EE-120 Electronic Devices and Circuits

Instructor: Dr. Muhammad Aqil

 Knowledge Domain

COGNITIVE AFFECTIVE PSYCHOMOTOR

DOMAIN DOMAIN DOMAIN

C1 Knowledge A1 Receiving P1 Perception

C2 Comprehension A2 Responding P2 Set
C3 Application A3 Valuing P3 Guided
Response
C4 Analysis A4 Organization P4 Mechanism
C5 Synthesis A5 Characterization P5 Complex Overt
by a Value or Response
Value Complex
C6 Evaluation A6 P6 Adaptation
P7 Origination

CLOs for Semester 1 and 2 Labs

Component CLO CLO Attributes Bloom
CLO1 Teamwork: Adhere to Instructions and attend the laboratory on time A1, A2
GRS CLO2 Skills: Use effectively the technology, tools and instruments C3, P3
CLO3 Ethics and safety: Dress appropriately in the Laboratory P2
CLO4 Written: Present and label clearly the figures and graphs in the report C1
Identify the engineering problems: Identify and explain the electrical
CLO5 C2
Report engineering problems

CLO6 Apply fundamental knowledge to the experimental work C4

Experiment 1: Introduction to ''LTSpice''

1.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab are:
• to get familiar with the widely used computer simulation program LTSpice to simulate
electronic circuits

• to draw the characteristic curves of a diode

1.2 Background
4.2.2 Introduction
Many different versions of Spice are available, all having the same basic simulation code but
with different user interfaces, device libraries, plotting programs and various bells and whistles.
We are going to use LTSpice. This lab will provide an overview of the basic operations of LTSpice.
The following sections provide instructions for drawing and simulating circuits in LTSpice. You
can refer to these instructions to complete the exercises in this software based lab and in the
remaining hardware based labs requiring simulation results besides the practical ones.

1.2.2 Installation
LTSpice is a free program available from Linear Technology at
http://www.linear.com/company/software.jsp. You can easily download it to your own computer.

1.2.3 Drawing a circuit: Some Basic Tools

Double-click on the SwCAD III icon to open the program. Go to File – New Schematic to start a
new drawing. To place circuit components on the schematic, you can use the keyboard, the Toolbar
or the Edit menu:
• for a resistor: press ‘R’ or push the toolbar button with the resistor symbol
• for a capacitor: press ‘C’ or push the toolbar button with the capacitor symbol
• for an inductor: press ‘L’ or push the toolbar button with the inductor symbol
 for a ground: press ‘G’ or push the toolbar button with the ground (triangle) symbol. You
must have a ground in your circuit!
• for a diode: Press ‘D’ or push the toolbar button with the diode symbol.

For other components, press F2 or the component button (the AND gate symbol) and a menu
comes up. Find your component and double-click. On the left are other sub-menus of parts you
may need, for example op amps. Note that the same voltage and current sources are used for AC,
DC or other types.
In each case, the component appears when you move the mouse. Move it to the desired location
and click. Press ctrl-r to rotate before placing. After placing, you are ready to place another of the
same type. Right-click, press a different key or button or press ESC to exit placing that component
type.
You can connect components by aligning their terminals when you place them on the drawing,
otherwise use the wire function. Press F3 or the wire button (the pencil and blue line). Click at the
first point, click at any intermediate points where you need to make 90o turns, then click at the
second terminal point. Crossed lines are not connected. If you want a junction of wires and not a
crossing, you need to click at the junction (look for the blue square that indicates a junction).

