Outline

• Resins Part ONE of Two

• Textbook Chapters 2, 3

• Concepts of resins: thermoplastics and thermosets

• Matrix dominated properties and additives

• Polyester resins:

• General concepts

• Curing

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 Residual Stresses
• Paramount for manufacturing processes
• Three main sources:
• Temperature variation between cure and operation
• Fibers/matrix CTE differences
• Moisture absorption
• Residual thermal stresses in-plane direction variation of CTE (Table 11.3)
• Post-cure deformations if laminate has NO mid-plane symmetry
• Different level of warping, worst for thin laminates (<12 plies)
• Residual stresses in a laminate are observed at two levels. What are they?

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 Residual Stresses
• Paramount for manufacturing processes
• Residual stresses could be present also WITHOUT warping
• Example of thermal stresses in symmetric and asymmetric laminates (Fig. 11.25)

Symmetric NON-symmetric

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 Residual Stresses

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 Case Study: Shaft
• Determine thickness and laminate schedule of a carbon tube (shaft), Page 341
• Design specifications:
• Loads: max torque, max twist, lateral/axial loads
• Max material shear strain 2,000 µε

• Select target shear modulus G, G0=8.91 MPa, G45=52.1 MPa, GQI=33.3 MPa
• ±45 ONLY not very good, chose G=41.4 MPa
• G/E0=0.2 from plot Fig. 11.27 76% of ±45

Fig. 11.27
Textbook

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 Case Study: Shaft
• From polar moment of inertia J equation t = 0.8 mm
• Assuming ply thickness 0.13 mm we have SIX plies
• But 76% of ±45 is necessary and sufficient so FIVE plies
• Balanced laminates are better so SIX plies
• General rule to have at least ONE ply in every angle (0/90/±45) therefore final
laminate schedule COULD be [±45/0/±45/90/±45]

• What is the logic behind our choice for the laminate schedule?

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 Properties of Typical Uni

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 Fiber-Reinforced Composites Materials

• Composites are made of two materials ―a continuous phase (matrix)

and a discontinuous phase (reinforcement)
• In the most common composites, the matrix is a polymeric resin and the
reinforcements are fibers
• The resin must bond to the fibers

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 Resins
• Resins are POLYMERIC materials used initially NOT yet in their final form or
shape
• Polymer: molecular chain-like structure formed by single molecules (monomers)
by a process called POLYMERIZATION
• Increases in molecular weight (length of the polymer chain) result in increases in
thermal and most mechanical properties
• As chain length increases, viscosity increases
• Is that a PROBLEM?

• Many types of resins. We will cover polyester, vinyl esters and epoxies
• Two fundamental types with different application processes:
• THERMOPLASTICS and THERMOSETS
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 Thermoplastics
• Thermoplastics are not crosslinked and so they melt
• Thermoplastics are molded as molten liquids
• Thermoplastics are cooled to solidify
• Thermoplastics can be re-melted repeatedly
• Kitchen example:

Candy

• Thermoplastics are tough rather than brittle

• Examples of thermoplastics: polyethylene, polystyrene, nylon,
polycarbonate, acrylic, Teflon®, PET (thermoplastic polyester)

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 Thermosets
• Thermosets are crosslinked and do not melt
• Crosslinking is sometimes called curing (chemical reaction)
• IRREVERSIBLE
• Thermosets are processed as room temperature liquids
• Thermosets are heated to solidify
• Kitchen example:

Cake

• Thermosets are often brittle

• Examples of thermosets: polyesters, vinyl esters, epoxies, phenolics,
polyamides
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 Thermosets / Thermoplastics
• Comparison of advanced and engineering thermoplastics and
thermosets

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 Dilemma
• Molecular weight is a BIG factor for laminates design AND manufacturing
• DILEMMA:

• Polymers must have good mechanical

properties, good mechanical properties
are favored by high molecular weight

• Polymers must have good processing,

good processing is favored by low
molecular weight

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 Thermosets Answer to the Dilemma
• Thermosets meet the dilemma by cross-linking
• Low molecular weight initially (for wet-out and processing) followed by
curing to increase molecular weight
• No compromise is required

