MA 525

Advanced Composite Materials

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Classification scheme for the various
composite types

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Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
• Composites, also known FRP composites, are made from a
polymer matrix that is reinforced with an engineered or natural
fiber (like glass, carbon or aramid) or other reinforcing material.

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Fiber-Reinforced Polymer
• The matrix protects the fibers from environmental and
external damage and transfers the load between the fibers.
• The fibers, in turn, provide strength and stiffness to reinforce
the matrix and help it resist cracks and fractures.

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Applications

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Applications

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Applications

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Applications

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7yF5oarItaU

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Overview

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vqlR74PlVgM

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Overview

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bBbOUDDJv4
Q&t=31s
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Benefits
• Composites do not rust or corrode.
• Corrosion resistance is determined by the
choice of resin and reinforcement used within
the composite application.
• There are various resin systems available
which provide long-term resistance to nearly
every chemical and temperature environment.
• The choice of reinforcements is much more
limited but crucial for certain chemical
environments.
• Composite structures have an exceedingly
long life span. Combine this with their low-
maintenance requirements and composites
become the material of choice for a host of
applications.
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Benefits
• The ultimate tensile strength of steel ranges
from 400 to 690 MPa, while the ultimate
strength of carbon fiber reinforced polymer
composites ranges from 1,200 to 2,410 MPa,
depending on fiber orientation and other
design factors.

• Fiber-reinforced composites offer excellent

strength-to-weight ratios, exceeding those of
other materials. For example, carbon fiber-
reinforced composites are 70 percent lighter
than steel and 40 percent lighter than
aluminum.

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Polymer matrix
Resins:

• The primary functions of the resin are to transfer stress

between the reinforcing fibers, act as a glue to hold the fibers
together, and protect the fibers from mechanical and
environmental damage.

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Polymer matrix
• Resins used in reinforced polymer composites are
either thermoplastic or thermoset.

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Thermoset resins
• Thermoset resins are used to make most composites.

• They’re converted from a liquid to a solid through a process

called polymerization, or cross-linking.

• When used to produce finished goods, thermosetting resins

are “cured” by the use of a catalyst, heat or a combination of
the two. Once cured, solid thermoset resins cannot be
converted back to their original liquid form.

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Thermoset resins
• http://compositeslab.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Thermosets-
Cross-Link-Curing-Process.gif

• Thermosets cross link during the curing process to form an irreversible

bond.

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Thermoset resins
Advantages of thermosets plastics
• Can withstand enormous heat
• Does not deform or melt when the heat is applied
• Excellent strength and load-carrying capacity.
• An excellent option to replace metals.
• Cost-effective plastic

Disadvantages of Thermoset plastics

• Can not absorb impact loading
• More of a brittle in nature than ductile
• Greater finishes not possible.
• Can not be remolded.
• Can not be recycled.
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Thermoset resins
Polyester:
• Unsaturated polyester resins (UPR) are
the workhorse of the composites
industry and represent approximately
75% of the total resins used.
• The principle advantage of these resins
is a balance of properties (including
mechanical, chemical, and electrical)
dimensional stability, cost and ease of
handling or processing.
• These resins can be formulated and
chemically tailored to provide
properties and process compatibility.
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Thermoset resins
Epoxy:
• A major benefit of epoxy resins over UPRs is
their lower shrinkage.
• Epoxies are used primarily for fabricating
high performance composites with superior
mechanical properties, resistance to corrosive
liquids and environments, superior electrical
properties, good performance at elevated
temperatures, good adhesion to a substrate, or
a combination of these benefits.
• Epoxy resins have particularly good UV
resistance

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Thermoset resins
Vinyl Ester:
• Vinyl esters were developed to
combine the advantages of epoxy
resins with the better handling/faster
cure, which are typical for
unsaturated polyester resins.
• These resins are produced by reacting
epoxy resin with acrylic or
methacrylic acid. This provides an
unsaturated site, much like that
produced in polyester resins when
maleic anhydride is used. The
resulting material is dissolved in
styrene to yield a liquid that is similar
to polyester resin. 20
Thermoset resins
Vinyl Ester:
• Vinyl esters offer mechanical toughness
and excellent corrosion resistance. These
enhanced properties are obtained without
complex processing, handling or special
shop fabricating practices that are typical
with epoxy resins.