Figure 1.1: LTspice basic menu

To assign values to components, move the cursor over the component until the pointing finger
appears. Right-click and type in the value. For sources, just put in the DC value if you are doing
DC analysis. For Transient analysis, click Advanced, go to the left side, click Sine (usually) and
enter the amplitude (peak value) and frequency. For AC (frequency response) analysis, go to the
Small Signal AC section and put AC, which assigns the default peak value of 1 V or 1 A to the
source, or a different value in the amplitude block.
In assigning units, you can use p for pico, n for nano, u for micro, k for kilo, m for milli and MEG
for mega. (Be careful: a common mistake is using M for mega, but it will give you milli!) You can
use either conventional American 4.7k for a 4.7k-ohm resistor or the international 4k7. You do not
have to put V for volts, Hz for hertz and so on, but there is no problem if you do.
LTSpice labels components as R1, R2, C1, C2 and so on. You can change them as you like by
right-clicking the label and typing in the new name. To label nodes, press F4 or the “label net”
button (the box with an ‘A’ in it) and type in a name. Place the dot over the wire or node and click.
There are a couple of reasons to do this:
• you can give logical names like “out” and “in” to nodes so it is easier to pick out the ones
• you want to plot from a list
• if a certain node connects to many points in the circuit, you can eliminate a lot of messy
wiring on the drawing by giving all the nodes the same name. For example, call your battery
(+) terminal V+ and then put the same V+ name on all points connecting to that bus.It has
the same effect as connecting them with wires.
If you want to add text comments, press ‘T’. Type in the text, ending each line with ctrl-m, and
place on the drawing. Under Tools / Control Panel / Drafting Options, you can select the font size.
Finally, some miscellaneous commands:
• to delete, press the scissors button on the Toolbar or F5. Move the scissors icon to the
• desired component, wire or other entity and click.
• to move a placed component: press the move key (the hand with spread fingers) or F7. Click
the component and move it to its new location, it is disconnected from any wiring.
• to copy: press the copy button (two sheets of paper) or F6 (use Move to select first.)
• to rotate ctrl-r. If the component is already selected (has not been placed), just press ctrl-r.
If it has been placed, select Move (F7), select the component, ctrl-r, and place again.

1.2.4. ANALYZING A CIRCUIT: Simulations

To set-up a simulation, go to the Simulate menu and choose Edit Simulation Cmd. In every case
after you set it up and choose OK, a text command is attached to your cursor and you must click
somewhere on the drawing to make it effective for the next Run command.
Use DC operating point for DC circuits and to check biasing and DC levels in electronic circuits.
There are no parameters to set. Drop the command on the drawing and press the Run button
(the running figure.) A window with DC voltages and currents pops up. You can see them more
easily by closing the box and moving the cursor over wires or nodes and reading voltages at the
bottom of the screen, or moving the cursor over devices and reading currents. Even power is given
for resistors and sources.
Use Transient analysis to see your waveforms in the time domain, run spectrum analysis (FFT)
and to figure actual impedances and powers delivered and dissipated. For the simulation, you need
to enter the start and stop times. In the source(s), you need to set the waveform (usually Sine),
magnitude and frequency. Left-click the source and do this on the left side of the dialog box. Click
Run, and then double click the value you want plotted from the list. Some additional Transient
analysis features:
From the drawing window:
• click a wire or node (a voltmeter probe appears) to plot the voltage.
• click a device (current probe appears) to plot the current.
 • hold down the alt key and click a device (thermometer appears) to plot power.
From the plot window:
• click and drag a section of waveform to zoom in
• ctrl-click the waveform name at the top of the screen to get the RMS and other calculated
values.
• left-click (or alt-click) a waveform name to get a cursor you can drag and display values in
a box. Right-click a waveform name and you get a drop down box that allows attaching the
first, second, or both cursors. You can move the cursors around with the mouse and read
individual values and their differences in time, frequency and magnitude.
• right-click a waveform name to do waveform math. For example, you could square V(out)
or you could divide V(in) by I(in) to find the input resistance.
Use DC Sweep analysis while sweeping the DC value of a source. It is useful for computing the
DC transfer function of an amplifier or plotting the characteristic curves of a electronic device
(diode, transistor etc.) for model verification. For the simulation, you need to select the name of
the source to be swept followed by the type (linear, octave, decade, list) of sweep. The start value,
end value, and the increment/points of the sweeping source are required. Multiple sources can be
sweep at a time.
Use AC analysis to see response versus frequency for amplifiers, attenuators, filters (active or
passive) and so on. Response is in dB relative to 1 V on the source. {Note: the gain G = Vout/Vin
measured in dB (decibels) = 20log(G).} For the simulation, you need to enter the number of points
to plot and the starting and ending frequencies. You must also have a source with its small signal
analysis amplitude set to AC or a value.

1.3 Pre-Lab
1.3.1 Assessment of Datasheet
Read the datasheet of Diode 1N4007 for effective utilization.

1.4 Equipment
• Laptop

• LTSpice software (will be provided)

1.5 Procedure
1. Open LTspice and start a new schematic.

2. Look at Figure 1.1 to get a basic idea of the different menu icons.

3. Start by adding a resistor, a diode, a voltage source and connect them as per the schematic
shown in Figure 1.2.
4. Place a ground to the negative side of the voltage source to provide a reference point for the
circuit operation and measurements.

