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Fundamentals of fiberglass

Introduction
Composites are materials made up of two individual components who’s combined
physical strength exceeds the properties of either of them individually. The rein-
forced plastic composite consists of a fibrous reinforcing network embedded in the
cured resin matrix. The thermosetting type resin is a plastic that cures from a liquid
to a solid through a chemical reaction of its two components. Once this reaction oc-
curs, the material can not be reformed.
A typical thermosetting epoxy resin has a tensile strength below 10,000 psi
and is quite brittle. When such a resin is reinforced with glass fibers the resulting
composite can have a tensile strength between 45,000-50,000 psi. It also becomes
extremely resistant to impact damage. This high strength for the relatively low
weight is the fundamental reason that fiberglass composites are popular. Another
significant reason is their tailorability. Since the reinforcement can be added in any
direction, layers can be built up which are perfectly oriented with the stress the
part is to encounter. This saves additional weight by removing unnecessary mate-
rial from areas with little stress. Other reasons for composite popularity are how
easily these materials can be formed into complex shapes, that they have superior
resistance to most environments and they can be used by most individuals without
a major investment in equipment.
Fiberglass is only one type of reinforcement. Other common types are car-
bon fiber and Kevlar® . These will be explained shortly in greater detail where their
importance and variety can be covered adequately.

Brief Glossary Of Composite Terms

MOLDING: Molding is the process of constructing a part within a mold. Typically,
precut reinforcement is placed one layer at a time into the mold and saturated with
resin. When the part has achieved the desired thickness and orientation, it is left to
cure. When it is demolded, it will have the exact shape of the mold surface.
LAMINATING: Laminating originally referred to applying a thin protective coating
of resin and reinforcement over a surface such as wood. The term’s use has broad-
ened to include virtually any finished composite part, molded or otherwise. A cur-
rent example would be: “The part tested was a 10-ply vacuum bagged laminate”.
LAMINATION SCHEDULE: A list of the individual layers and orientation of the
plies used to construct a composite part. Typically specifies the ounce weight of the
reinforcement and the weave style.
CASTING: Casting refers to pouring a large mass of resin into a cavity. The cavity
can be a mold when casting parts, or it can be the backside filler for a tool when
making the mold itself. Specialized casting resins are necessary which generate less
heat during their cure and thus create less distortion in the final part. Fibrous fillers
can be added as needed to strengthen the casting.
SCULPTING: Sculpting is usually accomplished by carving a shape out of polyure-
thane foam and then laminating the surface. This can be done to create a plug for
the molding process, or to shape a finished part in the case of moldless construc-
tion.

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 Reinforcement Types, Properties, and Styles
The physical properties of composites are fiber dominant. This means that when
resin and fiber are combined, their performance remains most like the individual
fiber properties. For example, it is not satisfactory to merely average the tensile
strengths of fabric and resin to determine the strength of a panel. Test data shows
that the fibrous reinforcement is the component carrying the majority of the load.
For this reason, fabric selection is critical when designing composite structures.
The average fabricator has a choice of three types of reinforcing materials
with which to construct a project. These are fiberglass, carbon fiber, and Kevlar®.
All three have their attributes and short comings, and are available in numerous
forms and styles.
The most widely accepted and least expensive reinforcement if fiberglass .
It has been used successfully in many applications since the 1950’s, and much is
known about its properties. It is relatively lightweight, has moderate tensile and
compressive strength, is tolerant of both damage and cyclical loading, and is easy
to handle and machine.
Carbon fiber is a modern reinforcement characterized by extremely low
weight, high tensile strength, and high stiffness. The material handles easily and
can be molded much like fiberglass. However, some advanced techniques are nec-
essary to achieve the maximum properties of this material. Carbon fiber is also the
most expensive of the reinforcing fibers. This fact often limits its use to parts need-
ing selective reinforcement or high stiffness with the least weight.
Kevlar®, the most common aramid type fiber, offers a third reinforcement
option. Kevlar exhibits the lowest density of any fiber reinforcement, high tensile
strength for its weight, and superior toughness. It is priced favorably between
fiberglass and carbon fiber. Kevlar is puncture and abrasion resistant, making it the
reinforcement of choice for canoes, kayaks, and leading edges of airfoils. On the
down side, Kevlar is difficult to cut and machine during part fabrication. A pair of
sharp scissors should be dedicated solely to cutting Kevlar. It also has a low service
temperature and poor compressive properties. It is possible to combine Kevlar with
other materials creating a hybrid laminate to compensate for the shortcomings.
The following is a chart comparing the relative properties of reinforcing fabrics. The legend is as follows:
P=Poor, F=Fair, G=Good, E=Excellent
Specifications Fiberglass Carbon Kevlar®

