THE COPPERBELT UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF MATHEMATICS AND NATURAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PH 110-INTRODUCTORY PHYSICS LECTURE NOTES
CHAPTER 3
KINEMATICS
Kinematics is the branch of mechanics that describes the motion of objects without consideration
of the causes of motion. In this chapter, we study the motion of objects in relation to time. The
moving object of concern is either a point-like object or an object that can be viewed to move like
a particle.

3.1 Motion
Everything in the universe is in motion, from the tiniest particles within atoms, to the largest
galaxies of stars. An object is said to be in motion if it continuously changes its position with
respect to surroundings. The line joining all positions of a particle is called a path.

3.2 Types of motion

Motion can be categorized into three types; one dimensional, two dimensional and three
dimensional. Motion of an object in a straight line is called one dimensional motion, for example,
a car moving on a straight road or a freely falling object. Motion of an object in a plane is called
two-dimensional motion, for example a boat on a lake or car making a circular turn. An object that
is moving in space is said to execute three-dimensional motion, for example, an aero plane or a
flying insect.

3.3 Motion in one dimension

3.3.1 Origin, unit and sense of passage time
In any process involving time, some instant of time is assigned the value of zero time. To represent
the passage of time along a line, zero time is taken as the origin. The unit of time may be second,
minute or hour as per convenience.
3.3.2 Origin, unit and direction for position measurement
To represent the motion of a body along a straight line, some point O is taken as the origin and
some unit of length is chosen. At each time t, the position of the object is given a real number
positive or negative written as 𝑥(𝑡). This is called position coordinate.

-8m -6m -4m -2m 0 2m 4m 6m 8m

Figure 3.1 Representation of motion of a body along a straight line.
The distance measured to the right of the origin is taken as positive and the distance measured to
the left of the origin is taken as negative, see figure 3.1. In case of motion along the vertical line
the distance covered above the origin is taken positive while that below the origin is taken negative.
Position is measured in metres, kilometres , etc.
3.3.3 Distance and Displacement
(a) Distance
The actual length of the path traversed by a particle in a certain interval of time is called distance
travelled by that particle. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of distance is m and its dimension is L
(b) displacement
Displacement is defined as the change of position of a particle from an initial position 𝑥𝑖 to a final
position 𝑥𝑓 , along a given direction. Thus,

∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖

Displacement can also be defined as the shortest distance from the initial position to the final
position of the particle. It is a vector quantity. Just like distance, the SI unit of displacement is m
and its dimension is L
(c) Comparison between distance and displacement
(i) For a moving particle distance can never be negative or zero while displacement can be i.e.
Distance > 0 but displacement > = or < 0.
(ii) For motion between two points displacement is single-valued while distance depends on the
actual path and so can have many values.
(iii)For a moving particle, distance can never decrease with time while displacement can. Decrease
in displacement with time means the particle is moving towards the initial position.
(iv) In general, the magnitude of displacement is less or equal to the distance covered by the
particle.
3.3.4 Speed and velocity
(a) Speed
Rate of distance covered with time is called speed. It is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of speed is
ms-1 and its dimensions are LT-1. The following are types of speeds;
(i) Uniform speed
When a particle covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, (no matter how small
the intervals are) then it is said to be moving with uniform speed.
(ii) Non-uniform (variable) speed
In non-uniform speed, a particle covers unequal distances in equal intervals of time.
(iii) Average speed
Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance covered to the time interval.
Mathematically, it is given by
Total distance
Average speed =
Time interval
(iv) Instantaneous speed
Instantaneous speed is the speed of the particle at a particular instant. It is the average speed
for infinitesimally small-time interval (as the time interval ∆𝑡 approaches zero).
(b) Velocity
Velocity is defined as rate of change of position or rate of displacement with time. It is a vector
quantity. The SI unit of velocity is ms-1 and its dimensions are LT-1. The following are types of
velocities;
(i) Uniform velocity
A particle is said to move with uniform velocity if its velocity at every instant is the same.
In this case, the magnitude as well as the direction of its velocity remains the same and this
is possible only when the particle moves in the same straight line without reversing its
direction
(ii) Non-uniform velocity
A particle is said to have non-uniform velocity, if either of magnitude or direction of the
velocity changes (or both changes).
(iii) Average velocity
The average velocity of a particle is defined as the ratio of the displacement to the time
interval. Mathematically, it is given by