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 Matrix Dominated Properties
Relevant to manufacturing: fibers MUST be well wetted (viscosity), good
bonding with fibers, stability in time for storage

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 Additives
• Additives are used to alter specific properties of resins

Reach depths down to 8,000 m

• Resin System: resin + solvent + cure system
• Fillers: fine compounds added to reduce costs (increase viscosity)
with(inorganic)
• Pigments DIAB’s ormaterial solutions
Dyes (organic) for subsea
for coloring applications
• UV inhibitors The deep waters of our oceans are considered the
last frontier of our planet. Exploring these depths
product features for any application. DIAB’s full
product range and know-how in this area enable us
under harsh conditions places extreme demands to provide total material and application solutions to
• Viscosity control agents (thixotrope agent)
on any equipment used there. To build and design
equipment meeting the tough challenges at these
our customers worldwide. Whatever your subsea
application, our materials can take the pressure.
depths, high-performance materials are crucial. There DIAB’s materials Divinycell HCP and BMTI Syntactic

• Specific additives to enhance mechanical characteristics

is no room for error.
DIAB has been providing material solutions for
Foams are applicable in many types of applications
within the oil and gas, subsea and oceanographic
subsea applications for more than 30 years. We industries, and provide high performance with
know that strength, buoyancy and insulation together regard to strength, impact-resistance, buoyancy
• Microspheres for high compression strength (syntactic foam) for hydrostatic
with high quality and long service life are essential and insulation.

applications, bolted flanges (wind turbine blades)

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 Polyester Resins: Generals
• Polyester resin is usually available as a two-component system, with resin in one
container and the initiator in the other.
• Be sure to follow the manufacturers mixing instructions exactly, combining the
components carefully to avoid mixing air bubbles, which weaken the cured resin.
• Usually the resin contains an accelerator, also called a promoter, which speeds the
cure time
• The catalyst must be handled with great care at all times; it is a corrosive
substance and can ignite spontaneously when in contact with materials like paper
and rags.

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 Polyester Resins: Generals

• Polyesters, the MOST commonly used THERMOSET resins cost about

25% less than vinyl esters and 35-50% less than epoxies
• Polyesters have good mechanical properties, electrical properties and
chemical resistance. Polyesters are amenable to multiple fabrication
techniques and are low cost (list of uses at page 48 textbook)
• Two processes involved in polyesters (as for other resins):
• Polymerization, at the resin producers
• Cross-linking (curing) at the molding of composite parts
• Skip to page 57 textbook

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 Polyesters: Curing

• Curing (cross-linking) can be greatly affected by molding procedures

• Curing is the drying and hardening (or polymerization) of the resin matrix
of a finished composite. This may be done unaided or by applying heat and/
or pressure
• Resins become solids and mechanical properties develop (strength,
stiffness, hardness)
• Curing is always acting but very slowly (with proper storage) since
INITIATOR (1.5-2%) will be added
• To help and speed-up the curing a reactive diluent is also added, most
common is styrene

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 Polyesters: Curing
• Styrene is an AROMATIC molecule: adds mechanical properties but is an
HAZARDOUS material (harmful vapors), Case Study 3.1 page 76 for
reducing styrene emissions
• Curing is an EXOTHERMAL process, CRITICAL for manufacturing
• Good heat dissipation to keep reaction from getting too fast
• Laminates with abrupt changes of thickness could generate heat
dissipation problems and post-curing dimensional distortions
• Additives to tune the curing:
• Inhibitors to extend shelf life and pot life during molding
• Promoters (accelerators) to instigate the cross-linking
• Thinners and thixotrope materials used to tune density (related to curing
velocity for good wet-out)
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 Cure Control
• Several factors contribute to curing process (speed)
• Make curing slower: mold mass and heat transfer properties, inhibitors,
fillers (added mass), cross-linking agents
• Make curing faster: heat (generated within and/or environment), promoters,
UV light, laminate mass (thick components could generate concentrated
local heat and speed up the process, DANGEROUS!
• Why we would try to tune the curing speed of a resin?

Fig. 3.9

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 Cure Control

Fig. 3.9

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