Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Fabrizio Bonani

Dipartimento di Elettronica
Politecnico di Torino

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Contents

1 Heterostructure definition

2 Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue

3 Heterostructures

4 Free charge spatial confinement

5 Conductive channels and modulation doping

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Epitaxial growth of different crystals

The epitaxial growth of crystalline materials with different

lattice constant leads to
 interface defects (misfit dislocations)
 presence of traps for electrons and holes
If the mismatch between the lattice constants is small/null
an (almost) ideal crystal based on two different materials is
obtained ⇒ heterostructure
 since the properties of the two materials are in general
different, it is also called heterojunction
The different electrical and optical properties of the layers
have important consequences
 band discontinuities (potential wells, one or many): spatial
confinement of free carriers
 refractive index discontinuities: spatial confinement of
electromagnetic field (photons)

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Strained heterostructures

In presence of a small difference in lattice constants, the

heterostructure is called strained, or pseudomorphic
Nonepitaxial Pseudomorphic
Epitaxial layer growth layer

Substrate
compressive strain
aL > aS

Nonepitaxial Pseudomorphic
Epitaxial layer growth layer

Substrate
tensile strain
aL < aS

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Contents

1 Heterostructure definition

2 Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue

3 Heterostructures

4 Free charge spatial confinement

5 Conductive channels and modulation doping

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Semiconductor alloys

Heterostructures are often based on semiconductor alloys,

in order to create materials whose properties are
intermediate with respect to the “natural” semiconductor
components
 for most applications, the main features are lattice constant
and energy bandgap
Alloys are often mixtures of compound semiconductors
such as GaAs, InP, InAs etc.
 ternary alloys: realized by two components and three
elements (e.g. AlGaAs, alloy between GaAs and AlAs)
 quaternary alloys: realized by four components and
elements (e.g. InGaAsP, alloy among InAs, InP, GaAs and
GaP)
In many cases, the alloy characteristics are well
approximated by a linear combination (or bilinear, for
quaternary alloys) of the initial components values

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Alloys: composition rules
Compound semiconductors are made of a metal M and a
nonmetal N
Ternary alloys are made of two compound semiconductors
sharing a metal or a nonmetal
   
(1) (2)
M (1) N M (2) N = Mx M1−x N e.g.: Alx Ga1−x As
x 1−x
   
(1) (2)
MN (1) MN (2) = MNy N1−y e.g.: GaAsy P1−y
y 1−y
Quaternary alloys are made of four compound
semiconductors sharing two metal and two nonmetal
components
       
M (1) N (1) M (1) N (2) M (2) N (1) M (2) N (2)
α β γ 1−α−β−γ
(1) (2) (1) (2)
= Mα+β M1−α−β Nα+γ N1−α−γ
(1) (2) (1) (2)
= M× M1−x Ny N1−y e.g.: Inx Ga1−x Asy P1−y
High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Alloys: Vegard law

In many cases (not always!) an alloy property P is the

linear combination (Vegard law) of the components’ same
property:

P = xP (1) + (1 − x)P (2) (ternary alloy)

(1) (2)
P = xP + (1 − x)P + yP (3) + (1 − y )P (4) (quaternary alloy)

Main exceptions are:

 in some cases, a quadratic correction to the simple linear
interpolation is required (Abeles law)
 for some parameters, a global (i.e., valid for all composition
values) interpolation formula is not available because of
structural discontinuities
I e.g.: an alloy may pass from direct to indirect bandgap as a
function of composition

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Matched, pseudomorphic and metamorphic layers

Any layer/epitaxial structure must be grown on a crystalline

substrate
 with the same (lattice matched layer) or with a slightly
different lattice constant (pseudomorphic layer)
 with a different lattice constant. To avoid dislocations, a
buffer layer with graded composition (graded layer) is
placed between the substrate and the top layer
(metamorphic approach)
For non-matched layers, a critical thickness of the epitaxial
layer exists beyond which structural stability is lost
 the critical thickness is a decreasing function of the lattice
constant mismatch