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Thermoset resins
Phenolic:
• Phenolics are a class of resins commonly
based on phenol (carbolic acid).
Phenolics are thermosetting resins that
cure through a condensation reaction
producing water that should be removed
during processing.
• Phenolic composites have high
temperature resistance, creep resistance,
excellent thermal insulation and sound
damping properties, corrosion resistance
and excellent fire/smoke/smoke toxicity
properties.
• Phenolics are applied as adhesives or
matrix binders in engineered woods
(plywood), brake linings, clutch plates,
circuit boards, to name a few. 22
Thermoset resins
Polyurethane:
• Polyurethanes as an elastomer have
superior toughness and abrasion in such
applications as solid tires, wheels,
bumper components or insulation.
• There are many formulations of
polyurethane foam to optimize the
density for insulation, structural
sandwich panels, and architectural
components.
• Benefits of polyurethane adhesive bonds
are that they have good impact
resistance, the resin cures rapidly and the
resin bonds well to a variety of different
surfaces such as concrete. 23
Thermoset resins
Polyurethane:

Polyurethane Spray Foam

Polyurea Coated Walls Protect

Against Bomb Blasts

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Thermplastic resins
• http://compositeslab.com/wp-
content/uploads/2015/05/Thermoplastics-bonds-chain-molecules.gif

• Thermoplastic resins are not cross-linked and, so, can be melted, formed,
re-melted and re-formed. Thermoplastic resins are characterized by
materials such as ABS, polyethylene, polystyrene, and polycarbonate.

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Thermplastic resins
• Thermoplastic pellets soften when heated
and become more fluid as more heat is
administered.

• The curing process is 100% reversible as

no chemical bonding takes place. This
characteristic allows thermoplastics to be
remolded and recycled without
negatively affecting the material’s
physical properties. 26
Thermplastic resins
• Depending on the resin, thermoplastics
can serve low-stress applications such as
plastic bags or can be used in high-stress
mechanical parts. Examples of
thermoplastic polymers include
polyethylene, PVC, and nylon
• Common materials used to produce these
pipes are PVC or CPVC.
• Polyethylene gas tanks are used to
transport natural gas for use in residential
and commercial applications.

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Thermoplastic resins
Advantages of Thermoplastics Disadvantages of Thermoplastics
• Extremely adhesive to metal •Not suitable for the high-temperature
• High recyclable zone.
• Superb impact resistance
•Not strong enough to withstand
• Can be remolded and reshaped
enough load
• Excellent corrosion resistance
•Regrind possible only for a few times.
• Detergent and chemical resistance
• Flexibility and elongation of the •Gets melt easily under heat
coating film •Costlier than thermosetting
• Electrical insulation
• Aesthetically-superior finishes
• Superb corrosion resistance
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Typical epoxy system

• https://www.mouldlife.net/ekmps/shops/mouldlife/resources/Other/araldite-
ly564-aradur-2954-eur-e-1-.pdf
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 Viscosity
• The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow under shear stresses.
• Low-molecular-weight fluids, such as water and motor oil, have low viscosities and
flow readily. High-molecular-weight fluids, such as polymer melts, have high
viscosities and flow only under high stresses.
• Polymer melts, in general, are shear-thinning fluids since their viscosity decreases
with the increasing intensity of shearing.

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 Gel time
• In all cases, the viscosity increases with increasing cure time and temperature.
The rate of viscosity increase is low at the early stage of curing. After a threshold
degree of cure is achieved, the resin viscosity increases at a very rapid rate. The
time at which this occurs is called gel time. The gel time is an important molding
parameter, since the flow of resin in the mold becomes increasingly difficult at the
end of this time period.

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 Gel time
The curing characters tics of a resin–catalyst
combination are frequently determined by the gel-
time test. In this test, a measured amount (10 g) of
a thoroughly mixed resin–catalyst combination is
poured into a standard test tube. The temperature
rise in the material is monitored as a function of
time by means of a thermocouple while the test
tube is suspended in an 82 C (180 F) water bath.
Shortly after the curing reaction begins at point A,
the resin viscosity increases very rapidly owing to
the increasing number of cross-links formed by the
curing reaction. The time at which a rapid increase
in viscosity ensues is called the gel time and is
indicated by point B. 32
Reinforcement

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Carbon Fibers

Carbon fiber is often time produced using two main methods: through the
use of Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and from pitch. Pitch is a viscoelastic
material that is composed of aromatic hydrocarbons. Pitch is produced via
the distillation of carbon-based materials, such as plants, crude oil, and coal. 34
Carbon Fibers

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vVUuz-kELog
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Typical carbon fabric

plain weave pattern https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4GddDvAD3pY

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Glass Fibers

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Glass fiber

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Aramid fibers

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Typical fiber properties

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Why We Use Different Types of
Carbon Fiber in the Structures

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwTE4MamfVE

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Interface in PMCs, GF

• Invariably, glass fibers are surface treated by applying a size on the

freshly drawn glass fibers to protect them from the environment, for
handling ease, and to avoid introducing surface defects.