Density P E E

Tensile Strength F E G

Compressive G E P
Strength

Stiffness F F G

Fatigue Resis- G-E G E

tance

Abrasion Resis- F F E
tance

Sanding / E E P
Machining

Conductivity P E P

Heat Resistance E E F

Mositure Resis- G G F
tance

Resin Compatibil- E E F
ity

Cost E P F

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Forms Of The Reinforcement
These three reinforcements can be purchased in many forms and weaving styles.
All three are generally available in tow (pure unidirectional fiber form), veil mats ,
and woven fabrics. Fiberglass is also offered in a pressed chopped strand mat op-
tion.
TOWS OR ROVINGS : Material in this form exhibits the highest properties achiev-
able for a given fiber family. They are typically supplied on spools so that they may
be fed into filament winders or unrolled and cut as they are needed for selective
stiffening. The fibers must remain in tension as the resin cures or the mechanical
advantage is lost. Once in service, kinks in the tow must first be pulled straight be-
fore the fiber will hold a load. Obviously, the straighter the initial fabric placement ,
the better. It is possible to wind extremely strong tubes using this form of material.
VEIL MATS. Veil mats are thin plies of continuous strand fibers that are looped
randomly throughout the roll of material. It has the consistency of tissue paper. A
light binder is present to hold the veil together. While it is not intended for structur-
al use, it has two very important functions. First, it can be placed I the mold direct-
ly behind the surface coat to minimize the print through of the heavier reinforcing
cloths applied later. This thin outer coating also permits some surface sanding of
finished parts without cutting into the reinforcing fabric below. The second larg-
est use is with sandwich cores. A veil mat may be placed directly over the core to
maintain the optimum bond-line thickness. Veil is also effective at keeping excess
resin from draining into the cells of honeycomb cores when a vacuum is not being
used.
CHOPPED STRAND FIBERGLASS MAT . This material is just what the name
implies. The fibers are typically 3-4 inches in length and are randomly oriented.
Chopped strand mat is not a very strong material because of the short fiber length.
However, it is isotropic. This means that it is equally strong in all directions. Mat
and fillers are the only composite reinforcements exhibiting this trait. This is the
least expensive reinforcement form and is thus the most widely used. It is suitable
for molds and part production. The random orientation effectively hides fabric print
through of gelcoats and makes molds which are equally stiff in all directions. It
should be noted that chopped strand mat is only compatible with polyester resin.
WOVEN FABRICS. Woven fabrics are strong reinforcements because the fibers are
bundled into yarns oriented in just two directions. The warp and fill yarns run at
0 and 90 degrees respectively. Thus, fabrics are anisotropic, or strong in only two
directions. Fabrics need to be oriented so the fiber yarns run parallel to the expect-
ed loads. If extra strength is needed in a different direction, another ply must be
added at an angle to the first. The most common angles are +/- 45 degrees.
Styles Of Woven Fabrics
There are many styles of woven fabric to choose from. The most common are the
plain weave fabrics where the warp and fill threads cross alternately. Plain woven
fabrics are generally the lease pliable, but are easy to cut and handle because they
don’t unravel badly. However, their strength is compromised due to the severe
“prebuckling” already present in the fabric. As stated under tows, fibers only pro-
duce their greatest strength when they are perfectly straight. The frequent over/
under crossing of the threads reduces the strength of plain weave types, though
they are still adequate for all but the highest performance applications.
Twill weaves and satin fabrics are highly pliable and stronger than the plain
weave styles. In a satin weave, 1 filling yarn floats over 3-7 other warp threads be-
fore being stitched under another warp thread. Threads run straighter much longer
in this loosely woven type, maintaining the theoretical strengths of the fiber. Obvi-
ously, pliability is higher and these fabrics conform easily to complex shapes. Once
cut, however, they can unravel easier because each thread is not held as tightly.
Twill weaves offer a compromise between the satin and plain weave types, as well
as an often desirable herringbone cosmetic finish.