Displacement ∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
Average velocity = = =
Time interval ∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

Where 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑥𝑖 , are final and initial positions of the particle respectively, and 𝑡𝑓 and 𝑡𝑖 ,
are the final and initial times respectively.
(iv) Instantaneous velocity
The velocity of a particle at any instant of its motion is called instantaneous velocity. It is
defined as the limiting value of the average velocity as the time interval ∆𝑡 approaches
zero. Mathematically, the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity (instantaneous speed) is
expressed as:
∆𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑣 = lim ( )= = 𝑥̇
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

In calculus notation, the above limit is called the derivative of x with respect to t. Thus:

𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= ⟺ 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑡 ≡ Area under 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph
𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖
(a) Comparison between average speed and average velocity
(i) Average speed is a scalar quantity while average velocity is a vector quantity, both having
same units (m/s) and dimensions (LT-1).
(ii) Average speed or velocity depends on time interval over which it is defined.
(iii) For a given time interval, average velocity is single-valued while average speed can have
many values depending on the path followed.
(iv) If after motion a particle comes back to its initial position, then the average velocity is zero
(as displacement is zero), but the average speed is greater than zero.
(v) For a moving particle, average speed can never be negative or zero (unless 𝑡 → ∞) while
average velocity can be.

(b) Comparison between instantaneous speed and instantaneous velocity

(i) Instantaneous velocity is always tangential to the path followed by the particle
(ii) A particle may have constant instantaneous speed but variable instantaneous velocity.
(iii) The magnitude of instantaneous velocity is equal the instantaneous speed.
(iv) If a particle is moving with constant velocity, then its average velocity and instantaneous
velocity are always equal.

3.3.5 Acceleration
Acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity of an object. It is a vector quantity.
Its direction is the same as that of change in velocity. The SI unit of acceleration is ms-2 and its
dimensions are LT-2. If the velocity of a particle is increasing, it is said to be accelerated (positive
acceleration). Similarly, if the velocity of the particle is decreasing it is said to move with
deceleration or retardation (negative acceleration).
The following are types of acceleration;
(a) Uniform acceleration
If the magnitude and direction of the acceleration of a particle at every instant of its motion remains
constant, it is said to move with uniform acceleration. If a particle is moving with uniform
acceleration, this does not necessarily imply that the particle is moving in straight line, e.g.,
projectile motion.
(b) Non-uniform acceleration
A particle is said to have non-uniform acceleration, if magnitude or direction or both, change
during motion.
(c) Average acceleration
The average acceleration of a particle in a specified interval of time is defined as the ratio of change
in velocity to the interval of time. Mathematically,
Change in velocity ∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖𝑖
Average acceleration = = =
Time interval ∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

Where 𝑣𝑓 and 𝑣𝑖 , are final and initial velocities of the particle respectively, and 𝑡𝑓 and 𝑡𝑖 , are the
final and initial times respectively.
(d) Instantaneous acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration of a particle is defined as the limiting value of the average
∆𝑣
acceleration when time interval ∆𝑡 approaches zero. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
∆𝑡

∆𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑣 = lim ( ) = = 𝑣̇
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥
Since 𝑣 = ; then,
𝑑𝑡

𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎= ( ) = 2 = 𝑥̈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
In calculus notation, the above limit is called the derivative of 𝑣 with respect to t. Thus:

𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ⟺ 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

3.3.6 Uniform motion

A particle is said to possess or execute uniform motion if its velocity is constant at every instant.
The following are the characteristics of uniform motion;
➢ The velocity of a particle is constant.
➢ The acceleration of a particle is zero.
➢ The path of a particle is a straight line.
(a) Formula for uniform motion
Since the velocity is uniform, the displacement s at any instant or interval of time t is given by
𝑠
𝑠 = 𝑣∆𝑡 ⟺ 𝑣 =
∆𝑡
Since 𝑠 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 , then
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣(𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 )
If 𝑥𝑜 is the position of the particle at 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑥 is the position of the particle at time 𝑡, then;
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑣𝑡
(b) Position-time graph of uniform motion
The position-time graph for uniform motion is a straight line. The gradient or slope of the graph
gives the velocity of the particle.
x(m)