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Substrate examples

Substrate examples (in cost increasing order) are:

 Si: good for SiGe heterostructures and for GaN growth
 GaAs: good for high frequency electronic applications
 InP: good for high frequency and large power density
electronic applications, and for large wavelength
optoelectronic applications
 SiC: good for very large power applications and for GaN
growth
Alloys are often represented on bandgap - lattice constant
graphs
 ternary alloys are repreesented by curves (one degree of
freedom: composition x)
 quaternary alloys are represented by surfaces (two degrees
of freedom: compositions x and y )

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Eg −composition diagram: SiGe and III-V compounds
2.8

0.5
2.4
GaP AlAs
0.6
2.0
0.7

Wavelength, mm
1.6
Bandgap, eV

0.8
GaAs Al0.48In0.52As CdTe 0.9
InP
1.0
1.2
Si 1.2
0.8 1.5
Ga0.47In0.53As GaSb 2.0
Ge 3.0
0.4
Direct bandgap 5.0
Indirect bandgap InAs 10.
0.0 InSb
HgTe

5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6

Lattice constant, Å
High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Eg −composition diagram: GaN
7
AlN
6 0.2
AlGaN UV
5

Wavelength, mm
Bandgap, eV

0.3
4 InGaN
GaN
3 0.4
AlP
Visible AlAs 0.5
InN
2 GaP
InP
GaAs 1.0
1
Direct bandgap IR InAs 2.0
Indirect bandgap 5.0
0
4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2
Lattice constant, Å
High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Contents

1 Heterostructure definition

2 Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue

3 Heterostructures

4 Free charge spatial confinement

5 Conductive channels and modulation doping

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Affinity rule
The behaviour of a U0
heterostructure depends
qcB
on the band structure
qcA
difference between the Ec

materials |DEc|

We define
EgA EgB
 the affinity difference
∆χ = χB − χA |DEv|
Ev
 the bandgap difference
∆Eg = EgB − EgA Material A Material B

In the ideal structure, we can evaluate the conduction and

valence band discontinuities according to the affinity rule
∆Ec = EcB − EcA = (EcB − U0 ) − (EcA − U0 )
= −qχB + qχA = −q∆χ
∆Ev = EvB − EvA = (EcB − EgB ) − (EcA − EgA ) = −q∆χ − ∆Eg

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Heterostructure types
Type I Type II
Ec
DEc>0 DEc<0
EgA Ec
EgA EgB
EgB
DEv<0 DEv<0
Ev Ev

Type IIa Type III

Ec
DEc=0
EgA DEc<0
EgA EgB
DEv<0 Ec
DEv<0 EgB
Ev Ev
High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Heterojunction band diagram

Reaching thermal equilibrium in a heterojunction implies a

net electron movement for the material with larger (when
isolated) Fermi energy towards the material with lower
(when isolated) Fermi level
 the same phenomenon can be interpreted in terms of a net
flux of holes moving in the opposite direction
 such a movement doesn’t take place if the two materials
have the same workfunction
Mobile charge transfer creates not neutral regions, and
therefore a not flat band diagram
 for majority carrier injection, the not neutral region has
dimension of the order of the Debye length
 for majority carrier depletion, depleted regions are formed
 the built-in potential qVbi = qΦSB − qΦSA drops on the not
neutral region (Vbi is normally given in absolute value)

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Heterojunction between intrinsic materials
Type I Type II
U0 U0
el
el
EcA
EcB EcB
EFA
EcA
EFB EvA EFB
EFA
EvA EvB lac EvB
lac DE g
qVbi = qDc +
2
U0
U0