• A clean glass surface under ordinary atmospheric conditions can readily

pick up a molecular layer of water. Water can reach the glass/polymer
interface by diffusion through the polymer, by penetrating through cracks
or by capillary migration along the fibers.

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Interface in PMCs, GF

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Interface in PMCs, GF

• During the processing of PMCs, most polymeric matrix materials will

shrink on curing, while the reinforcement fiber remains unaffected. This
can lead to large stresses at the fiber/polymer interface. Stresses can also
result on cooling due to differences in coefficients of thermal expansion
of glass (about 5 e-6 K-1) and rigid polymer (~50–100 e-6 K-1).

• The chemical bridge model provides a rigid bond at the glass/polymer

interface that will not be able to withstand the strains involved because of
the curing and shrinkage

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Interface in PMCs, GF

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Interface in PMCs, CF

• Carbon fiber is a highly inert material. This makes it difficult to have a

strong adhesion between carbon fiber and a polymer matrix.

• The graphitic layer is very smooth and weak in shear and hard to bind
with a matrix.

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Interface in PMCs, CF

various carbon fiber surface treatments promote adhesion to epoxy

materials through a two-pronged mechanism:

(a) the surface treatment removes a weak outer layer that is present
initially on the fiber

(b) chemical groups are added to the surface which increase interaction
with the matrix.

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Interface in PMCs, CF

• Oxidation treatments can be carried out by a gaseous or a liquid phase.

• Gas phase oxidation can be done with air or oxygen diluted with an inert
gas .
• Liquid phase oxidation involves treatments in nitric acid, sodium
hypochlorite, potassium permanganate, and anodic etching.
• Treating carbon fibers with several surface-oxidation agents leads to
significant increases in the ILSS of composites. This is because the
oxidation treatment
• increases the fiber surface area
• removal of surface defects, such as pores, weakly bonded carbon debris,
and impurities.
• increase in the fiber surface roughness by pitting and increased
longitudinal striations.
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Interface in PMCs, Aramid

• Most polymers show rather poor adhesion to aramid fibers. Typically,

aramid/epoxy interfacial strengths are about half of the interfacial
strengths of glass/epoxy or carbon/epoxy composites.

• A highly oriented chain microstructure and skin/core heterogeneity are

responsible for this low, poor interfacial strength.

• This may not be a disadvantage in aramid/polymer composites used to

make impact-resistant items such as helmets or body armor, where ease
of delamination may be an advantage from a toughness point of view.

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Interface in PMCs, Aramid

• Bromine water treatment. This also results in reduced fiber strength.

• Silane coupling agents developed for glass fibers.
• Isocyanate-linked polymer.
• Treatment with reactive chemicals such as acetic acid anhydride,
methacrylolchloride, sulfuric acid, among others. Such treatments, however,
result in a decrease in the tensile strength of aramid
• Acid (HCl, H2SO4) or base (NaOH) hydrolysis of aramid fiber yields
reactive terminal amino groups to which diepoxide molecules could attach.
• Plasma treatment in vacuum, ammonia, or argon. Plasma treatment in
ammonia increases the amine concentration on the fiber surface, which is
thought to lead to covalent bonding at the interface. An increase in nitrogen
content in the form of amine groups is accompanied by a decrease in oxygen
content with increasing exposure time.

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Classification scheme for the various
composite types

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INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

• The mechanical characteristics of a fiber-reinforced

composite depend not only on the properties of the fiber, but
also on the degree to which an applied load is transmitted to
the fibers by the matrix phase.
• Important to the extent of this load transmittance is the
magnitude of the interfacial bond between the fiber and
matrix phases.