𝑥2 B
𝑥1 A C

𝑥𝑜
O 𝑡1 𝑡2 t(s)
Figure 3.2 Position-time (𝑥 − 𝑡) graph for uniform motion of a particle moving in a straight line
From the graph, the slope or gradient gives the velocity of the particle
𝐵𝐶 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ∆𝑥
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = = =
𝐴𝐶 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
(c) Velocity-time graph for uniform motion
The velocity-time graph for uniform motion is a straight line parallel to the time axis. The region
under the velocity-time graph between 𝑡1 and 𝑡2 represents the displacement in that interval of
time.
𝑣 (𝑚/𝑠)
A B

O 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡(𝑠)
Figure 3.3 Velocity-time (𝑣 − 𝑡) graph for uniform motion of a particle moving in a straight line
3.3.7 Uniformly accelerated motion
A particle is said to execute uniformly accelerated motion if its acceleration is uniform at every
instant of its motion. The following are the characteristics of uniformly accelerated motion;
➢ The velocity of the particle is non-uniform, i.e. it changes with time
➢ The acceleration of a particle is constant (either positive or negative).
➢ The path of a particle is a straight line
(a) Equations of uniformly accelerated motion
These are the various relations between 𝑣0 , 𝑣, 𝑎, 𝑡 and 𝑠 for the moving particle, where the
notations are used as:
𝑣0 ≡ Initial velocity of the particle at a time 𝑡 = 0
𝑣 ≡ Final velocity of the particle at time 𝑡 seconds
𝑎 ≡ Acceleration of the particle
𝑠 ≡ Distance travelled by the particle in time 𝑡 seconds
(i) Velocity-time relation
By definition, the acceleration of the particle is given by;
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖𝑖 ∆𝑣 𝑣 − 𝑣0 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎= = = = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 ∆𝑡 𝑡−0 𝑡
Rearranging the above equation gives;
𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
(ii) Position-time relation
By definition, displacement 𝑠 of the particle is given by;

Displacement=Average velocity × time

𝑠 = 𝑣̅ 𝑡

The average velocity 𝑣̅ of the particle is given by

𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑣̅ =
2
Then;
𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑠=( )𝑡
2

The final velocity 𝑣 of the particle is given by

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
Then,
 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0
𝑠=( )𝑡
2
2𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑠=( )𝑡
2
𝟏
𝒔 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐
If 𝑥 is the position coordinate of the particle at time 𝑡 seconds and 𝑥0 is the position
coordinate of the particle at time 𝑡 = 0, then the displacement is given by;
𝑠 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0
Then, the above relation becomes
1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
(iii) Position-velocity relation
Since the velocity is given by
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
Then,

𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑡=
𝑎
The displacement is therefore given by

Displacement=Average velocity × time

𝑣 + 𝑣0
𝑠=( )𝑡
2
𝑣 + 𝑣0 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑠=( )( )
2 𝑎
𝑣 2 − 𝑣𝑣0 + 𝑣𝑣0 − 𝑣0 2
𝑠=
2𝑎

𝑣 2 − 𝑣0 2
𝑠=
2𝑎

𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟎 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒂𝒔

If 𝑥 is the position coordinate of the particle at time 𝑡 seconds and 𝑥0 is the position
coordinate of the particle at time 𝑡 = 0, then the displacement is given by;
𝑠 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0
Then, the above relation becomes
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
 (a) Position-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion
The position time graph of the particle executing uniformly accelerated is a curve in the form;
x(m)

Slope = Instantaneous velocity v

𝑥0
0 t(s)
Figure 3.3 The position-time (𝑥 − 𝑡) graph for uniformly accelerated motion of a particle moving
in a straight line. The gradient or slope of a tangent at any point of the curve represents the
instantaneous velocity at that point.