Ec
Ec
EF
EF
Ev
Ev

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

nn heterojunction
Type I Type II
U0 U0

EcB EcA EcB

EFB EFA EFB
EcA EvA
EFA
EvA
EvB EvB

æ NcBNDA ö
qVbi = qDc + kBT log ç ÷
è NcANDB ø
U0
U0

EF Ec Ec
EF

Ev Ev

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

pp heterojunction

Type I Type II
U0 U0

EcA
EcB EcB
EFA
EcA EvA
EFA
EvA EFB EFB
EvB EvB qVbi = qDc + D E g
æ NvBNAA ö
U0 U0 + kBT log ç ÷
è NvANAB ø
Ec
Ec

EF
Ev EF
Ev

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Type I pn heterojunction
Type I Type I
n p p n
U0 U0

EcB EcB
EFB
EcA EcA
EFA
EFA
EvA EFB EvA
EvB EvB
qVbi = qDc - E gA

U0 æ NcBNvA ö
+ kBT log ç ÷
Ec
è NAANDB ø
U0

Ec
EF EF
Ev

Ev

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Contents

1 Heterostructure definition

2 Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue

3 Heterostructures

4 Free charge spatial confinement

5 Conductive channels and modulation doping

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Potential energy wells

Heterojunctions among materials with different bandgap

allow to realize potential energy wells in the conduction
and/or valence bands
 if the potential well is narrow enough, quantized energy
levels may take place
 within the effective mass approximation, such quantum
structures can be studied using point mass quantum
mechanics
I the lattice effect is included in the effective mass

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Quantum structures

in 3D space, several degrees on confinement are possible

to limit the free carrier motion in a potential well:
 1D confinement (quantum well): if the well takes place in
one spatial direction only. Carriers may move in the two
other directions (two-dimensional gas)
 2D confinement (quantum wire): if the well takes place in
two spatial directions. Carriers may move in the third
direction
 3D confinement (quantum dot): if the well takes place in
three spatial directions. Carriers cannot move

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Quantum well and quantum wire

U (x ,y )
U (x ,y )

v y, v v z
z

x
x

y
y

Q u a n tu m w e ll Q u a n tu m w ir e

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Density of states in a quantum well
In a confined structure, the density of available states is
different than in free space
For a quantum well whose allowed energy states are El
one finds
X 4πm∗
g2D (E) = u(E−El ) per unit area and unit energy
l
h2

where u(α) is the step function (0 if α < 0, 1 if α > 0)

For electrons in thermal equilibrium, the electron density
per unit area occupying the various levels is
Z +∞
ns = g2D (E)f (E) dE
Ec
4πm∗ kB T X
  
EF − El
= log 1 + exp
h2 l
kB T

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Comparison with the 3D density of states

d: well thickness

dg3D g2D

E1 E2 E3 E4 E-Ec

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Superlattice

The presence of several coupled quantum wells results

into an increased number of allowed energy states
An infinite (periodic) number of coupled quantum wells
introduces into the conduction and valence bands a
subband structure
Such an artificial structure is called superlattice

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Superlattice: band structure
a

E c

E g 1 E g 2

E v

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Contents

1 Heterostructure definition

2 Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue

3 Heterostructures

4 Free charge spatial confinement

5 Conductive channels and modulation doping

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

MOdulation doping heterostructure

Carriers spatial confinement properties in the direction

orthogonal to the growth axis allow to exploit a
two-dimensional carrier gas as an FET conductive channel
To improve free carrier mobility, modulation doping is used
 only the large bandgap layer(s) is(are) doped
 the channel takes place in the low bandgap material, which
is intrinsic thus with less scattering events for free carriers
(larger mobility)
 at thermal equilibrium, free charges (electrons) provided by
dopants populate the potential well at lower energy,
creating a spatially confined two-dimensional gas
Actually, the real advantage is not strictly related to the
mobility improvement (important at low temperature only).
Rather, free carriers are much better confined into the
channel

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Single and double heterostructure channels

U0
U0

qc
DEc Ec
ED
Ec E1 EF
ED E1
E0 EF E0
Ev

Ev
+
donor fixed charge donor fixed
+ charge
qND -

qND
x
x
2D electron gas 2D electron gas

Single heterostructure Double heterostructure

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures