3 Aggregate concrete masonry units
EN 771-4 Autoclaved aerated concrete masonry units
EN 771-5 Manufactured stone masonry units (dense and
­lightweight masonry units)
EN 771-6 Natural stone masonry units

The standards establish basic specifications for source materials,

manufacture, requirements, description and testing of masonry units.
They do not fix precise sizes, nominal dimensions and angles. To be traded
in Europe, construction products in these categories must carry the CE
mark as a sign of compliance with the standards. Approval of products,
● and thus permission to use them, is still a national responsibility.

56 7:59 AM
 ● Important: In Germany, the so-called user standards are used to translate the CE classi­
fication values to make them compatible with national standards. These provide precise
values or admissible fields for the declared specifications (DIN V 20000-401 to DIN V
20000-404). Since the European standards do not address some requirements that have
already been introduced, which are therefore not covered by the usage standards, so-called
residual standards were added for the sake of completeness:

DIN V 105-100 Clay units with specific properties

DIN V 106-100 Calcium silicate units with specific properties
DIN V 4165-100 Autoclaved aerated concrete units – high-precision units and elements
with specific properties
DIN V 18151-100 Lightweight concrete hollow blocks – hollow blocks with specific
­properties
DIN V 18152-100 Lightweight concrete solid bricks and blocks – solid bricks and blocks
with specific properties
DIN V 18153-100 Concrete masonry units – masonry units with specific properties

These also regulate all previously valid product properties, characteristics and differentia-
tions and lay down precise values and specifications in table form, e.g. for compressive
strength and specific density classes, and for unit perforations.

standard masonry units

The clay brick is one of the oldest artificial building materials in the Clay masonry units
world. Bricks were made as long as 4000 years ago in the Haruppa ­cities
on the Indus, and even then they had roughly the same dimensions and
shape as today’s standard brick. At first, mud bricks were baked in the
sun, then the fired clay brick developed into a high-tech product, porous
and thus offering excellent heat insulation when made with combustible
aggregates, or protection against the elements when fired to the point of
sintering; it gave us our current image of masonry. Its form, finish and
material were developed even further, and now come in a wide variety of
units, with form and performance fixed precisely by standards. The brick
stands for both a long tradition of craftsmanship and a progressive and
economical building material. It is made by mixing loam and clay, pressed
and extruded as a ribbon, cut into appropriate sizes and fired.

The harmonized standard EN-771 makes a distinction between LD

and HD bricks, and divides them into categories I and II, which fix a
­tolerance limit for maintaining compressive strength and thus quality. To
be classified in category I the probability of deviating from the declared
compressive strength must not be above 5%. All the rest of the units in
category II are no longer accepted by the national standards.

7:59 AM
57
 Fig. 46: Clay masonry units

LD bricks are used mainly by the internal loadbearing leaf of a twin-

leaf structure or for rendered single-leaf masonry, as they have a low dry
density (<1000 kg/m3) and thus good thermal insulation properties. This
is achieved by adding polystyrene beads or sawdust that burn when the
brick is fired and leave tiny pores. They may be used only for masonry
protected from penetrating water.

Tab. 2: Bricks

Material: Clay, loam, clayey masses

Aggregates: Sawdust, polystyrene beads (optional)
Manufacture: Moulded and fired
Dimensions: In mm (e.g. 240 × 300 × 238) and in multiples of DF (e.g. 10DF)

Unit types Strength class* Density class*

LD bricks Vertically perforated brick 6–12 0.7–0.9
Thermal insulation brick
HD bricks Solid brick 8–28 (36**) 1.6–2.2
Vertically perforated brick 8–20 (36**) 1.2–1.6
Solid facing brick 8–28 (36**) 1.8–2.2
Vertically perforated facing brick 8–28 (36**) 1.2–1.6
Solid engineering brick 28 1.8–2.2
Vertically perforated engineering brick 28 1.8–2.2
Solid engineering brick 60 1.8–2.2
Vertically perforated high-strength 60 1.8–2.2
engineering brick
Panel brick
* Common classes
** Values for high-strength bricks or engineering bricks (without special abbreviations)

58 7:59 AM
 HD bricks with a gross dry density of >1000 kg/m3 are suitable for
both protected and unprotected masonry. This includes resistant units
for the outer leaf and heavy sound-insulating units for the internal walls.

In these categories we distinguish:

Solid bricks HD bricks with perpendicular perfora-

tion that takes up a maximum of 15%
of the bed face or 20% of the volume.
Vertically perforated bricks LD or HD bricks with vertical perfora-
tion of between 15% and 50% of the
bed face. Here a distinction is made
between perforation types A, B, C and
W.
Heat insulation bricks LD bricks with higher thermal insula-
tion specifications and a special per-
foration type.
Solid vertically perforated A category of brick that is frost-resist-
facing bricks ant as well as meeting the above per-
foration specifications.
Solid and vertically perfo- HD bricks with a vitrified surface.
rated engineering bricks They absorb only minimal quantities
of water, have a compressive strength
of at least class 28, are frost-resistant
and have higher specific density
­requirements. Here a distinction is
made according to the above-men-
tioned criteria between solid units and
vertically perforated units with holes
A, B, C. High-strength engineering
bricks must achieve a compressive
strength of at least class 36.
High-strength engineering These have a compressive strength
bricks of at least lass 60 and a specific den-
sity of 1.4. They are particularly resist-
ant and durable.
Panel bricks These have channels to take mortar
or  concrete when constructing rein-
forced masonry.

Additional stipulations concern the shape of grip openings that make

the bricks easier to handle, or the form of mortar pockets or tongue and
groove systems that work without visible mortar application to the per-
pends.

7:59 AM
59
Fig. 47: Calcium silicate units

Calcium sili­cate units Calcium silicate units have been made only since they were patented
in 1880. Unlike bricks, they are not fired. Instead, a mixture of sand, ­water
and lime is hardened under high pressure.

As for clay bricks, a distinction is made between solid calcium sili-

cate bricks and perforated calcium bricks according to the proportion of
holes: the upper limit is 15% of the bed face. Both sorts must have a unit
height of less then 113 mm. Higher units are called calcium silicate blocks
or hollow calcium silicate blocks. Calcium silicate facing bricks and cal-
cium silicate engineering bricks are available for masonry exposed to
weathering. Calcium silicate prefabricated bricks are available where

Tab. 3: Calcium silicate units

Material: Lime, sand (quartz sand), water

Aggregates: Dyes and additives
Manufacture: Mixed, moulded and hardened under pressure
Dimensions: In mm (e.g. 240 × 300 × 238) and in multiples of DF (e.g. 10DF)

Unit types Strength class* Density class*

calcium silicate solid brick 12–28 1.6-2.0
calcium silicate perforated/ 12–20 1.2-1.6
hollow block
calcium silicate facing brick, 12–28 1.6-2.0
solid brick
calcium silicate facing brick, 20–28 1.6-2.0
solid brick
calcium silicate facing brick/ 12–20 1.4-1.6
perforated brick
calcium silicate facing brick, 20 1.4-1.6
perforated brick
calcium silicate prefabricated bricks
calcium silicate prefabricated elements
* Common classes

60 7:59 AM
Fig. 48: Porous concrete units

­appropriate for laying in thin-bed mortar and calcium silicate R units,

which require no mortar for their perpends because of their tongue and
groove system. > Chapters Rules of construction, Finishing rules, and New approaches

This type was also developed in the late 19th century. For the man- Aerated concrete
ufacture of aerated concrete units, a mixture of quartz sand, lime and units

­cement is poured moulds with water and provided with steel mesh rein-
forcement according to purpose. Powdered aluminium is used as an
expanding agent, increasing the proportion of pores to 90% of the mate-
rial’s volume through the release of hydrogen. The unmoulded material
is cut and hardened under pressure.

Porous concrete is like the natural mineral tobermorite and is offers

high thermal and sound insulation because of its high porosity.

Large-format aerated concrete blocks or prefabricated units for

­thin-bed mortar are used for loadbearing walls.

Tab. 4: Aerated and light concrete units

Material: Lime, quartz sand, cement, water, expanding agent to form pores (aluminium)
Aggregates:
Manufacture: Mixed, moulded and hardened under pressure
Dimensions: In mm (e.g. 240 × 300 × 238)

Unit types Strength class* Density class*

Aerated concrete block unit 2-4 0.4-0.7
Aerated concrete prefabricated unit 2-4 0.4-0.7
Aerated concrete slab Non-loadbearing
Prefabricated aerated concrete slab Non-loadbearing
* Common classes

7:59 AM
61
Fig. 49: Concrete and lightweight concrete units

Aerated concrete slabs and prefabricated slabs are used only for
non-loadbearing walls with different loadbearing systems, and for sound
insulation walls.

Storey-height elements and ceiling slabs complete the product pro-

gramme as additions to classical masonry construction.

Tab. 5: Concrete and lightweight concrete bricks and slabs

Material: Mineral aggregates and hydraulic binding agents

Aggregates: Pumice, expanded clay for lightweight concrete
Manufacture: Mixed, moulded
Dimensions: In mm (e.g. 240 × 300 × 238) and in multiples of DF (e.g. 10DF)

Brick types Category Strength class* Density class*

Concrete bricks
Solid concrete bricks 12-20 1.6-2.0
Solid concrete bricks 12-20 1.6-2.0
Hollow concrete bricks 2-12 0.8-1.4
Concrete facing bricks 12-20 1.6-2.0
Concrete facing block 12-20 1.6-2.0
Lightweight concrete bricks
Solid lightweight concrete bricks 2-6 0.6-2.0
Solid lightweight concrete blocks 12 1.6-2.0
with slots
with slots and special thermal 0.5-0.7**
insulation properties
Prefabricated bricks
Hollow 2-6 0.5-0.7
Lightweight concrete wall elements Non-loadbearing
Hollow lightweight concrete wall Non-loadbearing
elements
* Common classes
** Standard specification – to clarify special thermal insulation properties

62 7:59 AM
 strength class (average value)
30

25

20
strength class

15

10

hollow lightweight
HD solid brick

LD hollow brick

HD solid engineering brick

calcium silicate solid brick

calcium silicate perforated

and hollow block

aerated concrete
prefabricated block

solid concrete brick

hollow concrete block

solid lightweight
concrete brick

concrete block
Fig. 50: Comparative strength classes

Concrete and lightweight concrete units are cast in moulds and Concrete and light­-
stored until they reach their ultimate strength. The difference between weight concrete units

the two lies in the nature of the aggregates. Only lightweight aggregates
with a porous microstructure (primarily natural pumice or expanded clay)
may be used for lightweight concrete.

A distinction is made here in terms of dimensions as well as aggre-

gates. Solid bricks are limited to a height of 115 mm, which distinguishes
them from solid blocks, which are 175 mm or 238 mm high. Neither type
is permitted to have cells, but only grip openings. Hollow blocks with a
preferred height of 238 mm do have cells, whose number precedes the
unit category (e.g. 3K). Facing units or facing blocks must be used in
­situations with weathering.

Lightweight concrete units are distinguished according to the same

criteria between solid bricks, solid blocks and hollow blocks. There are
also bricks with slots and special insulating properties, identified by the
endings -S or -SW, and prefabricated bricks.

Lightweight concrete wall construction elements and hollow wall

­elements are manufactured for non-loadbearing walls.

7:59 AM
63
 specific density (average value)
2.5

2
specific density

1.5

0.5

0
ck

ck

ck

ck

ck

k
loc
ric

ric

ric
ric

blo

blo

blo
bri

bri

db

eb

eb
gb

eb
lid

ted

e
ret

ret
rin

oli
llo

ret

ret
llo
so

ica
ee

nc

nc
ho

nc
ho

nc
HD

te
gin

co

co
r

co
co
LD

ica

arb
d
an
en

li d

ht

ht
w
sil

ref

eig
llo
so
d

eig
lid

um

ate

ep

ho

htw
so

htw
lci

for

ret
HD

lig
ca

lig
er

nc

lid
p

w
co

llo
te

so
ed
ica

ho
rat
sil

ae
um
lci
ca

Fig. 51: Comparative specific density classes

Types of mortar for masonry

Mortar is made up of binding agents, admixtures and additives.
­ dmixtures affect mortar properties such as frost resistance or worka-
A
bility, and may be added in larger quantities. Additives change the prop-
erties of the mortar through chemical and physical processes and may
be used to a limited extent only. They include liquefiers, retarders and air
entrainers. The components are supplied either individually and mixed
● on site (site-mixed mortar), or are delivered to the site ready-mixed.

All the components except the water can be supplied ready-mixed

(premixed dry mortar), or to save time the ready-made mortar can be
supplied to the site from the factory. Retarders allow for the necessary
working time (ready-mixed mortar). For premixed dry mortar, only the
non-hardening materials are mixed, so water and cement have to be
added on site. One variant of ready-mixed mortar is supplied as mul-
ti-chamber silo mortar. Here the components are mixed on site as well,
but without the possibility of altering the mixing ratio.

64 7:59 AM
Tab. 6: Mortar types

Mortar type Mortar class Forms available

Abbreviations according to EN 998-2 according to EN 998-2
(only CE sign)
Normal-weight mortar (G) Premixed dry mortar
Ready-mixed mortar
Multi-chamber silo mortar
(building-site mortars in Germany)
M2,5
M5
M10
M15
M30
Lightweight mortar (L) Premixed dry mortar
Ready-mixed mortar
Multi-chamber silo mortar
M10
M10
Thin-bed mortar (T) Premixed dry mortar
M15

Just like masonry units, mortar for masonry is subject to precisely

specified manufacture, inspection, categorization and property defini-
tion. The harmonized product standard DIN EN 998-2 applies in the EU. ●

This divides masonry mortar into three types: normal-weight mortar

(G), lightweight mortar (L) and thin-bed mortar (T).

Normal-weight mortar differs from lightweight mortar in terms of its

dry gross density m, which must be at least 1500 kg/m3, while lightweight
mortar has a dry density of less than 1300 kg/m3. Thin-bed mortar was
developed specially for gauged bricks and reduces the mortar height to

● Important: Site-mixed mortar is not covered by ● Important: Similarly to bricks, the national stan-
­ uropean standards. National user or working stan­
E dards DIN V 20000-412 (user standard) and DIN 18580
dards must be consulted here. (residual standard) apply additionally in Germany. But
essentially the specifications of DIN 1053-1 still apply.

7:59 AM
65
 1–3 mm. Here the dry density may not be less than 1500 kg/m3 and the
maximum aggregate particle size is 2 mm. All mortar types are allocated
to the mortar groups M1–M30 according to their compressive strength;
the compressive strength value is given in N/mm2. If a mortar complies
● with DIN EN 998-2 it is marked with the CE sign.

● Important: Masonry mortars show considerable

­ iscrepancies between the European standard and
d
the stipulations of DIN 1053 in Germany. Here pre-
cise attention must be paid to the user and residual
­standards!

66 7:59 AM
 In conclusion
The information contained in this book can give only a rough guide
to the many possibilities offered by masonry construction. For this rea-
son, it does not generally cover the regulations laid down in the differ-
ent national standards, which sometimes differ. These will have to be
­addressed separately, using the list of standards in the Appendix. But the
knowledge presented does provide the necessary basis for understand-
ing the essential rules of the craft and the areas in which masonry is used,
and makes it possible for the reader to continue independently.

Many regular constructions can be explored using the principles

shown in the second chapter, which present an extensive design reper-
toire for the planner. The constructions listed in the third chapter will
make it easier to put the legal rulings and standards in context. Problems
arising from related topics such as concrete construction or facades, or
more ­advanced expositions of structural behaviour or building science,
will be more readily understood. Information from manufacturers and
dealers, which the internet is turning into an increasingly wide and im-
portant ­reference source for planners, is made easier to filter by the de-
tails given in the fourth chapter, when making selections for future build-
ing ­commissions.

All in all, these “Basics” make it possible to explore the diverse world
of masonry construction and approach it correctly.

8:01 AM
67
Appendix
standards

Masonry units:
EN 771-1 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 1: Clay masonry units
versions)
EN 771-2 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 2: Calcium silicate masonry units
versions)
EN 771-3 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 3: Aggregate concrete masonry
versions) units (dense and lightweight aggregates)
EN 771-4 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 4: Autoclaved aerated concrete
versions) masonry units
EN 771-5 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 5: Manufactured stone masonry
versions) units
EN 771-6 (consult national Specifications for bricks – Part 6: Natural stone masonry units
versions)

Masonry mortar:
EN 998-2 (consult national Specifications for mortar in masonry structures –
versions) Part 2: Masonry mortar

Other building parts and materials:

EN 845-1 (consult national Specifications for additional parts for masonry –
versions) Part 1: Anchors, tie members, bearings and brackets

Loads and forces:

EN V 1996-1-1 Eurocode 6: Dimensioning and constructing masonry buildings
Part 1-1: General rules – rules for reinforced and non-reinforced
masonry

68 8:01 AM
Literature
Kenneth Burke: Perspectives by Incongruity, Indiana University Press,
Bloomington 1964
Francis D. K. Ching: Building Construction Illustrated, 5th edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 2014
Construction Products Directive: Directive of the Council of
21 December 1988 (89/106/EEC)
Andrea Deplazes (ed.): Constructing Architecture, Birkhäuser, Basel
2013
Jacques Heyman: The Stone Skeleton: Stuctural Engineering of Masonry
Architecture, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1995
Theodor Hugues, Klaus Greilich, Christine Peter: Detail Practice:
­Building with Large Clay Blocks and Panels, Birkhäuser, Basel 2005
Ernst Neufert, Peter Neufert: Architects’ Data, 4th edition,
John Wiley & Sons, 2012
Andrea Palladio: I Quattro Libri dell’ Architettura, English translation by
Robert Tavernor, MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts 1997
Günter Pfeifer, Rolf Ramcke, Joachim Achtziger, Konrad Zilch: Masonry
Construction Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel 2001
Andrew Watts: Modern Construction Roofs, Springer, Wien New York
2006

picture credits
Illustration page 10: Bert Bielefeld, Nils Kummer
Illustration page 34: Bert Bielefeld, Nils Kummer
Illustration page 55: Gesellschaft Weltkulturgut Hansestadt Lübeck,
Willy-Brandt-Allee 19, 23554 Lübeck
Figures 1–51: Nils Kummer
Figure 26: supported by: Bert Bielefeld and Kalksandstein-Info GmbH
(see Figure 47)
Figures 39, 41: supported by: Deutsche Kahneisen GmbH,
­Nobelstrasse 51–55, 12057 Berlin, www.jordahl.de
Figures 44, 46: supported by: Wienerberger Ziegelindustrie GmbH,
­Oldenburger Allee 36, 30659 Hanover, www.wienerberger.de
Figure 47: supported by: Kalksandstein-Info GmbH, Entenfangweg 15,
30419 Hanover, www.kalksandstein.de
Figure 48: supported by: Bundesverband Porenbetonindustrie e.V.,
Dostojewskistrasse10, 65187 Wiesbaden, www.bv-porenbeton.de
Figure 49: supported by: Meier Betonwerk GmbH, Industriestrasse 3,
09236 Claussnitz/OT Diethensdorf, www.meier-mauersteine.de

8:04 AM
69
THE AUTHOR
Nils Kummer, architect, has worked for various clients and employ-
ers in the public and private sectors since graduating from TU Dortmund.
He has managed national and international projects and his writings and
drawings have been published by various publishers.

70 8:11 AM
8:11 AM
8:11 AM
8:11 AM
Series editor: Bert Bielefeld This work is subject to copyright. All rights are
Concept: Bert Bielefeld, Annette Gref reserved, whether the whole or part of the
Translation from German into English: ­material is concerned, specifically the rights of
Michael Robinson translation, reprinting, re-use of illustrations,
English copy editing: Monica Buckland recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
Layout print edition: ­Andreas Hidber ­microfilms or in other ways, and storage in
EPUB production: Kösel Media, Krugzell ­databases. For any kind of use, permission
of the copyright owner must be obtained.
Quotation page 7: Detail Review of Architecture,
10/2005, Munich, page 1066 This publication is also available as a softcover
(ISBN 978-3-7643-7645-1) and in a German
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication language edition (ISBN PDF 978-3-0356-1251-6;
data ISBN EPUB 978-3-0356-1146-5).
A CIP catalog record for this book has been
­applied for at the Library of Congress. © 2015 Birkhäuser Verlag GmbH, Basel
P.O. Box 44, 4009 Basel, Switzerland
Bibliographic information published by the Part of Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
­ erman National Library
G
The German National Library lists this publi­ ISBN 978-3-0356-1277-6 PDF
cation in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; ISBN 978-3-0356-1217-2 EPUB
­detailed bibliographic data are available on
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8:11 AM