(b) Velocity-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion

The velocity time graph of a particle executing uniformly accelerated motion is a straight line and
the slope of the graph gives the uniform acceleration of the particle.
v(m/s)

𝑣 B

A 𝑣𝑜 C
O 𝑡 t(s)
Figure 3.4 The velocity-time (𝑣 − 𝑡) graph for uniformly accelerated motion of a particle moving
in a straight line. The gradient or slope of a graph represents uniform acceleration.
From the graph, the slope or gradient gives the uniform acceleration of the particle

𝐵𝐶 𝑣 − 𝑣0 𝑣 − 𝑣0 ∆𝑣
Slope = = = = =𝑎
𝐴𝐶 𝑡−0 𝑡 ∆𝑡
The area under the graph of the of the velocity-time graph represents the displacement of the
particle.
 (c) Acceleration-time graph for uniformly accelerated motion
The acceleration-time graph for a particle executing uniformly accelerated motion is a straight line
parallel to the time axis.
𝑎 (𝑚⁄𝑠 2 )

𝑎 = constant

O 𝑡(𝑠)

Figure 3.5 The acceleration-time (𝑎 − 𝑡) graph for uniformly accelerated motion of a particle
moving in a straight line.
3.3.8 Relative velocity
We consider the body to be at rest when its position does not change with respect to fixed object
in its surrounding. Usually, we refer to the state of motion or rest with respect to the earth, but the
earth is moving with respect to the sun. Thus, we cannot say a body to be at absolute rest or in a
state of absolute motion.
The relative velocity of a body A with respect to another body B is the velocity that body A would
appear to have to an observer situated on body B moving along with it.
Consider two bodies A and B be moving along a straight line in the same direction, with constant
velocities 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 . Then, the velocity of A with respect to B is equal to 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 . If B is moving
in the opposite direction, the relative velocity of A with respect to B is equal to 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵 .
3.3.9 Motion of body under gravity (Free fall)
All bodies near the Earth’s surface are attracted towards the centre of the earth by the force of
gravity. This force produces a vertical uniform acceleration called acceleration due to gravity,
denoted by the letter ‘g’. It is independent of the mass of the body and varies from place to place.
Its mean value on Earth’s surface is 9.8 m/s2.
Any object that is being acted upon by the force of gravity is said to be in the state of free fall. The
following are two important motion characteristics of free-falling objects;
➢ Free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance
➢ All free-falling objects accelerate downwards on earth at a rate of 9.8 m/s2 (Approximated)
Like any moving object executing uniformly accelerated motion, the motion of an object in free
fall can be described by equation of kinematics. In this case, the three equations of uniformly
accelerated motion become;
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑔𝑡
1
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

3.4 Motion in two dimensions

In this section, we study the motion of a particle in a plane. Motion of a particle in a straight line
is called rectilinear motion. A combination of two rectilinear motions along different directions
gives motion along a plane. Some common examples of motion in a plane are motion of projectiles,
motion of charged particles in electric field, satellites, etc.
3.4.1 Position, displacement, velocity, and acceleration vectors
(a) Position
We describe the position of a particle in two dimensions with a position vector 𝑟⃗ denoted by

𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗

Where x and y are rectangular coordinates (x, y). In three dimensions, the position vector becomes
⃗⃗.
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘
(b) Displacement
If 𝑟⃗𝑓 and 𝑟⃗𝑖 are the final and initial positions of a particle respectively at time 𝑡𝑓 and 𝑡𝑖 respectively,
then the displacement of a particle is
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗𝑓 − 𝑟⃗𝑖

(c) Velocity
The average velocity of the particle in two dimensions is therefore given by
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗𝑓 − 𝑟⃗𝑖
〈𝑣⃗〉 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

In two dimensions, the instantaneous velocity is given by

∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = lim ( )
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

In calculus notation, the above limit is called the derivative of 𝑟⃗ with respect to t, and is written as
 𝑡𝑓
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = ≡ 𝑟⃗𝑓 − 𝑟⃗𝑖 = ∫ 𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

Since 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗, then

𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑣⃗ = (𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗) = ⃗𝑖 + ⃗𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or

𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 ⃗𝑗

where the two components of the velocity vector are given by:
𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑣𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
In a three-dimensional study, the velocity vector can be written in the general form 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 ⃗𝑖 +
⃗⃗.
𝑣𝑦 ⃗𝑗 + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘

(d) Acceleration
For a two-dimensional motion, the average acceleration is given by:
∆𝑣⃗ 𝑣⃗𝑓 − 𝑣⃗𝑖
〈𝑎⃗〉 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖

and the instantaneous acceleration is defined as:

∆𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim ( )
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

In calculus notation, we obtain:

𝑑𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ =
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟⃗
Since 𝑣⃗ = 𝑑𝑡

then,
 𝑡𝑓
2
𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑 𝑟⃗
𝑎⃗ = = ( )= 2 ≡ 𝑣⃗𝑓 − 𝑣⃗𝑖 = ∫ 𝑎⃗ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑡𝑖

In unit vector notation, we use 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 ⃗𝑗, so that:

𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣
𝑣⃗ = (𝑣𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 ⃗𝑗) = ⃗𝑖 + 𝑦 ⃗𝑗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑎𝑦 ⃗𝑗

where the two components of the acceleration vector are given by:
𝑑𝑣𝑥
𝑎𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑦
𝑎𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
In a three-dimensional study, the acceleration vector can be written in the general form 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 ⃗𝑖 +
⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑦 ⃗𝑗 + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘

3.4.2 Projectile motion

If the force acting on a particle is oblique with initial velocity then the motion of the particle is
called projectile motion. A body which is in flight through the atmosphere but it is not being
propelled by any fuel is called projectile.
(a) Assumptions of projectile motion
The following are the assumptions of projectile motion:
➢ There is no resistance due to air.
➢ The effect due to curvature of the earth is negligible.
➢ The effect due to the rotation of the earth is negligible.
➢ For all points of the trajectory, the acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ is constant in magnitude and
direction.
(b) Principles of physical independence of motions
The following are principles of physical independence of projectile motions
➢ The motion of a projectile is a two-dimensional motion. So, it can be discussed in two parts;
horizontal motion and vertical motion. These two motions take place independent of each
other. This is called the principle of physical independence of motions.
➢ The velocity of the particle can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular components;
horizontal and vertical components.
➢ The horizontal component of the velocity remains unchanged throughout the flight. The force
of gravity continuously affects the vertical component of the velocity.
➢ The horizontal motion is a uniform motion and the vertical motion is a uniformly accelerated
motion.
(c) Types of projectile motion
There are two types of projectile; horizontal projectile motion and oblique projectile motion.
(i) Horizontal Projectile
Here we consider a body projected horizontally from a certain height ‘h’ vertically above the
ground with initial velocity 𝑣0 . If friction is considered to be absent then there is no other horizontal
force which can affect the horizontal motion. The horizontal velocity therefore remains constant.
See figure 3.6

𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥

𝑣𝑦
h 𝑣𝑥

𝑣𝑦

𝑣𝑥 y
R
𝑣𝑦

Figure 3.6 The path of a projectile projected horizontally from a height ’h’ vertically above the
ground.
When the particle is released, it moving with uniform velocity in horizontal direction and uniform
acceleration (g) in the vertical direction. The displacement as a function of time in each case is
therefore given by:
In horizontal direction: 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣0 𝑡
1
In vertical direction: 𝑦 = 2 𝑔𝑡 2 ; Since 𝑣0𝑦 = 0
From the above two equations, we can obtain the cartesian equation by eliminating the parameter
‘t’.
𝑥
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 ⟺ 𝑡 =
𝑣0
1 1 𝑥 2 1 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑔𝑡 2 = 𝑔 ( ) = 𝑔 2
2 2 𝑣0 2 𝑣0
𝑔 2
𝑦=( 2) 𝑥
2𝑣0
This equation is an equation of a parabola since it is in the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 .
The velocity at any point of the curve is given by:

𝑣⃗ = 𝑣𝑥 ⃗𝑖 + 𝑣𝑦 ⃗𝑗

where 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 and 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑔𝑡; since 𝑣0𝑦 = 0

(ii) Oblique projectile

In oblique projectile motion, the horizontal component of the velocity and acceleration (g) remains
constant while the vertical component of the velocity changes. Velocity is maximum at the point
of projection while minimum at highest point.

