UNIT II

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

What is a Database?

A database is a collection of related data which represents some aspect of the real world. A
database system is designed to be built and populated with data for a certain task.

What is DBMS?

Database Management System (DBMS) is a software for storing and retrieving users' data
while considering appropriate security measures. It consists of a group of programs which
manipulate the database. The DBMS accepts the request for data from an application and
instructs the operating system to provide the specific data. In large systems, a DBMS helps users
and other third-party software to store and retrieve data.
DBMS allows users to create their own databases as per their requirement. The term “DBMS”
includes the user of the database and other application programs. It provides an interface
between the data and the software application.

Advantages of DBMS

 DBMS offers a variety of techniques to store & retrieve data

 DBMS serves as an efficient handler to balance the needs of multiple applications using
the same data
 Uniform administration procedures for data
 Application programmers never exposed to details of data representation and storage.
 A DBMS uses various powerful functions to store and retrieve data efficiently.
 Offers Data Integrity and Security
 The DBMS implies integrity constraints to get a high level of protection against
prohibited access to data.
 A DBMS schedules concurrent access to the data in such a manner that only one user can
access the same data at a time
 Reduced Application Development Time
Disadvantage of DBMS

DBMS may offer plenty of advantages but, it has certain flaws-

 Cost of Hardware and Software of a DBMS is quite high which increases the budget of
your organization.
 Most database management systems are often complex systems, so the training for users
to use the DBMS is required.
 In some organizations, all data is integrated into a single database which can be damaged
because of electric failure or database is corrupted on the storage media
 Use of the same program at a time by many users sometimes lead to the loss of some
data.
 DBMS can't perform sophisticated calculations

OBJECTIVES OF DATA BASE SYSTEM:

The main goal of an organisational data base system is to collect the data necessary for running
the enterprise and making that data accessible to those who have a legitimate need for it.
The same data often is useful to many people both inside and outside the organisation, and if so,
access to that data should be shared.

The objectives of data base system can be summarized as:

1. That the users of the data base establish their views of the data and its structure without regard
to the actual physical storage of the data.
2. That the data base establishes a uniform high level of accuracy and consistency. Validation
rules are applied by the DMBS.
3. That Data should be available for use by applications (both current and future) and by queries.
4. That data items prepared by one application are available to all applications or queries. No
data items are owned by an application.
5. That the data base can evolve as application usage and query needs.

Elements of Data Base System:

The elements of data base systems are:
1. Data Bases
2. People
3. Data base planning and design technique
4. Computer hardware and software.

1.  Data Bases:

Data bases are the data banks and are an important constituent of any information system. Data
bank for a computerised information system is organised in the form of a collection of files
stored on secondary storage media. A file is a collection of records one for each entity in the
system.
The record being a collection of data items representing the attributes of an entity. Modern data
banks are however organised in the form of data bases which a comparatively recent concept is.
A large number of software packages called ‘Data Base Management System’ (DBMS) are
currently available in the market.

2.  People:
The people involved with data base system can be divided into two groups. Those who use
information provided by the system and those who design, develop, and manage the system
itself. If a data base system is to be of value to the organisation, it is imperative that it be
designed to support the needs of information users.
Those people responsible for the design, development and administration of data base systems
are often referred to as data base administrators. The position of data base administrator is highly
challenging and should be a high level managerial position.
Data base manager must possess well developed skills in both technical and managerial aspects
of information management, because they are the primary liaison between, the community of
users and the systems, development staff.
The personnel responsible for developing data base systems are information analysts or data base
analysts. Information analysts work closely with users of information to carefully define
information requirements and to structure these requirements into a logical form. Data base
analysts use data base technology to design systems satisfying those requirements.
3.  Data Base Planning & Design Technique:
Since data base systems involve people from all parts of the organisation with a variety of
information needs, the development and operation of data base systems must be very carefully
planned and managed. The data bases themselves must be carefully designed to provide efficient
excess to information required by the various users.
The first step in converting to a data base approach should be the development of:
(1) A master plan that specifies in general terms the various applications and data bases to be
included in the overall system and
(2) A schedule for detailed design and implementation of these applications and data bases.
Detailed data base design consists of three major phases: information requirements analysis,
logical design, and physical design. Information requirements analysis is work done with users to
define information needs. Logical design is the development of schema and sub-schema
definitions. Physical design establishes exactly how the data will be organised and stored on the
storage devices.

4.  Computer Hardware & Software:

Computer hardware and software are two different elements of a data base system or
environment. Hardware and software form the technological foundation for data base systems.
Software for information management can be separated into two groups:
1. Application software and
2. Data base Management Systems.
Data-base Management Systems (DBMS) are commercial software packages designed to provide
the basis for building data base systems. Many such packages are on the market today, and
thousands of organisations use them.
These packages are part of the technology of organisations, management and usually depend
heavily on the operating system for many of their basic functions. Organisations acquire data
base management system and develop or acquire applications software to satisfy their particular
data base processing requirements.

Scope of Data Base System:

The application areas that can employ data base system include:
1. Medical services with patient records, disease histories, and problem classification treatment
effectiveness data.
2. Economic models with production and consumption data for allocation and planning.
3. Officers who are automating their document management.
4. Libraries cataloging abstracts and indexes of their holdings.
5. Manufacturing with inventory management, bills of material processing, and production
equipment, scheduling.
6. Financial institutions with lists of service capabilities and allocation schedules.
7. Scientific research with collection of previously gathered data used to determine future
research directions.
8. Government, at all levels with records of taxpaying individuals and property.
9. Service industries with lists of service capabilities and allocation schedules.
10. Statistics, used for survey and statistical data.
11. Railway information system.
12. Air line reservations.
13. Others, i.e., Electronic mail.
14. Ports management.

Components of a Database Management System

Organizations produce and gather data as they operate. Contained in a database, data is typically
organized to model relevant aspects of reality in a way that supports processes requiring this
information. Knowing how this can be managed effectively is vital to any organization.
What is a Database Management System (or DBMS)?
 Organizations employ Database Management Systems (or DBMS) to help them effectively
manage their data and derive relevant information out of it. A DBMS is a technology tool that
directly supports data management. It is a package designed to define, manipulate, and manage
data in a database.
Some general functions of a DBMS:
 Designed to allow the definition, creation, querying, update, and administration of
databases
 Define rules to validate the data and relieve users of framing programs for data
maintenance
 Convert an existing database, or archive a large and growing one
 Run business applications, which perform the tasks of managing business processes,
interacting with end-users and other applications, to capture and analyze data

Some well-known DBMSs are Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Access, Oracle, SAP, and
others.
Components of DBMS

DBMS have several components, each performing very significant tasks in the database
management system environment. Below is a list of components within the database and its
environment.

Software
This is the set of programs used to control and manage the overall database. This includes the
DBMS software itself, the Operating System, the network software being used to share the data
among users, and the application programs used to access data in the DBMS.

Hardware
Consists of a set of physical electronic devices such as computers, I/O devices, storage devices,
etc., this provides the interface between computers and the real world systems.
Data
DBMS exists to collect, store, process and access data, the most important component. The
database contains both the actual or operational data and the metadata.

Procedures
These are the instructions and rules that assist on how to use the DBMS, and in designing and
running the database, using documented procedures, to guide the users that operate and manage
it.

Database Access Language

This is used to access the data to and from the database, to enter new data, update existing data,
or retrieve required data from databases. The user writes a set of appropriate commands in a
database access language, submits these to the DBMS, which then processes the data and
generates and displays a set of results into a user readable form.

Query Processor
This transforms the user queries into a series of low level instructions. This reads the online
user’s query and translates it into an efficient series of operations in a form capable of being sent
to the run time data manager for execution.

Run Time Database Manager

Sometimes referred to as the database control system, this is the central software component of
the DBMS that interfaces with user-submitted application programs and queries, and handles
database access at run time. Its function is to convert operations in user’s queries. It provides
control to maintain the consistency, integrity and security of the data.

Data Manager
Also called the cache manger, this is responsible for handling of data in the database, providing a
recovery to the system that allows it to recover the data after a failure.

Database Engine
The core service for storing, processing, and securing data, this provides controlled access and
rapid transaction processing to address the requirements of the most demanding data consuming
applications. It is often used to create relational databases for online transaction processing or
online analytical processing data.

Data Dictionary
This is a reserved space within a database used to store information about the database itself. A
data dictionary is a set of read-only table and views, containing the different information about
the data used in the enterprise to ensure that database representation of the data follow one
standard as defined in the dictionary.

Report Writer
Also referred to as the report generator, it is a program that extracts information from one or
more files and presents the information in a specified format. Most report writers allow the user
to select records that meet certain conditions and to display selected fields in rows and columns,
or also format the data into different charts.
DATABASE DESIGN

What is Database Design?

Database Design is a collection of processes that facilitate the designing, development,

implementation and maintenance of enterprise data management systems. Properly designed
database are easy to maintain, improves data consistency and are cost effective in terms of disk
storage space. The database designer decides how the data elements correlate and what data must
be stored.
The main objectives of database designing are to produce logical and physical designs models of
the proposed database system.
 The logical model concentrates on the data requirements and the data to be stored independent
of physical considerations. It does not concern itself with how the data will be stored or where it
will be stored physically.
 The physical data design model involves translating the logical design of the database onto
physical media using hardware resources and software systems such as database management
systems (DBMS).

Why Database Design is Important ?

It helps produce  database systems

1. That meet the requirements of the users

 2. Have high performance.

Database designing is crucial to high performance database system.

Database development life cycle

 
The database development life cycle has a number of stages that are followed when developing
database systems.
The steps in the development life cycle do not necessary have to be followed religiously in a
sequential manner.
On small database systems, the database system development life cycle is usually very simple
and does not involve a lot of steps.
In order to fully appreciate the above diagram, let's look at the individual components listed in
each step.

Requirements analysis

 Planning - This stages concerns with planning of entire Database Development Life
Cycle  It  takes into consideration the Information Systems strategy of the organization.
 System definition - This stage defines the scope and boundaries of the proposed database
system.
Database designing

 Logical model - This stage is concerned with developing a database model based on
requirements. The entire design is on paper without any physical implementations or
specific DBMS considerations.
 Physical model - This stage implements the logical model of the database taking into
account the DBMS and physical implementation factors.

Implementation

 Data conversion and loading - this stage is concerned with importing and converting
data from the old system into the new database.
 Testing - this stage is concerned with the identification of errors  in the newly
implemented system .It checks the database against requirement specifications.

Two Types of Database Techniques

1.     Normalization
2.     ER Modeling

What is Normalization?

Normalization is a database design technique which organizes tables in a manner that reduces
redundancy and dependency of data.
It divides larger tables to smaller tables and links them using relationships.
The inventor of the relational model Edgar Codd proposed the theory of normalization with the
introduction of First Normal Form, and he continued to extend theory with Second and Third
Normal Form. Later he joined with Raymond F. Boyce to develop the theory of Boyce-Codd
Normal Form. 
Theory of Data Normalization in SQL is still being developed further. For example, there are
discussions even on 6th Normal Form. However, in most practical applications, normalization
achieves its best in 3rd Normal Form. The evolution of Normalization theories is illustrated
below-
Database Normalization Examples -

Assume a video library maintains a database of movies rented out. Without any normalization,
all information is stored in one table as shown below.

Table 1

Here you see Movies Rented column has multiple values.

Database Normal Forms

Now let's move into 1st Normal Forms

1NF (First Normal Form) Rules

 Each table cell should contain a single value.

 Each record needs to be unique.

The above table in 1NF-

1NF Example
Table 1: In 1NF Form

Before we proceed let's understand a few things --

What is a KEY?

A KEY is a value used to identify a record in a table uniquely. A KEY could be a single column
or combination of multiple columns
Note: Columns in a table that are NOT used to identify a record uniquely are called non-key
columns.
What is a Primary Key?

A primary is a single column value used to identify a database record

uniquely.
It has following attributes

 A primary key cannot be NULL

 A primary key value must be unique
 The primary key values should rarely be changed
 The primary key must be given a value when a new record is
inserted.
What is Composite Key?

