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Using the case method of teaching

Article  in  Agribusiness · January 1998

DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1520-6297(199801/02)14:13.0.CO;2-8 · Source: RePEc

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 Using the Case Method of Teaching
•
Kenneth F. Harling
Jay Akridge

The case method is increasingly popular with instructors method has shown itself to be particularly useful in
teaching about management in the food system. While pursuing this end because cases provide a context
many have adopted this approach, others would like to for understanding knowledge in a field of study and
but feel they need to know more about the method before for applying that knowledge to practical situations.
doing so. This article aims to help them by explaining The case method develops the students’ ability to
this technique. It starts by describing what case studies, reason by requiring that they perform analysis, en-
or simply “cases,” are, and the benefits of their discussion gage in exploratory discussion, and find “best possi-
in class. Then it describes the roles and responsibilities of ble” rather than “right/wrong” solutions. In addi-
students and instructors when working with cases. Final- tion, the case method promotes the development of
ly, it gives instructors pointers on how to produce effective professional skills. Once educators have decided to
class discussions using cases. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. use this method to accomplish educational objec-
tives, they need to understand the method and how
to apply its techniques in class.
The case study method is becoming a preferred This discussion of the case method first looks
method for teaching students about management in at the nature of cases, including how they are
the food system. The reason for educators’ interest constructed and what specific advantages are avail-
in this method stems from their desire to produce able through using them. An appreciation for why
professional managers rather than technicians, an they provide a desirable educational approach
interest first quantified by Harling.1 The case comes from knowing the document form called cas-
es. Then the process of using cases in a class is ex-
plored. The general principles to be considered
Requests for reprints should be sent to K.F. Harling, School of Busi-
when using them and the possible goals are pointed
ness and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON N2L out. Also presented is a detailed description of the
3C5, Canada. steps for preparing, conducting, and reviewing a

• Kenneth F. Harling is with the School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University.
• Jay Akridge is with the Department of Agricultural Economics, Purdue University.

Agribusiness, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1–14 (1998)

© 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. CCC 0742-4477/98/010001-14

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 Harling and Akridge

class using the case method. This description makes conceptual content to decision-making “experi-
suggestions about participation by both educator ences.”
and student.

Defining the Case Study

Defining Case Method
At the heart of the case method is the case study, a
The term case method has been applied to a num- document commonly referred to as the case. It can
ber of teaching methods, so some clarification is vary widely in nature, although all variations have
useful. Generally speaking, the method is a special- some common features. Properly, a case describes a
ized type of discussion, and each class is structured specific situation, centers on a decision or problem
around a case study that describes a situation in important to the field, and deals with issues associat-
which a major decision is required. Students at- ed with that decision; each case is structured so that
tempt to make this decision when preparing for the the reader is invited to take the role of a decision
class, and then work with other students in class maker in the context of the case and to make the de-
under the guidance of the educator to come up with cision.
a decision that seems to be superior in light of all
considerations. When structured in this way, the
class is designed to encourage students to partici- Kinds of Cases
pate in an interactive discussion. Not only will they
be required to produce an individual analysis of the The specific features desired in a case vary consid-
situation, but they will also observe and evaluate erably from one educator to the next. The differ-
the contributions of fellow students. They can be ences are important because they affect what the
asked to consider modifying their own points of case will convey to students and how it can be used
view in light of the analysis and insights provided in teaching. The fundamental differences among
by others. More capable students can be challenged cases can be highlighted by using a classification
further by giving them cases in which they have to such as that of Ronstadt.1 He suggests that there
determine for themselves what the decision is and are essentially four types of case studies: technical
what the viable alternatives are. This produces a problem solving cases, short structured vignettes,
deep and integrative understanding of the applica- long unstructured cases, and ground-breaking cas-
tion of knowledge. es. To this list we add anecdotes, which is a near-
The case method recognizes that knowledge is un- case format that is very common. The detailed
derstood and applied within a context. In a case- characteristics of each type are as follows:
based course, this is reflected through the selection Anecdotes describe a problem or decision, state
and sequencing of cases. The educator arranges the what was done, and may go on to present the results
cases so that a progression of thought about the sub- of what was done. An anecdote is an illustration or
ject is developed, issues in the field of study are clari- an exercise in translating complicated facts into ap-
fied, and experience in using disciplinary tools is propriate items to be considered, followed by a
provided. Although each case provides a focused ex- demonstration of how the situation was resolved by
perience involving reasoning about a particular situ- someone else. A document using this format is fre-
ation, each also bears some relationship to other cas- quently referred to in social, medical, and law
es in the course so that taken together they help schools as a case or a case history, although from
develop a holistic understanding of the subject area. the perspective of this discussion it is a near case
Lectures or supplementary reading may also be in- because little analysis is required to make the con-
serted at appropriate points in the course to provide tent meaningful. Anecdotes are often used in man-
theoretical treatment, factual material, or procedur- agement education either to illustrate a concept or
al skills, thereby giving students the chance to tie to introduce a new topic.

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Technical problem solving cases are explicitly fo- Rather, the case provides a focal point around
cused on a particular tool or model that the student which analysis, experiences, expertise, and obser-
is expected to use. This type of case deals with a vations can be exchanged. The case acts as a discus-
“tame” problem because it involves translating the sion vehicle, and its length is set by what is needed
case’s facts into terms that can be substituted into to provide full and comprehensive coverage of the
some known procedure. By using the procedure, situation. These cases are typically used in execu-
the student knows the problem has been solved tive workshops rather than regular educational
when the procedure is finished. And the procedure courses.
produces the best solution, so there is no room for The discussion that follows is oriented around us-
differences of opinion. This type of case conse- ing the third and fourth types of case, which are
quently provides an experience in translation structured decision-making cases for which the an-
rather than in judgment. The length of a case is swers are good or bad rather than right or wrong.
usually determined by the amount of data required These are the types most commonly used in educa-
to apply the procedure. Areas that frequently use tional courses. A caution is in order, however,
such cases are accounting, economics, operations about the number of types because the nature of
research, and operations management. cases is in perpetual flux. A recent trend is that cas-
Short structured cases are also explicitly focused es are appearing that on the surface seem to be
vignettes. In this kind of case the student knows structured decision-making cases because they pre-
what kind of answer is sought, but he/she does not sent a “decision” at the start, but they are actually
have a formula for producing it and will not arrive anecdotes. This becomes apparent as one works the
at a “right” answer. Instead, the student seeks to cases. One finds that the body of these cases has lit-
apply concepts to improve the situation. The case tle relevance to the supposed decision and instead
usually runs from one to 10 pages in length and has serves to simply illustrate various concepts.
one or two exhibits. Its contents are limited and fo-
cused and have little extraneous information. Areas
that frequently use such cases are economics, oper- Constructing Cases
ations management, marketing, finance, and hu-
man resources. Creating decision-oriented cases is a time-consum-
Long structured cases may lack apparent focus ing and expensive pursuit for educators who some-
and deal with “wicked” problems, which are prob- times employ case writers to assist them. The
lems for which there are no clear solutions and no process requires finding a real-world situation that
guidelines for knowing when the end has been involves a relevant decision and then collecting
reached. Qualitative and quantitative aspects are quantitative and qualitative information about it.
both important in such a case, so finding a solution Keeping in mind how the study can be used for
can be a real challenge. The considerable content of teaching, the case writer sets the information into a
the case means that each case tends to be unique; in conceptual framework and creates a draft version
some cases, definition of the decision may be as far that can be checked by the real-life participants for
as the student is expected to get. Still, a body of accuracy and by colleagues and critics for com-
concepts and teaching objectives exist for this type pleteness and clarity. Usually the case is tested in
of case. A case usually runs from 10 to 50 pages and the classroom. It may then be revised until it makes
possesses multiple exhibits. Areas that frequently the teaching points the educator thinks it should
use such cases are business policy and strategic make. The result is that the case reflects the needs
management. and desires of the educator who has organized and
Ground-breaking cases are exploratory cases oriented the material in such a way as to suit his/
dealing with areas for which little or relatively new her educational goals. This means that those educa-
knowledge exists. Relevant concepts and teaching tors who design courses using cases written by oth-
objectives have not been defined for such a case. ers must be careful when selecting them. Each case

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 Harling and Akridge

must be chosen so that it satisfies the goals the edu- teach cases poorly as it is to lecture poorly, and
cator has set for the course and that the students both happen; but those educators who have orga-
can handle, although not every case selected will nized their case teaching activities around the out-
satisfy these requirements. This may lead the edu- line that will be described are likely to be highly
cator to fit together the selected cases by highlight- effective educators who are more effective in
ing certain parts of each case and underplaying or achieving their objectives than if they had used
ignoring other parts. The advantage of using case lectures.
texts is that the texts’ editors have selected cases The second advantage of the case method, change
that “fit” together, that satisfy the standard teach- in behavior, has two aspects: the quality of knowl-
ing objectives of a course, and that have common edge and its application. The quality of knowledge
requirements with regard to the knowledge needed is improved through the case method because it
to analyze with them. gives the student a better sense of when and how to
use knowledge. Cases provide a context within which
it is used by focusing on theory as it is put into use
Understanding Advantages of Cases and on the techniques required to make decisions in
real situations. The result is that students learn how
Cases have two distinct advantages for effective to apply knowledge through the analysis of case
teaching: they provide an efficient form of learning studies, experiencing the use of it as a participant
through active participation, and they effectively rather than just hearing about it in the abstract.
change behavior by going beyond simply providing The improved application of knowledge rests on
content. The efficiency of learning is based on find- the fact that every individual has to work with oth-
ings that students’ better understand and retain ers. The individual’s knowledge is only valuable to
knowledge by thinking it through, as they are asked the extent that others benefit from it, and this re-
to do when using the case approach, and by experi- quires the professional skills that are developed
encing a range of possible solutions in group study. through the case method. Debating skills can be de-
When students receive explicitly stated generaliza- veloped through class discussion, presentation skills
tions about a subject, as occurs in the lecture–text can be developed through in-class presentation of
approach, they remember 10 to 15% of what they the case, small group work skills can be developed
hear and retain 20 to 30% of what they read; but through analyzing the case in small groups, and
when they discover it for themselves through dis- skills in managing a work load can be developed by
cussion, they retain much more. Use of case studies giving students limited time to prepare the case.
means that the students’ ability to retain the ma- One might argue that developing professional skills
terial covered is enhanced. Of course, lectures do is not the role of academic institutions and that
play a useful role in introducing concepts and set- courses should focus on content, especially given
ting up frameworks for dealing with decisions and the massive amount of knowledge that exists. This
so may be used in conjunction with cases in a content will not be useful, however, if students are
course, but they are not seen as the main vehicle for not equipped with the professional skills needed to
learning. use the knowledge they have within an organiza-
Educators who are experienced lecturers may tional context.
have considerable difficulty appreciating the en-
hanced learning provided by the case method. After
Working with Cases
all, they have spent years fine-tuning the content
and presentation of their lectures. From their per- Classroom Rationale
spective, they have maximized the amount of con-
tent they transfer and the clarify of their explana- Using cases in the classroom places much greater
tions. When they observe a case class, they may feel demands on the educator and the student than does
that they are observing little more than organized the traditional lecture approach. Overall, we see
chaos. They may be correct. It is as possible to three areas that are affected: Effort expended in in-