Figure 3.7 The path of a projectile launched from the origin with initial velocity that makes an
angle 𝜃0 with the x axis.
The initial velocity can be resolved into horizontal and vertical components as follows:
Horizontal component: 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
Vertical component: 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃

The displacement as a function of time in each case is therefore given by:

In horizontal direction: 𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑡
1 1
In vertical direction: 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2

The velocity at any time ‘t’ in the horizontal direction is 𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃.
In the vertical direction, the velocity at any time ‘t’ is given by:
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡

The position-velocity relation in the vertical direction is given by

𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) = 𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

(1) Maximum height (H)

At the maximum height, the vertical velocity is zero. Given: Initial vertical velocity 𝑣0𝑦 =
𝑣0 sin 𝜃, final vertical velocity 𝑣𝑦 = 0, acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔, vertical displacement 𝑠 = 𝐻

Then:
𝑣𝑦 2 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 2 + 2𝑔𝑠 = 𝑣𝑜𝑦 2 − 2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

0 = 𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 − 2𝑔𝐻
2𝑔𝐻 = 𝑣𝑜 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝒗𝒐 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑯=
𝟐𝒈
(2) Time of flight (T)
It is the time taken by the projectile to return to the same horizontal level as the point of projection.
If we consider the vertical motion, we have:
1
𝑠 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
Given: 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃, 𝑠 = 0 and 𝑡 = 𝑇, then:
1
0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑇 − 𝑔𝑇 2 ⟺ 𝑔𝑇 2 − 2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑇 = 0
2
𝑇(𝑔𝑇 − 2𝑣0 sin 𝜃) = 0
𝑔𝑇 − 2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 = 0
 𝟐𝒗𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑻=
𝒈

(3) Horizontal range (R)

It is the horizontal displacement of a particle through the point of projection. Horizontally, the
particle moves with constant velocity 𝑣0 cos 𝜃.
2𝑣0 sin 𝜃
Given: 𝑥 = 𝑅, 𝑡 = 𝑇 = , then the range is
𝑔

𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑡
𝑅 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑇
2𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑅 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 ( )
𝑔
2𝑣0 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
𝑣0 2 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔
Since sin 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃, then expression for range becomes
𝒗𝟎 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
𝑹=
𝒈
(4) Maximum range (Rmax)
For a given velocity of projection, the range is maximum when 2𝜃 = 90° or 𝜃 = 45°
𝑣0 2 sin 2𝜃 𝑣0 2 sin 90
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
𝑔 𝑔
𝒗𝟎 𝟐
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒈
(5) Cartesian equation
The cartesian equation is obtained from the parametric equations if we eliminate the parameter t
between them. The parametric equations are equations for displacement as a function of time. In
this case we have:

𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃 𝑡
 1
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2

𝑥
𝑡=
𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 ( )− 𝑔( )
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 2 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 𝑔
𝑦=( )𝑥 − 𝑥2
cos 𝜃 2𝑣0 cos 2 𝜃
2

𝒈
𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 𝒙 − 𝟐
𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒗𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝜽
The above equation is of the form 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 2 , which is the equation for a parabola. Hence, the
path of a projectile is a parabola.

EXERCISES
1. The fastest 100 m that was ever run was in 9.58 s by Usain Bolt. What was his average velocity
in
(a) m/s?
(b) km/min?
(c) km/h? [(a)10.4 m/s (b)0.63 km/min (c) 37.6 km/h]
2. You are trying to figure out the speed a rifle can shoot. You fire at a target 100 m away and
you hear the impact 0.5 seconds later. The speed of sound is 340 m/s. What was the speed of
the bullet? [485m/s]
3. A car covers first half of the distance between two places at a speed of 40 km/h and the second
half at 60 km/h. What is the average speed of the car? [48 km/h]
4. On a 60 km straight road, a bus travels the first 30 km with a uniform speed of 30 km/h. How
fast must the bus travel the next 30 km so as to have average speed of 40 km/h for the entire
trip? [60 km/h]
5. A drunkard walking in a narrow lane takes 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward, followed
again 5 steps forward and 3 steps backward and so on. Each step is 1m and requires 1 second.
Plot position-time graph for his motion. From the graph or otherwise find the time taken by
him to fall in a pit 13 m away from start. [Hint: In 8 seconds he moves forward by 2 m; total
time t=37s]
6. The position-time graph shown in figure 3.8 represents the motion of a basketball coach during
the last 8 seconds of the game in overtime.
(a)Find the average velocity in the time intervals
(i) 0 to 2 s,
(ii) 0 to 4s,
 (iii) 2 s to 4 s,
(iv) 4 s to 7 s,
(v) 0 to 8 s. [(i) 5 m/s (ii) 1.25 m/s (iii) -2.5 m/s (iv) -3.3 m/s (v) 0]
(b) Repeat part (a) for the average speed. [5 m/s; 3.75 m/s; 2.5 m/s; 3.3 m/s; 3.75 m/s]