A composite key is a primary key composed of multiple columns used to identify a record
uniquely
In our database, we have two people with the same name Robert Phil, but they live in different
places.

Hence, we require both Full Name and Address to identify a record uniquely. That is a composite
key.
Let's move into second normal form 2NF

2NF (Second Normal Form) Rules

 Rule 1- Be in 1NF
 Rule 2- Single Column Primary Key

It is clear that we can't move forward to make our simple database in 2 nd Normalization form
unless we partition the table above.

Table 1
Table 2

We have divided our 1NF table into two tables viz. Table 1 and Table2. Table 1 contains
member information. Table 2 contains information on movies rented.
We have introduced a new column called Membership_id which is the primary key for table 1.
Records can be uniquely identified in Table 1 using membership id

Database - Foreign Key

In Table 2, Membership_ID is the Foreign Key

 Foreign Key references the primary key of another Table! It
helps connect your Tables
 A foreign key can have a different name from its
primary key
 It ensures rows in one table have corresponding rows in
another
 Unlike the Primary key, they do not have to be unique.
Most often they aren't
 Foreign keys can be null even though primary keys can
not 

 
Why do you need a foreign key?

Suppose, a novice inserts a record in Table B such as

You will only be able to insert values into your foreign key that exist in the unique key in the
parent table. This helps in referential integrity. 
The above problem can be overcome by declaring membership id  from Table2  as foreign key of
membership id from Table1
Now, if somebody tries to insert a value in the membership id field that does not exist in the
parent table, an error will be shown!

What are transitive functional dependencies?

A transitive functional dependency is when changing a non-key column, might cause any of the
other non-key columns to change
Consider the table 1. Changing the non-key column Full Name may change Salutation.

Let's move into 3NF

3NF (Third Normal Form) Rules

 Rule 1- Be in 2NF
 Rule 2- Has no transitive functional dependencies
To move our 2NF table into 3NF, we again need to again divide our table.

3NF Example

TABLE 1

Table 2

Table 3
We have again divided our tables and created a new table which stores Salutations. 
There are no transitive functional dependencies, and hence our table is in 3NF
In Table 3 Salutation ID is primary key, and in Table 1 Salutation ID is foreign to primary key in
Table 3
Now our little example is at a level that cannot further be decomposed to attain higher forms of
normalization. In fact, it is already in higher normalization forms. Separate efforts for moving
into next levels of normalizing data are normally needed in complex databases.  However, we
will be discussing next levels of normalizations in brief in the following.

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF)

Even when a database is in 3rd Normal Form, still there would be anomalies resulted if it has
more than one Candidate Key.
Sometimes is BCNF is also referred as 3.5 Normal Form.

4NF (Fourth Normal Form) Rules

If no database table instance contains two or more, independent and multivalued data describing
the relevant entity, then it is in 4th Normal Form.

5NF (Fifth Normal Form) Rules

A table is in 5th Normal Form only if it is in 4NF and it cannot be decomposed into any number
of smaller tables without loss of data.

6NF (Sixth Normal Form) Proposed

6th Normal Form is not standardized, yet however, it is being discussed by database experts for
some time. Hopefully, we would have a clear & standardized definition for 6 th Normal Form in
the near future...
CREATION AND CONTROL
Introduction

An organized collection of data, databases need to be managed accordingly. A database

management system (DBMS) can help do that. So, what is a DBMS and what is its role in
information systems? Let’s find out.
Typically organized to represent relevant aspects of reality, data stored in a database supports
processes requiring this information. However, this will happen only if there is a database
management system in place. An information system is nothing more than an organized
collection of data if a DBMS is not organizing, controlling and classifying the data stored there.
The ultimate objective of a DBMS is to ensure the data integrity by implementing controls and
providing maintenance to data files.

The Importance of a Database Management System

The use of a computer database is typically involved in efficient data management. A shared,
integrated computer structure, a database stores the following:

 End-user data i.e. raw data relevant to the end user

 Metadata—the data about data, through which end-user data is integrated and managed

In case you weren’t aware, metadata describes the characteristics of the data and the set of
relationships linking the data present within the database. So, what is the role of a DBMS in all
this? We discuss that next.