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INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

• Some critical fiber length is necessary for effective strengthening

and stiffening of the composite material. This critical length is
dependent on the fiber diameter d and its ultimate strength and on
the fiber–matrix bond strength (or the shear yield strength of the
matrix, whichever is smaller) according to

• For a number of glass and carbon fiber–matrix combinations, this

critical length is on the order of 1 mm, which ranges between 20
and 150 times the fiber diameter.
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INFLUENCE OF FIBER LENGTH

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INFLUENCE OF FIBER ORIENTATION
AND CONCENTRATION

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FRPs processing methods

Irwin/McGraw-Hill © 2000 Th e McGraw- Hill Comp anies, Inc.,

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FRPs processing methods

• Open molding is a low cost and effective method to manufacture

composites.
• This method is used to produce, boats, truck cabs and fenders, spas, tubs,
showers, and other fiberglass composite products.
• In this process, a single-sided mold is used that acts as the form and
cosmetic surface of the part. Gel coat is applied to the prepared mold
surface.
• Reinforcements are then applied either by hand and then wet-out with
catalyzed resin, or in the spray-up process where catalyzed resin and
chopped fiberglass are sprayed onto the previously gel coated surface.
• Air is then rolled out of the laminate by hand and the part is left to cure.

Hand layup Sprying

Infusion molding 59
FRPs processing methods

Infusion molding

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FRPs processing methods

• Filament winding

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FRPs processing methods

• Pultrusion

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FRPs processing methods

• In closed molding, dry reinforcements are laid into the base mold, the
mold is closed and resin is introduced into the closed cavity using a
pressure pump or vacuum. When the laminate is cured the mold is
opened and the part removed.
• Compared to open molding, closed molding processes enable
manufacturers to make better parts faster and more consistently, with less
waste. Finished parts have better surface cosmetics, reducing the need for
post work.

RTM 63
FRPs processing methods

• Sheet molding compound (SMC)

• Bulk molding compound (BMC)

• Bulk molding compound (BMC) is a bulky mixture of chopped glass

fibers, resin paste and fillers.

• The longer fibers in SMC result in better strength properties than

standard bulk moulding compound (BMC) products. Typical applications
include demanding electrical applications, corrosion resistant needs,
structural components at low cost, automotive, and transit.

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FRPs processing methods
• Autoclave-Based Methods:

• The term prepreg is a short form of pre-impregnated fibers. Generally, a

prepreg is in the form of a thin sheet or lamina of unidirectional (or
occasionally woven) fiber/polymer composite protected on both sides with
easily removable separators.

• The fiber content, by volume, in a unidirectional prepreg is typically about is

about 65 %. It is not uncommon to use 50 or more such plies or laminae in
an autoclave processed composite.

• The prepreg generally has the resin in a partially cured state with a
moderately self-adhesive tack.

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FRPs processing methods

Autoclave

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FRPs processing methods

Autoclave

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 FRPs processing methods

https://forward-am.com/material-portfolio/ultrafuse-filaments-for-fused-filaments-fabrication-fff/reinforced-filaments/

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Case study-I: Large models

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cusncs4GaFg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q09ZFVA6nR8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qMPSIKfkdtQ
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Case study-II: Sheet wax model –
hand layup

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zeE1FdcQ3c8
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cj26c3V54SQ&t=664s
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Case studyIII: Precision pattern
prepreg

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWAvo8DIZ9s&t=262s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k4GdAuNji5g
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Structural Defects in FRPs

• Resin-rich (fiber-poor) regions.

• Voids (e.g., at roving crossovers in filament winding and between layers

having different fiber orientations, in general).

• Microcracks (these may form due to curing stresses or moisture absorption

during processing).

• Debonded and delaminated regions.

• Variations in fiber alignment.

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 Structural Defects in FRPs

(a) Continuous glass fibers in a polyester matrix

showing resin-rich regions.
(b) Discontinuous glass fibers in a semicrystalline
polyethylene terephthalate thermoplastic matrix
showing anisotropic distribution of fibers. MFD
denotes the mold fill direction. S and C denote
the surface and central layers, respectively

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Structural Defects in FRPs

How to Degas Resins using a Vacuum Degassing System

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Permeability of reinforcements in composites

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permeability of reinforcements in composites

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permeability of reinforcements in composites

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permeability of reinforcements in composites

The parameters C1, C2, and v f,max depend on the fiber arrangement in the network.
For a square arrangement of fiber s, C1 = 57, C2 = 0.4, and vf,max = 0.785. For a
hexagonal arrangement of fibers, C1 = 53 , C 2 = 0.231, and v f,ma x = 0.906.

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