Figure 3.8 See exercise 6

7. A position-time graph for a particle moving along the x axis is shown in figure 3.9.
(a) Find the instantaneous velocity at time t = 2 seconds
(b) At what value of t is the velocity zero? [(a) -3.8 m/s (b) 4s]

Figure 3.9 See exercise 7

8. A particle moves along a straight line and O is the fixed point on that line. The displacement s
metres of the particle is given by
𝑠 = (𝑡 − 1)(𝑡 − 5)
Draw a displacement-time graph for the interval of time from t=0 to t=6 s.
From the graph find,
(a) the average velocity in the interval from t=0 to t=4 s.
(b) the distance covered in the time interval from t=0 to t=4 s.
(c) the instantaneous velocity at t=4 s.
(d) the time at which the velocity is zero. [(a) -2 m/s (b) 10 m (c) 2 m/s (d) 3 s]
9. A particle starts from rest and accelerates as shown in the figure 3.10. Determine
(a) the particle’s speed at t = 10 s and at t = 20 s.
(b) the distance traveled in the first 20 seconds. [(a) 20 m/s; 5 m/s (b) 262 m]

Figure 3.10 See exercise 9

10. A velocity–time graph for an object moving along the x direction is shown in the figure 3.11.
(a) Plot a graph of the acceleration versus time.
(b) Determine the average acceleration of the object in the time intervals
(i) t = 5 s to t = 15 s
(ii) t = 0 to t = 20 s. [(b) (i)1.6 m/s2; (ii)0.8 m/s2]

Figure 3.11 See exercise 10

11. The Lamborghini Murcielago can accelerate from 0 to 62.2 mi/h in a time of 3.4 seconds.
Determine the acceleration of this car. [ 8.18 m/s2]
12. A car traveling at the speed of 54 km/h is brought to rest in one and half minute. Find the
retardation and the distance travelled by the car before coming to rest. [0.167m/s2; 675m]
13. A car passes a point and then 120 m away, its velocity was 21 m/s. If its acceleration was
constant at 0.583 m/s2, what was the car’s velocity at that point? [17.4 m/s]
2
14. A sprinter from rest accelerates at 1.5 m/s for the first 20 m but then gets tired and decelerates
at -0.1 m/s2 for the next 80 m. What is the sprinter’s final velocity? [6.64 m/s]
15. An out of control train is hurling down the track at 35 m/s. If the conductor sees a kitten on the
track 200 m in front of him, with what minimum acceleration would the train need to save the
adorable kitten? [-3.06 m/s2]
16. A bullet strikes a uniform plank with a velocity of 400 m/s and comes out with half velocity.
What would be the velocity if the plank were only half thick? [316.2m/s]
17. A particle starts from a point O with an initial velocity of 2 m/s and travels along a straight line
with uniform acceleration of 2 m/s2. Two seconds later a second particle starts from rest at O
and travels along the same line with an acceleration of 6 m/s2. Find how far from O the second
particle overtakes the first. [48 m from O]
18. A person is running at his maximum speed of 4 m/s to catch a train. When he is 6m from the
door of the train, it starts moving at a constant acceleration of 1 m/s/s. How long does he take
to catch the train? [2 s]
19. A particle moves along the x-axis according to the equation 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡 − 𝑡 2 , where 𝑥 is in
metres and 𝑡 is in seconds. At 𝑡 = 3 s, find
(a) the position of the particle
(b) the velocity of the particle
(c) the acceleration of the particle. [(a) 2 m (b) -3 m/s (c) -2 m/s2]
20. A particle moves along a straight line with an acceleration 𝑎 = 3𝑡 2 − 2, where 𝑎 is in ms-2 and
𝑡 is in seconds. Initially, the particle is at O, with velocity 2 m/s. At 𝑡 = 3 s, find the
(a) acceleration of the particle
(b) velocity of the particle
(c) position of the particle. [(a)25 m/s2 (b)23 m/s (c)17.25 m]
21. Two parallel rail tracks run north-south. Train A moves north with a speed of 54 km/h and
train B moves south with a speed of 90 km/h. What is the relative velocity in m/s of
(a) B with respect to A
(b) the ground with respect to B
(c) a monkey running on the roof of train A against its motion (with velocity 18 km/h with
respect to A) as observed by a man standing on the ground. [-40m/s; 25m/s; 10m/s]
22. According to Guinness, the tallest man to have ever lived was Robert Pershing of Alton,
Illinois. He was last measured in 1940 to be 8.92 ft. Determine the speed which a quarter would
have reached before contact with the ground if dropped from the top of his head. [7.3 m/s]
23. A stone is projected vertically up from the top of the tower 73.5 m with velocity 24.5 m/s. Find
the time taken by the stone to reach the foot of the tower. [7.11 seconds]
24. A stone thrown vertically up from the top of a tower with a velocity 20m/s reaches the ground
in 6 seconds. Find the height of the tower. [56.4 m]
25. A particle is projected vertically up from the foot of the tower 392 m high with velocity 98
m/s. At the same instant another body is dropped from the top. Find when and where they will
meet. [t=4 seconds; h=313.6 m above the foot of the tower]
26. A ball is thrown vertically up with a speed of 14 m/s. 2 s later a second ball is dropped from
the same point. Find when and where the two balls will meet. [t=3.5 s; h=11 m]
27. A particle moves in the xy plane such that, at time t, its displacement from a fixed point O is
given by r = 4t𝒊 + (3t−5t2)j. Find the velocity vector at time t and hence find the velocity
components when t=0. Show that the acceleration is constant. Do you notice anything
significant about this acceleration? [v = 4𝒊 + 3j]
28. A short fired horizontally from the top of a tower 176.4 m high hits the ground at a distance
1200 m from the foot of the tower. Find the velocity of projection. [200 m/s]
29. A short is fired from a gun on the top of a hill 90 m high with velocity 80 m/s at an angle 300
with the horizontal. Find its horizontal distance from the point of projection when it strikes the
ground. [𝟒𝟎𝟎√𝟑 m]
0
30. You throw a rock off the cliff at 10 m/s, 20 above the horizontal. The cliff is 25 m high. With
what angle does it the rock hit the ground? [67.2 0]
0
31. You ride your bike over a ramp. The ramp is slanted at 28 . You land 12 meters away. What
was your velocity as you rode off the ramp? [11.9 m/s]
32. A projectile is launched on level ground. At the peak of its trajectory, it is 7.5 m high. It lands
10 m from where it was launched. At what angle was the projectile launched? [71.6 0]
33. A stone is thrown off a cliff. It hits the ground with an angle of 73.4 0 and a speed of 65.7 m/s.
If the cliff is 200 m high, how fast was the stone initially thrown? [20.1 m/s]
34. Prove that the time of flight 𝑇 and the horizontal range 𝑅 of a projectile are connected by the
equation 𝑔𝑇 2 = 2𝑅 tan 𝜃
35. Figure (not drawn to scale) 3.12 shows a fighter plane that has a speed v0 of 300 km/h, flying
at an angle 𝜃 =150 below the horizontal when a decoy rocket is released. The horizontal
distance between the release point and the point where the decoy strikes the ground is x =600
m. Take g = 10 m/s2.
(a) How long was the decoy in the air?
(b) How high was the plane when the decoy was released? [(a) 7.45 s, (b) 438.2m]

Figure 3.12 See exercise 35