The Role of DBMS in Information Systems

A DBMS plays a crucial role in both the creation and management of data. Without a database
management system, running and managing data effectively is not possible. Serving as the
intermediary between the user and the database, a DBMS provides users access to files stored in
a database. It provides the end user with a single, integrated view of the data, and translates all
applications it receives into complex operations that fulfil those requests. However, much of the
internal complexity of the database is hidden from the users and application programs.
 From enabling the sharing of data in the database among multiple applications or users to
providing users with a single all-encompassing data repository, DBMS plays an important role in
information systems. Following are some of the things a DBMS enables in information systems:

Better Data Access Within the Company

With a DBMS, users within a company can access, update and delete data in a database or
information system. This information is easily available to users when the company’s
information systems are integrated with the relational DBMS.

Stronger Relationships Between Data

A key function of database management systems is allowing different data sets to relate to one
another. This makes a DBMS ideal for managing relationships between data sets in a systematic
and simple way. This, in turn, allows managers to understand key statistics related to business
operations and sales.

Improved Data Security

The more people access the data, the greater the risk of data security breaches. Generally,
companies invest considerable time, effort and money to ensure proper use of their data. But, this
does not always produce the desired outcomes. With a DBMS, organizations can ensure better
enforcement of data privacy and security policies, which allows them to improve overall data
security

RECENT TRENDS IN DATABASE

Following are the some of the current trends:

 Databases that bridge SQL/NoSQL. The latest trends in database products are those
that don't simply embrace a single database structure. ...
 Databases in the cloud/Platform as a Service. ...
 Automated management. ...
 An increased focus on security. ...
 In-memory databases. ...
 Big Data.

Concepts in database management hardly fall in the category of come-and-go, as the cost of
shifting between technical approaches overwhelms producers, managers, and designers.
However, there are several trends in database management, and knowing how to take advantage
of them will benefit your organization. Following are the some of the current trends:
The latest trends in database products are those that don’t simply
1. Databases that bridge SQL/NoSQL
embrace a single database structure. Instead, the databases bridge SQL and NoSQL, giving users
the best capabilities offered by both. This includes products that allow users to access a NoSQL
database in the same way as a relational database, for example.

3. Databases in the cloud/Platform as a Service

As developers continue pushing their enterprises to the cloud, organizations are carefully
weighing the trade-offs associated with public versus private. Developers are also
determining how to combine cloud services with existing applications and infrastructure.
Providers of cloud service offer many options to database administrators. Making the
move towards the cloud doesn’t mean changing organizational priorities, but finding
products and services that help your group meet its goals.

3. Automated management
Automating database management is another emerging trend. The set of such techniques and
tools intend to simplify maintenance, patching, provisioning, updates and upgrades — even
project workflow. However, the trend may have limited usefulness since database management
frequently needs human intervention.

4. An increased focus on security

While not exactly a trend given the constant focus on data security, recent ongoing retail
database breaches among US-based organizations show with ample clarity the importance for
database administrators to work hand-in-hand with their IT security colleagues to ensure all
enterprise data remains safe. Any organization that stores data is vulnerable.
Database administrators must also work with the security team to eliminate potential internal
weaknesses that could make data vulnerable. These could include issues related to network
privileges, even hardware or software misconfigurations that could be misused, resulting in data
leaks.
5. In-memory databases
Within the data warehousing community there are similar questions about columnar versus row-
based relational tables; the rise of in-memory databases, the use of flash or solid-state disks
(which also applies within transaction processing), clustered versus no-clustered solutions and so
on.
6. Big Data
To be clear, big data does not necessarily mean lots of data. What it really refers to is the ability
to process any type of data: what is typically referred to as semi-structured and unstructured data
as well as structured data. Current thinking is that these will typically live alongside conventional
solutions as separate technologies, at least in large organisations, but this will not always be the
case.
Integrating Trends
Projects involving databases should not be viewed and appreciated solely on how they adhere to
these trends. Ideally, each tool or process available should merge in some meaningful way with
existing operations. It is important to look of these trends as items that can coincide: enhancing
security and moving to the cloud coexist?