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struction is reoriented fundamentally, the level of

student participation rises markedly, and a highly Table I. Quality of Student’s Contribution
detailed and specific outline of how participation to Case Discussion.
will be evaluated is needed.
The first difference is how time is spent by the ed- Scalar Value Nature of Contribution
ucator and the students. With the formal lecture,
the educator prepares the lecture and presents it to 4 Supportable generalization or theoreti-
the class. The focus of the educator’s preparation is cal insight applicable to case and likely
on content of the lecture and clarify of explanation. in many other situations
The educator may spend considerable time fine- 3 Key insight into case being dealt with,
supported by well-developed argument
tuning the lecture but once it has been perfected,
2 Solid interpretation of collection of
each lecture is a replicable exercise and the amount facts with some analysis of them but
of material covered is limited by the length of the not carried through to a conclusion
lecture. The students need to spend little time 1 Statement of facts
preparing for the class and during the class simply 0 No participation
record what the educator chooses to tell them. 21 Simply repeating what others have said
With the case study, the educator prepares for and or bringing up irrelevant points
then controls a dynamic discussion. The focus of the
educator’s preparation is on how to solicit and con-
trol the discussion so that it achieves the class’s
learning objectives. This is done by developing a set to work with the material while downplaying the
of leading questions that are introduced during the challenge. Furthermore, the educator may accept
class in such a way that they pace the discussion and even superficial contributions from students early
keep it from getting sidetracked. This subtle control on to dissolve at least some of their worry about
technique helps to encourage active participation by what to say and the preference for saying nothing
the students. Because the educator exerts less direct until right answers are found. The educator who
control, he/she must be prepared to deal with a holds back on the evaluation of participation and
wide-ranging discussion. The focus of students’ use simply directs the discussion by asking questions
of time also shifts to preparation before class so that seems to make a class feel that its thoughts are ap-
they must have mastered the case details well preciated. As cooperative strength and mutual con-
enough to appreciate the larger conceptual issues fidence develop, students’ answers can be probed in
raised in the discussion. This involves reading and greater depth until full discussion and recognition of
analyzing the case and constructing lines of argu- the challenges inherent in case analysis are realized.
ment. These aspects suggest the time commitments The third difference is the standards that the ed-
for the educator and the students are both markedly ucator will use to evaluate participation, which are
different with the lecture and case methods. explained preferably in the syllabus of the course.
The second difference lies in class participation. There is a trade-off between the quantity and quali-
Willingness of students to participate has to be built ty of participation, but the heavier emphasis neces-
up over time, but it must be made clear to the stu- sarily falls on quality for which it is harder to artic-
dents from the beginning that they must participate ulate a judgment. Providing students with a distinct
and that they can follow certain steps to achieve the scale such as found in Table I can help them under-
status of active participation. Especially in the ear- stand the basis for evaluation: 4 is the highest level
ly days of a course, students experience anxiety be- of contribution on this scale. During the course the
cause they do not feel they have control of the situa- educator can provide students with feedback on
tion or do not know the cost of participating. The their participation. This can help them feel more
educator can alleviate this by providing greater comfortable, especially if they are allowed to have
structure and order to the class. This may include some input into the evaluation of their participation
organizing the discussion and showing students how such as through self-evaluation.

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 Harling and Akridge

Table II. Work Involved in a Standard Case Study Class.

Period Instructor Student

Before Class
1. Assigns materials for student 1. Receives assignment
preparation
2. Prepares for class 2. Reads and prepares individually
for class
3. Consults with colleagues 3. Participates in small group
about teaching case when discussion of case when
possible possible
During Class
4. Sets class up to handle 4. Raises questions regarding
assignment assignment
5. Leads case discussion 5. Participates in case
discussion
After Class
6. Evaluates participation of 6. Reviews class results in light of
students and records preparation and notes major
impressions concepts learned
7. Evaluates materials in light
of original teaching
objective and updates
personal teaching notes

Source: Based on exhibit 2.1 in Erskine et al.3

The Case Process to take up in the class, thus predetermining to a

large extent the nature and direction of the class
A brief glance at Table II shows the basic tasks for discussion. These questions provide some guidance
the educator and the students with respect to each to the students so that they can focus their attention
class in the course. These tasks fall into three peri- on what the educator considers impor-tant in the
ods: those performed to prepare for the class discus- case. Because each case is a decision situation that
sion of the case, those performed during the class deals with a particular issue and certain analytical
discussion, and those performed after the class dis- methods, the educator may identify readings that
cussion. First we provide guidelines for the full set of deal with these aspects and bring them to the stu-
the educator’s tasks and then for the students’ tasks. dents’ attention so that they have the relevant
knowledge at hand. This allows them to construc-
tively deal with the case.
Guidelines for Instructor
Preparing the Case. Preparing for class requires
Preparing for Class that the educator develop a teaching plan that out-
lines what is to be accomplished in the discussion,
Assigning Material for Student Preparation. Prior to how it will be accomplished, and when it will be ac-
the class discussion of a case, students are typically complished. This planning is particularly important
assigned a set of questions that the educator hopes with the case study method because the educator

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 C a s e S t u d y Te a c h i n g

has only limited control over the class if an effective facilitates the students’ understanding. It also
student discussion is sought. Yet the educator has to makes it easier for the educator to summarize the
achieve the teaching points of the case and have discussion at the end of class. And finally, the
enough time at the end of the class to provide a board plan provides an implicit filter that protects
summary. Careful preplanning is needed to pace the educator from running out of board space dur-
and direct the discussion. The educator can also ing the discussion.
consider how subtle interventions can be made, if The educator who places a heavy emphasis on
necessary, to prevent the discussion from dwelling class participation will often review student partici-
on only a few topics or failing to move ahead. pation from previous classes to identify individuals
Sometimes the case writer has prepared a teaching who will be encouraged to participate in the next
note that, in principle, is one way of successfully class.
teaching the case. The natural tendency of the edu-
cator is to pick up this note and follow it. One needs Consulting with Colleagues. Discussing a case with
to be cautious about doing so because sometimes colleagues often enriches the ultimate class, espe-
the note is weak, having been prepared simply to cially if they have taught the case before. They will
fill a void in the text’s teaching manual. Other be able to offer analytical insights from their own
times the note is excellent but does not fit with the points of view; and, because there are many differ-
instructor’s style, the case’s placement in the ent ways to teach a case, they may have discovered
course, or the students’ level of knowledge. More- effective approaches that have not occurred to oth-
over, following someone else’s teaching note may ers. Colleagues also may be able to point out incon-
produce a dull class as the educator walks the class sistencies or points of confusion in the case that
mechanically through the teaching note rather than have to be cleared up by either giving additional
working with the students to develop their under- guidance prior to the class discussion or directly
standing. addressing the problem during the class discussion.
Experience has shown that personal planning for
class each time the case is taught is the educator’s
best way of preparing for class. One approach that Conducting the Class
has proven successful when preparing a case the Setting the Class Up. The class has to be set up be-
first time is to start by scanning others’ teaching fore discussion of the case. This involves engaging
notes to see if they are useful. The educator then the students through three steps:
does independent analysis and prepares a note re-
flecting personal teaching style, his/her students’ 1. Warming the class up: By talking casually with sev-
knowledge at the time of the case, and the lessons eral members of the class before starting the for-
the case is to provide. After this, the educator ex- mal procedures, the educator may be able to estab-
amines others’ teaching notes to see if points have lish the class’s readiness to deal with the case and
been missed, modifying his/her own personal notes areas of difficulty. Casual discussion also helps es-
as necessary to include them. Finally, the personal tablish a personal rapport between the educator
note is reviewed to ensure that it will provide the and the students that serves to encourage their
students with a productive and positive experience. participation in formal discussion to follow.
Planning use of the classroom’s blackboard is an 2. Calling to order: The educator controls the start of
important component of class preparation because the formal operation of the class. The move to the
formal start can be made through the personal use
the writing on the board is a record of the class dis-
of voice, manner, and movement. This initiation
cussion. Producing a board plan involves thinking will often take the form of some appropriately no-
about what material will be captured on the board ticeable physical change accompanying articula-
during the class discussion and where it will be tion. The actions may consist of taking a seat,
placed. When material is placed on the board in a turning from the board to face the class, breaking
way that enhances the relationships among the ma- off casual conversation and moving to a table, or
terial recorded, it produces a visual pattern that closing the door to the room. The “tone” of the

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 Harling and Akridge

class (casual, purposeful, formal, speculative) can ing, group-oriented responsibility for the discus-
be controlled by supporting opening statements sion by directing attention toward all the members
with this kind of visual reinforcement. of the class rather than fixing on one individual.
3. Providing reassurance: Questions that students The process for doing so usually depends on the
have about the readings and assigned questions are action of glancing at the entire class and so signal-
best dealt with while they are fresh in the students’ ing the expectation that all will join in. The glance
mind. This can be done at the start of class prior to should reflect genuine confidence in the students’
the case discussion. This clarification is especially cooperativeness and abilities rather than inquisi-
useful if it validates students’ understanding of tiveness. This technique is also useful for maintain-
techniques necessary for analysis of the case or ing discussion through the class as it establishes a
points out students’ misconceptions that may have sense of group responsibility for discussion and
thrown their analysis off. Dealing with these prob- makes students aware that they are free to enter
lems before the discussion gives students a chance the discussion at any point. The educator’s inviting
to seek some reassurance that they correctly un- glance goes a long way in maintaining the voluntary
derstand what they have read and their analysis is process that supports the essential goals of a case
on the right track, and knowing who had problems course, which is to understand the situation rather
means that the educator is less likely to uninten- than to produce answers. Should the educator wish
tionally embarrass them in front of the rest of the to structure the class more, however, an individual
class. could be asked to begin if given a warning of 10
minutes or so before the class actually starts, thus
Leading Case Discussion. Case discussion is a com- allowing time to pull together his/her personal
plex process that involves a number of simultaneous thoughts.
operations. It can be analyzed conveniently, howev- 3. Producing intermediate summaries: As students
er, by examining its chronological flow through four provide contributions, the educator should try to
steps: control the flow of discussion so that it moves to-
ward syntheses of these contributions by omitting
1. Providing opening remarks: Initial comments by some, stressing others, and assembling the “sur-
the educator enable the class to discuss the case ef- vivors” into consistent statements. These state-
fectively, specifically by pointing the discussion in ments should revolve around the teaching points
the direction that will achieve the teaching goals. of the case. Once the students have come to some
The educator can first identify important facts and preliminary conclusions, the educator may want
lines of thought that are appropriate for the dis- to step in and provide succinct and clear sum-
cussion and then provide a vivid and clear intro- maries of what the class has discovered. This helps
duction that challenges and motivates the students set in the students’ minds the individual teaching
to feel that they will be dealing with an important points the educator wants to make and gives the
situation. An introduction that presents some students the feeling that the discussion is progress-
striking, concrete, and feeling-charged idea or inci- ing. It also gives closure to the topic under discus-
dent is likely to capture the class’s imagination and sion so that the discussion can be moved to another
interest, for example, a piece of interesting infor- one.
mation, a quotation from a well-known authority 4. Wrapping up the discussion: In the last minutes of
on the subject, or a vivid comparison. Once the the class, the students must see what they have ac-
students’ attention has been stimulated, the educa- complished through the discussion. This helps
tor can invite them to begin the discussion by ask- them feel positive about the discussion because
ing an appropriate starting question. they see what they have produced, while it allows
2. Directing the main discussion: Getting the first the educator to show the class, possibly reiterative-
student to open the discussion is always a moment ly, the teaching points of the case.
of tension, especially because an individual is being The educator may also choose to say what actu-
called on for a solo performance in an area that ally happened; students enjoy hearing “the rest of
has not yet been broached by anyone within the the story” and knowing whether they made the
current, known context. The educator will be able right decision. If time permits, discussing what ac-
to ease this tension and quickly establish an ongo- tually happened can be beneficial. Students should

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 C a s e S t u d y Te a c h i n g

not walk away with the impression that whatever his/her philosophy regarding participation when de-
management actually did was right—sometimes termining how they wish to evaluate it.
even real managers make mistakes! The “right- The greatest accuracy in evaluation comes from
ness” of the answer found is not what actually hap- having every student contribution recorded. This is
pened but rather what sound and thorough reason- an extremely demanding task and is most easily ac-
ing based on the case material suggests. Sometimes
complished by having an individual other than the
there are right answers to cases because so much
material is described in the case material (and this
educator sit in class and evaluate contributions as
may not be the same information with which man- they occur. Without such a resource most educators
agement actually dealt, but this is another story!) fall back on producing an overall score of partici-
that sound reasoning allows no alternative, at least pation at the end of the class that reflects quality
with respect to some issues. Other times there is and quantity with quality weighing more heavily.
not a right answer because judgments and assump- Each student’s participation may be gauged on a
tions are required and students will differ on what scale of 0 through 4, with 0 indicating that they
they consider reasonable or possible. were present but did not contribute and 3 indicat-
Should the case study be stretched over several ing that they provided a significant contribution.
classes, the educator may choose to use the final Occasionally, a 4 can go to a student who success-
minutes of the first class to arrange guidelines for fully deals with a major part of the case.
the next class and to give a highly compressed state-
ment of the class’s thought line at the end of this ini-
tial session. The educator’s remarks must be direct- Evaluating Achievement of Teaching Objectives. If
ed toward the positive accomplishments of the class students are not calling up germane concepts or
so that what the class can understand as genuine applying them consistently, the educator will want
achievement is not undercut, even if it does not con- to review the reading materials and lectures to
form to the educator’s ultimate expectations. make sure that conceptual information is available
to the students and that they know how to find it.
If it is and they do, the educator may seek to solve
Following Class
the problem by rewording assignment questions,
Recording Students’ Participation. Educators evalu- changing reading materials, or putting more em-
ate student participation in different ways, depend- phasis on particular points in lectures. The educa-
ing on their perception of the role of participation. tor may also reorder cases so that those in which
Some educators evaluate everyone in the class peri- the concept is more readily apparent or more easily
odically, say every 2 or 3 weeks, but make note of worked appear earlier in the course. Alternatively,
particularly outstanding contributions on the day the educator may find new cases that allow the de-
they occur. This approach fits with the notion that velopment of missing or weak capabilities in the
participation is about the student creating and students.
maintaining an image. Others record student par-
ticipation immediately after class while student par- Updating Teaching Notes. Case teaching notes may
ticipation is fresh in their minds. This task is facili- need modification from time to time. An educator
tated by using a seating chart and class photos when who remains open to better ways of teaching a case
recording the contributions and scoring everyone. will learn more about that case each time it is
This second approach fits with the notion that par- taught, as well as learning more about the capabili-
ticipation is about active engagement. Still others ties of the students. Sometimes students provide
have students self-evaluate their participation at new and interesting slants on the case that the edu-
the end of each class. Students then turn their eval- cator did not see or even raise points the educator
uations in, and the educators review them to see if missed. Other times, as a result of the discussion,
they concur. This third approach fits with the no- the educator comes to better understand the diffi-
tion that participation is about self-management culties the students have with certain concepts and
and motivation. Obviously one needs to determine their application or the blocks that prevent them

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 Harling and Akridge

from carrying the case as far as they should. And Preparing the Case Individually. Preparation of the
when the educator is not pleased with how a seem- assignment prior to class is fundamental to the case
ingly good case works in class discussion, finding a method. It is absolutely essential if the class is to be
new way to teach it may prove useful. All these situ- able to engage in productive discussion. This cannot
ations create new information that can be incorpo- be overemphasized! Some students do not prepare.
rated into the educator’s personal teaching notes to They may reason that they can get by without doing
insure more effective teaching of the case in the fu- so and that all they have to do in class is talk or
ture. “wing it.” These are also students who are most
likely to argue that there is no right answer to a
case. What they fail to appreciate is that there are
Student Guidelines good and bad answers to cases, and good answers
make the best use of the information in the case.
Preparing for Class Students who are not preparing adequately are
readily identifiable after several case discussions:
Receiving Materials. The student must obtain the they never lead the discussion but enter it late, of-
case and supporting materials with enough time be- ten as it is moving toward a conclusion; they cannot
fore class to allow thorough reading and prepara- support their statements with reasonably rigorous
tion. Although there are several approaches to analysis; and they do not step into the discussion
reading the material and a number of suggestions to when the class reaches an impasse.
be made about varying the levels and depth of read- No single method of preparation works for every-
ing each time through, the first priority is to ensure one, but the eight steps outlined in Table III pro-
that there is enough time to consider the material vide an approach that has proven useful in the past
thoroughly before even attempting other forms of to students who need to provide a recommended so-
processing in preparation for discussion. lution to a case. This general framework deals with

Table III. Student Steps in Preparing for Class.

Step Work Involved

1 Go through the case as fast as possible, asking yourself “What, broadly, is the case about and
what types and amounts of information am I being given to analyze?” Often the problem or deci-
sion is laid out at the start and/or end of the case.
2 Read through the case very carefully, underlining key facts and making marginal notes. Ex-
hibits should be analyzed, a key maneuver students tend to avoid. For each exhibit ask yourself,
“What is its point? What does it tell me?” Then ask yourself, “What are the issues facing the
decsion makers? Do these issues focus around a single point? Do they form a principal or main
decision question?”
3 Go through the case again, fleshing out the issues that are important to the principal decision.
4 Develop a set of alternative solutions that will deal with the required decision and describe these
so you appreciate what they will involve.
5 Analyze each alternative in terms of the disciplinary criteria or issues important to the decision.
Consider how it will deal with each of the issues you have identified.
6 Compare the alternatives to see which seems to best meet the criteria or deal with the issues.
7 Make a recommendation based on the comparison of the alternatives.
8 Prepare a statement, if appropriate, of what needs to be done to implement the recommendation.

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 C a s e S t u d y Te a c h i n g

all the steps in decision making. The educator may allows discussion of topics that, although they may
not always want all of them answered, because some not be found in the particular case, have bearing on
cases focus on only a portion of the list, or the deci- the issues being raised in it.
sion may require that just a few of the steps be tak-
en into account; but it is always useful to create a Participating in Class Discussion of Case. The discus-
general overview of the case and to look at the pos- sion that occurs in the class is the critical element of
sibility of fulfilling all the steps. The stronger the the case method. Thus, during most of the class,
student’s knowledge is of any total situation, the students should be listening and watching, not tak-
stronger the discussion. ing detailed notes. The taking of notes suggests that
While the view is often stated that there is no right students have not prepared adequately for class be-
or wrong answer to a case, there are good and bad cause they should understand the material before
answers. Accepting the idea that there is no right or coming to class. If major revelations do occur, stu-
wrong answer can lead to sloppy thinking and weak dents should make a quick note that will jog their
analysis. Rigorous work is always required in case memory when reviewing notes after class. Other-
analysis because a good answer needs to consider wise, they should try to follow the discussion in
most if not all of the case facts and put them togeth- class in order to contribute insights when they are
er so that significant conclusions are reached about appropriate.
the situation.
Maintaining Appropriate Contributions. When a stu-
Participating in Small Group Discussion. Students dent ventures a contribution, it should be in line
may be required to or want to gather in small with the discussion, further developing the lines of
groups prior to the class discussion to go over their argument and reasoning and not tangential to or
individual analyses of the case. A meeting is neces- entirely removed from it. Moreover, the contribu-
sary when the group is required to present a con- tions should be as sophisticated as possible, pre-
sensus view on their analysis. A voluntary meeting senting conclusions that can be supported by facts
can be used to provide a forum in which each stu- and analysis if requested. Students who do not have
dent can test individual reasoning and benefit from a sufficient grasp of the case or who are perhaps
the insights of fellow students. Each student can new to the case study method typically reiterate the
then revise their personal analysis to reflect this ad- facts in the case, in effect retelling the “story” but
ditional knowledge. Use of small group discussions not adding substance to the discussion. As a result,
means that overall case analysis will be improved the other participants will not be able to under-
because each student feels more secure in his/her stand whether or not the speaker knows what the
analysis, having tested and extended it before par- significance of these facts are or what their rele-
ticipating in class discussion. vance to the issue may happen to be.

Following Class
Participating in the Class
The natural tendency of every student at the end of
Raising Questions Regarding Assignment. Any ques- a case class is to give a sigh of relief that one more
tions regarding the readings or assigned questions case is over and then forget about it. This is exactly
are appropriately raised by students at the start of the wrong approach because it does not consolidate
the class. Difficulties can be most effectively dealt what could be learned from the class just complet-
with during this time period, and they benefit from ed. By reviewing what was learned soon after class,
being able to check both the appropriateness of the the student will not forget the case or confuse its im-
approach taken and their understanding of support- plications with those of the next case. This review is
ing materials. Besides providing a sense of security a crucial part of the learning process because it af-
going into the case discussion, raising questions also fords students an opportunity to assess their own

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 Harling and Akridge

analyses against those of the class and to record the ideas together, and asking questions that carry
what was learned of major concepts and principle forward some of the thoughts, the class can be given
discoveries made in the class discussion. the feeling that it is able to discuss the topics pro-
One approach to consolidating this learning is to ductively. Because students do not like to be singled
simply summarize the key messages of the discus- out for participation, wise educators are subtle in
sion. Another is to draw out and organize thoughts the way they encourage participation. They will ask
and analyses from the case within a more formal all members to participate but then cast glances and
framework. For most cases, learning can be sorted inquiring looks at individuals.
in terms of facts, ideas, and generalizations (a FIG
list); for business policy cases, learning can be sort-
ed in terms of decision making, a comprehensive Having an Arsenal of Standard Phrases
model of strategic management, and general busi-
ness knowledge (a DSG list). Every educator needs specific techniques to encour-
age students to make a statement or continue one
that may be in danger of fizzling before it has
Maintaining Participation reached a useful point. One of the most useful tech-
niques seems to be keeping phrases at hand that en-
A special word needs to be said about maintaining courage students to begin or continue or even to
participation during class discussion. As the class- gracefully conclude the discussion. Table IV pro-
room rationale section points out, the extra care vides a list of useful questions.
taken at the beginning of each class is designed to
insure that the class is seen as a highly participato-
ry one in which structured discussion and specific Remembering the Effect of Being in Control
analysis take place. Some situations can tempt the
educator to fall back on a lecture-style presentation
The students’ need to feel certain and have a fear of
as a way to proceed. This can happen when stu-
inadequacy that was pinpointed among the prob-
dents do not participate voluntarily, possibly be-
lems of beginning a case course. While more of an
cause they feel particularly threatened by the situa-
issue at the start, it continues to be an issue
tion, do not know what to do, or both difficulties
throughout a course because students are required
apply. To forestall these occurrences or to mediate
to continue offering their analyses in highly public
their influence if and when they do occur, the edu-
circumstances. That they should be able to do so is,
cator can keep in mind several points about main-
of course, one of the reasons for using cases. But
taining participation.
the anxiety that accompanies the process will work
even more strongly against the use of cases when the
student is unsure about the attitudes of the educa-
Helping Students Fill in Gaps tor (the person in control) and he/she continues to
feel excessively threatened. To alleviate this situa-
When a gap in class response develops, especially tion, the educator will want to take steps to appear
during the early days of a course, the educator to be using control to establish an equilibrium that
needs to remember to not compound the problem encourages discussion. This requirement means be-
by answering the question for the students, showing ing viewed as the following:
any dismay, or rebuking the class. Instead, the edu-
cator should treat the topic with undiminished in- • fair minded: not having one’s mind already made up
terest and continue to seek someone ready to re- about the problem, but looking forward to working
spond. The educator may talk about his/her on the decision with the student;
personal experiences and ask students about theirs. • desiring student participation: confident that the
By drawing experiences out of students, gathering class can and will achieve its goal together, that stu-

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 C a s e S t u d y Te a c h i n g

Table IV. Arsenal of Phrases for Encouraging Student Participation.

Encouraging general contributions:

• What shall we start with?
• Who would like to start our discussion off?
• Why don’t we share some perceptions to start with?
• Does anyone have an idea to share?
• What can we make of this?
• How can we interpret this information?
• Can anyone give us some help?
Testing contribution importance:
• Is anyone else particularly sensitive to that?
• What are the implications of what was just said?
• Can you agree with that?
• Does everyone agree with that point?
• Does anyone have objections to this?
• Who else sees it the same way?
• Did anyone else look at it that way?
• Let’s try/explore that.
• I’m interested in your reaction to that idea.
• I’m interested in knowing why you see that as important.
Testing analytical support for contribution:
• Could you explain to us the reasoning behind your idea?
• Why do you see it that way?
• What evidence did you use to determine that?
• Is there data in the case to support ’s idea?
• Could you tell us what assumptions you made to proceed with your analysis?
• Can you see anything we have left out?
• I’m interested in knowing how you determined that.
Clarifying contribution:
• Let’s make sure we understand what you are saying . . . then restate the essence of
what the student said.
• Are you saying that . . . then reword and restate what the student said.
• Could we say . . . then reword and restate what the student said.
• Isn’t this basically what you are saying . . . then reword and restate what the student
said.

dents can suggest ideas without fear or ridicule or even deficient in evaluation standards. The educa-
out of hand rejection; and tor has to encourage rigor and draw out the best
• nonjudgmental: refraining from encouraging criti- in students while not scaring them. This is best
cism of contributions until the class has developed achieved by working with them to advance their
enough cooperative strength and mutual confidence thinking and verbally praising their advances as
to escape feeling threatened by such challenges.
warranted. As noted earlier, however, making the
The last will be the hardest to maintain, because standards of evaluation absolutely clear at the very
being accepting and nonjudgmental may also be in- first class will inform the students of the true “cost”
terpreted as being less than rigorous and, perhaps, of participation and its rewards.

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 Harling and Akridge

Summary and the students both have to reflect and consoli-

date what they learned from the class discussion.
This article has described the case study method of The second implication of the case study method is
teaching, a method of increasing interest to those that students must understand their role in the
teaching about management of the food system. In- class discussion. They must be informed of what
terest in this method has been motivated by its two represents a useful contribution to case discussion
strengths. First, it helps students learn new ideas and be encouraged to offer contributions on a regu-
while applying those ideas to actual management lar basis. Although engagement in participation is a
problems. Second, it helps develop the professional gradual process easily seen as the provenance of the
skills that students need to take advantage of their educator, the students must come to understand
knowledge. that the class is a partnership that requires all part-
The case method can be understood as a general ners to contribute. Then the students will become
approach to learning about areas that depend on more confident in their ability by participating in
problem solving and decision making. The key as- analysis and discussion. Developing student partici-
pect of the method is that cases are used as the vehi- pation is a balancing act for the educator. The edu-
cle around which a class discussion proceeds. Cases cator must allow the students to gain confidence
can come in many forms, but they have common and lose any feeling of being threatened because
characteristics: each deals with a specific situation, this is crucial to student success. At the same time
is problem or decision centered, requires participa- they have to encourage improvement in the quality
tion, and deals with issues important to the field. of the contributions made. As difficult as this bal-
Cases most appropriate to developing analytical ancing is, when done effectively it produces an en-
reasoning ability are based on decision-making situ- thralling teaching and learning experience.
ations, and those based on mechanical or technical For those interested in exploring the process of the
problems serve merely to apply techniques. case method further, more information can be
Use of the case study method has two important found in two books on the subject, one for the edu-
implications for the way a course is conducted. The cator and one for the student. The book for the ed-
first is that it means that the educator and the stu- ucator is by Erskine and colleagues2 and deals with
dents have to approach the course work from an instruction using the case method. The book for the
angle with which they may not be completely famil- student is by Ronstadt3 and supplies an extended
iar: Both must carry out considerable detailed guide to the case method by delineating what cases
preparation before each case class so that a produc- are about and how to approach them. For those in-
tive discussion is possible. During the class, the ed- terested in the pedagogy of case study, the works of
ucator’s objective is to guide and encourage discus- Roger C. Schank of the Institute of Learning Sci-
sion rather than simply convey knowledge and the ences at Northwestern University will be found to
students are called on to contribute formally to the be fascinating and persuasive.4
group’s understanding. After class the educator

References

1. K. Harling, “Difference Perspectives on Agribusiness Man- 3. R. Ronstadt, The Art of Case Analysis, 3rd ed., Lord Pub-
agement,” Agribusiness 11, 501 (1995). lishing, Dana Point, CA, 1994.
2. J.A. Erskine, M.R. Leenders, and L.A. Mauffette–Leen- 4. R.C. Schank, and C. Cleary, Engines for Education,
ders, Teaching with Cases, School of Business Administra- http://www.ils.nwu.edu/~e_for_e/index.html (1998).
tion, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario,
Canada, 1981.

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