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Practical Guide To Selecting Reinforcements
One must first consider the needs of the finished part. List how stiff , lightweight,
abrasion resistant, or damage tolerant the structure needs to be. Don’t forget to
consider cost as well. Compare the list to the description of the materials and the
chart referenced above to select the best compromise. It is in relation to perfor-
mance versus cost that fiberglass remains quite a value.
In general, any plain weave fabric can be used for laminating a protective
layer over wood. If the laminate is for marine use, no fewer than two layers should
be considered. Lightweight fabrics are good if the protective layer is to be transpar-
ent such as on strip built canoes. Medium weight plain weaves between 6 and 10
ounces/ sq yd. are perhaps the most versatile. Typically called boat cloths , they
are inexpensive, strong, and easily formed. They are often combined with layers of
mat when building molds, or used to protect the core in moldless construction.
The aerospace satin and twill weaves should be used wherever the highest
physical properties are needed.
Selecting Resin
Resin selection is based on fabric compatibility, service conditions, and the desired
characteristics of the finished part. There are two common types of thermosetting
resin to choose from: epoxy and polyester. Moldmaking, molding, laminating and
casting operations can be performed with either system. Epoxy is the higher per-
formance and higher priced system. It is used in weight critical, high strength, and
dimensionally accurate applications. Polyester resins are less expensive, offer more
corrosion resistance, and are more forgiving than epoxies. For this reason, they are
the most widely used.
Certain resins are not compatible with all fabrics. For instance, Kevlar of-
ten exhibits adhesion problems, so epoxy or the highest grade polyester should be
used. Also, fiberglass mats have a polyester soluble binder. Epoxies cannot dissolve
this, and should never be used with mat. Check material compatibility thoroughly
when designing the project.

The following are some loose recommendations for resin selection.

ADHESIVE APPLICATIONS. When an application require adhesive properties, ep-
oxies are strongly advised. Choose the epoxy with the pot-life closest to the work-
ing time required. Milled glass fiber can be blended to create a structural filler paste
when needed.
MOLDING APPLICATIONS are best done with part # 77 POLYESTER MOLDING
RESIN or any medium to long life epoxy. Precut the fabric reinforcement and keep
it readily at hand. Use brushes, squeegees, and saturation rollers to wet-out the
fabric. For parts which will be used in heavily corrosive environments, select our
part # 90 ISOPHTHALIC POLYESTER RESIN or our part # 1110 VINYL ESTER RES-
IN.
GENERAL PURPOSE REPAIR AND THIN LAMINATIONS are best accomplished
with a waxed polyester resin like part # 83. If an epoxy is chosen, use a short pot-
life version which will cure faster when spread in thin sections.
MINIMUM DISTORTION. Epoxies always provide the most dimensionally stable
parts and molds, but a premium grade polyester resin such as part # 90 ISOPH-
THALIC POLYESTER RESIN can be used successfully.
CASTING: Thick sections can be cast with the part # 2000/2120 slow cure epoxy
system or with part # 99 CLEAR POLYESTER CASTING RESIN . Standard resins are
not recommended to be poured in a mass large enough for casting.

Selecting Tools
Compared to classical machining and toolmaking, few dedicated tools are necessary
when working with composites. However, there are a number of items which make
the job easier while improving production quality.
Convenience items like clean mixing tubs, scales , and other measuring
equipment, quality scissors , and plenty of gloves are simple items which are often
overlooked. Squeegees, brushes and rollers are the recommended applicators for
saturating the reinforcement with resin. Squeegees and saturation rollers can also
be used to work air from the laminate and compress the layers of fabric. Razor

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knives and jig saws are needed to trim finished parts and molds. Use quality com-
posite blades with a medium tooth count to speed the cut. Mechanical sanders,
grinders, and buffers are helpful on larger jobs, but the work can be done by hand
given enough time and effort. The final equipment recommendation would be a fab-
ric cut-rack to hold and store the material. The rack supports the fabric horizontally
on its tube, and can be made with simple construction materials.

Estimating Material Weights And Cost

Accurate material estimates are necessary for two reasons.First, they obviously are
needed for proper ordering, material stocking, and bidding of projects. More impor-
tantly though, estimates offer the opportunity to calculate the weight or cost of the
part using a variety of laminating schedules before beginning to build.
Unlike estimating coverage when painting, resin usage will vary depending
on the type of reinforcement being used. The heavier the fabric, the more resin it
will take to wet it out. A good hand laminate consists of about 50% fabric and 50%
resin by weight. For example, if an application requires 3 sq yds of a 4 oz/sq yd
fabric (total fabric weight = 12 ounces), 12 oz of resin will also be needed. How-
ever, if 3 yards of 10 oz/sq yd fabric is chosen (total fabric weight = 30 ounces), 30
oz. of resin will be needed.
Glass mat requires a minimum of 2 ounces of resin for each ounce of mat.
Therefore, it the application calls for 20 sq feet of 1-1/2 oz/sq ft mat, it will require
a minimum of 60 ounces of resin. Remember that mat is specified in ounces per
square foot, where fabrics are specified in ounces per square yard. 1-1/2 oz/ sq ft
chopped mat actually weighs 13.5 oz/ sq yd!
Since there are so many possible combinations of materials, one should cal-
culate the weight and cost of a single layer using a variety of reinforcements. These
can then be added or subtracted form the theoretical laminate until the design
properties are achieved.

Worksheet For Estimating Materials

1) Begin by calculating the surface area of the project. Estimate irregular shapes
by measuring the approximate sized rectangles necessary to contain the tapered
areas. Multiply the length times the width for each rectangle, and then add all of
individual rectangles together to get the total surface area of the part. If the calcu-
lation is in square feet, divide by 9 to get square yards.
2) Make a list of each type of reinforcement being considered for the lamination.
Multiply the square yards calculated above times the ounce weight of the fabric.
This is the total weight of one layer of that material. It is also the amount of resin
required to saturate it. When this is known for two or three different types of mate-
rials, it is possible to calculate the weight and cost of a laminate constructed from
any combination of these fabrics. To convert the ounce weight to pounds, divide by
16. Those inexperienced in saturating fiberglass tend to use far too much resin. A
well saturated laminate is uniformly translucent, without milky appearing dry spots,
but for the sake of weight and cost, has little excess resin in it.
3) The final step is to calculate gel coat, primer coat, and surfacing primer usage.

All but the very lightest of molded laminations require a gel coat. This gel coat
should be 15-20 mils in thickness.

A 20 mil gel coat will require one gallon of gel coat mix for each 80 square feet of
mold surface. If a lighter surface coat is desired, spray part # 1041-B Duratec Sur-
facing Primer into the mold in place of the gel coat.It can be applied thinner (10-12
mils), and thus lighter.Duratec is also the perfect finish coat for covering moldless
foam or plywood laminations.
When covering plywood with fiberglass, additional resin will be required to
prime the wood as well. For most woods this coat will require about 3 ounces of
resin for each square foot of surface. This is in addition to the resin required to sat-
urate the fiberglass.Just to be safe, add 20% more resin to the original estimate.

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An Example:
The following example will help clarify material estimation as well as cover some
aspects of design.

Construction has been started on a plywood John Boat. The boat is 12 feet long, 4
feet wide at the bottom, each side is 2.5 feet tall, and the transom is 2x5 feet. The
¾” plywood supports the loads, but fiberglass needs to seal and protect both the
inside and the outside of the boat. Fiberglass has been chosen over Kevlar to keep
costs low. How much material will it take, and how much weight will be added?

1) Begin by calculating the surface area for each piece.

Floor
12ft x 4ft = 48 sq. ft

Sides
12ft x 2.5ft = 30sqft x 2 = 60 sq ft

Transom
2ft x 5ft = 10sqft

Total
118sqft

There are 118 sq ft per layer, and 2 layers will be added to both the inside and the
outside of the boat. Next, divide 118 sq ft by 9 sq ft to find the total square yards
per layer. This conversion is necessary so the area can be compared to the fabric
weights which are listed in square yards.

118 sq ft / 9 sq ft =13.5 sq yards

The fabrics under consideration are 10 ounce and 7.5 ounce plain weaves. The fab-
ric weights will be multiplied by the surface area to determine total weight of one
layer of fabric.

10 oz/sq yd x 13.5 sq yds = 135 total oz. / 16 = 8.5lbs/layer

7.5 oz/sq yd x 13.5 sq yds = 101.25 total oz/16 = 6.5 lbs/layer

With a 50/50 fabric-resin raitio, the resin will also weigh the same as the fabric.

Since the boat will only be used near sandy shores, the 7.5 ounce fabric is selected,
saving 4 pounds total/ layer (2lbs fabric, 2 lbs resin).If the shore had been rocky,
the 10 ounce fabric might have been a better choice for long term durability despite
the extra weight.

2) Calculate all extra resin and surfacing primer consumption as stated above. The
plywood will need a prime coat of polyester resin.It will tak 3 oz per sq ft of surface
area to sufficiently coat the surface.

3 oz x 118 sq ft = 354 oz / 16 = 22 lbs of resin.

The surface coat will be created by spraying on part # 1041-B Duratec Surfacing
Primer. One gallon will easily cover the 118 sq ft with a 12 mil layer of the material.

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Conclusion
This guide is intended to help the beginner conceptualize the fiberglass compos-
ite process. Due to the recent advances and availability of other high performance
composite materials, some of them have been included in this document as well.
The importance of fiber selection is stressed, and a chart comparing the strengths
and weaknesses of the three available reinforcements is included as a convenient
reference. Design projects around these fabric properties, then select a resin sys-
tem that is compatible with the fabric and final service conditions the part will see.
Material estimates are also important in the design process.Variations in the lami-
nation schedule can be compared at the design stage, and the laminate can be tai-
lored to the service conditions and budget of the project. The example of the three
step material estimation process should make these estimates painless. Obviously,
there is more information available on these subjects, but these fundamentals
demonstrate the ease with which the advantages of composites can be achieved.

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