5. Set the value of the resistor as 1KOhm, the value of the voltage as 5V.

6. Right click the diode and press the button Pick New Diode. Select the diode 1N4007 if
available in the list. Otherwise, go to the installed directory: LTspiceIV\lib\cmp. Double
click the file “D standard” and write the following line as it is at the bottom of the this file
and save the file.
.MODEL D1n4007 D(Is=7.02767n Rs=0.0341512 N=1.80803 Eg=1.05743 +Xti=5
Vpk=1000 IBV=5e-08 CJO=1e-11 Vj=0.7 M=0.5 FC=0.5 tt=1e-07 +Kf=0 Iave=1)

7. Now 1N4007 would be available in the Pick New Diode list.

8. To analyze the circuit, press simulation button. Set the Stop Time as 1s and press OK. Place
the .tran 1s directive at the bottom of the schematic and press the simulation button again.

9. Verify the 5V source voltage and 0.7V drop across the diode by placing the voltage probes
appropriately. Remember the name of the diode voltage plot (its actually the net/wire name)
showing at the top of the simulation graph [like V(n001) or V(n002)]

10. Right click on the simulation graph and click on the Manual Limits. Change the Top, Tick,
and Bottom values to 5.25V, 250mV, and 0V, respectively. Press OK.

Figure 1.2: Sweep setting of a source in LTSpice.

11. For another kind of analysis, close the Simulation graph window.
 12. To draw the characteristic curve of the diode, go to the Edit Simulation Cmd option in the
Simulate menu. Select DC Sweep window and set the values as indicated in the following
figure.

13. Press OK. Then place the DC sweep directive at the bottom of the schematic. Now run the
simulation.

14. Measure the current through the diode. Notice that the current waveform is plotted against
the sweeping voltage source V1.
15. To plot the diode current against the diode voltage, move the mouse pointer to the horizontal
axis of the graph. The pointer shape would be changed to a ruler (scale). Left clicking of
mouse here will open a Horizontal Axis window. Change the Quantity Plotted value from
V1 to the diode voltage plot name [V(n001) or V(n002) whichever was noticed during the
step 9].
16. Press OK. You will get similar to the following plot of the diode characteristic curve.

Figure 1.3: Sample characteristic curve of the diode 1N4007.

17. Simulate the circuit yourself and obtain the similar plot (print and paste at your lab note
book).

18. The V1 swing settings can be changed to set the voltage including the breakdown voltage
of the diode (1000V for 1N4007), but the LTspice does not simulate the breakdown rejoin
of a diode.

1.6 Lab Report

A typeset (not hand-written), group lab report (not exceeding 5 pages including title page) is
required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the Lab.
1.7 Results

Figure 1.4: Characteristics curves of a diode 1N4007 obtained via LTSpice.

1.8 Assessment
CLO CLO Attributes Bloom Performance Indicators
 Does his/her part
Teamwork: Work effectively with
CLO1 A1, A2  Listens to other’s ideas
team members  Does not argue
 Proper wiring of the circuit
 Correct use of instruments (signal generator,
GRS Skills: Utilize techniques and skills in
CLO2 C3, P3 oscilloscope)
the laboratory experiments  Data recorded in table
 Necessary calculation in table performed
Ethics and Safety: Adhere to the
CLO3 P2 As per rubric
instructions of laboratory safety
Written: express points clearly and  Report is structured properly
CLO4 effectively through presentation C1  Figures and Graphs annotated
and/or Report.  Language is clear
Formulate to solve the engineering
 Relate experiment with theoretical concept discussed
problems: formulate and analyses to
CLO5 C2 in class
solve the electrical engineering  Describe relevant mathematical equations
Report
problems.
Design and evaluate operational
performance: Use the fundamental  Discuss discrepancies between theoretical, simulation
CLO6 principles to design the system or C4 and experimental results
task based on the given  Possible sources of discrepancies and ways to improve
specifications
Experiment 2: DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

2.1 Objectives
The objectives of this lab are:
• to connect a diode in a typical circuit

• to draw the characteristic curves of the diode

2.2 Background
Diode characteristic curves graph the current flow versus applied voltage. The right side of the
graph shows the diode operating in the forward bias condition. The left portion of the graph
illustrates the reverse bias condition. Voltage and current scales on the characteristic curve vary
by region, ranging from milliamps to Pico amps or milli volts to volts. Forward voltages below the
barrier voltage will not forward bias the diode. In silicon diodes, conduction begins when the
forward voltage reaches between 0.5 and 0.7V. Germanium diodes require a forward voltage of
about 0.3V. Once forward voltage produces conduction, small increases in voltage produce large
current increases. This nearly constant voltage is called the forward voltage drop (VF). Reverse
biased diodes will have very small current flows. The current flow is due to the presence of
minority carriers and is referred to as leakage current. Breakdown voltage is the reverse voltage
that causes large current flow through reverse biased diodes. The current can be large enough to
damage the diode. In general, for calculations, the forward voltage drop of a silicon diode is 0.6V,
and 0.3V for a germanium diode. Forward resistance is the ratio of the increase in voltage drop
divided by the increase in forward current. Since forward resistance, or dynamic forward
resistance, of a diode is very small, a resistor is included in the circuit to prevent damage to the
diode. The highest current value that can pass through the diode without causing damage is referred
to as maximum forward current (IF(max)). Ohmmeters cannot accurately measure the resistance
of a diode junction therefore; diode junctions are tested by checking for continuity only. A forward
biased junction will register a very low resistance indicating continuity. A reverse biased junction,
or damaged diode, will indicate a very high resistance or an overload, indicating a lack of
continuity. Included in this exercise are instructions for testing diodes with the following meters.

2.3 Pre-Lab
2.3.1 Reading of lecture notes about diode characteristics
Read the lecture notes on diode characteristics.

2.4 Equipment
• 2 Diodes 1N4007
 • 2 resistors of 1KΩ

• Multimeter

• Oscilloscope

2.5 Procedure
Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.1.

1. Check meter reading while selecting Ohms Scale of Your Multimeter

Figure 2.1: Reverse biased impedance checking.

2. Your meter reading indicates that the diode is forward bias or Reverse Bias.
3. Reverse the meter probes than your meter reading indicates that diode is Conducting.

Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 2.2 below and adjust VA to negative 10.00 VDC.

Figure 2.2: Forward and reverse biasing of diodes.

1. Measure the voltage across R1: VR1 = _________________

2. Measure the voltage across R2: VR2= _________________
3. Current flow Through D1 or D2? Explain Why?

Connect the circuit as shown in figure below and adjust VA to positive 10 Vdc.
 4. Measure the voltage across R1: VR1 = _________________
5. Measure the voltage across R2: VR2 = _________________
6. Current flow Through D1 or D2? Explain Why?

7. Using Ohm’s law, find the current through R2: IR2= _________________

Perform the following steps to draw the characteristics of a diode

1. Disconnect the Diode D1. Adjust VA to -20 Vdc.
2. Note down the current ID through R2 and voltage across the diode (D2 here).
3. Complete the four columns of Table 2.1 by adjusting the VA accordingly.

2.6 Lab Report

A typeset (not hand-written), group lab report (not exceeding 5 pages including title page) is
required and is due before 4pm one week after the lab. Submit report in the Lab.

2.7 Results
Table 2.1: Current profile of the diode against different voltages.
VA (Volts) VR2 ID2 VD2 ID2 = VR2 / R2 VD = VA – VR2
-20
-15
-10
- 5
0
0.25
0.5
0.6
0.7
 0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
2
5
7.5
10
 Sketch a graph between VD and ID2.
 Now verify measured results by completing the last columns of the above table
computationally.
 Plot the computed values of the VD and ID2 on the same graph.

2.8 Assessment
CLO CLO Attributes Bloom Performance Indicators
 Does his/her part
Teamwork: Work effectively with
CLO1 A1, A2  Listens to other’s ideas
team members  Does not argue
 Proper wiring of the circuit
 Correct use of instruments (signal generator,
GRS Skills: Utilize techniques and skills in
CLO2 C3, P3 oscilloscope)
the laboratory experiments  Data recorded in table
 Necessary calculation in table performed
Ethics and Safety: Adhere to the
CLO3 P2 As per rubric
instructions of laboratory safety
Written: express points clearly and  Report is structured properly
CLO4 effectively through presentation C1  Figures and Graphs annotated
and/or Report.  Language is clear
Formulate to solve the engineering
 Relate experiment with theoretical concept discussed
problems: formulate and analyses to
CLO5 C2 in class
solve the electrical engineering  Describe relevant mathematical equations
Report
problems.
Design and evaluate operational
performance: Use the fundamental  Discuss discrepancies between theoretical, simulation
CLO6 principles to design the system or C4 and experimental results
task based on the given  Possible sources of discrepancies and ways to improve
specifications