● Stages of islamice legislature

Various sources of sharia are used by Islamic jurisprudence to elaborate the body of
Islamic law.[1] The scriptural sources of traditional Sunni jurisprudence are the Qur'an,
believed by Muslims to be the direct and unaltered word of God, and the Sunnah,
consisting of words and actions attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad in the
hadith literature. Shi'ite jurisprudence extends the notion of Sunnah to include traditions
of the Imams.[1]
Since legally relevant material found in Islamic scriptures did not directly address all the
questions pertaining to sharia that arose in Muslim communities, Islamic jurists
developed additional methods for deriving legal rulings. [1] According to Sunni schools of
law, secondary sources of Islamic law are consensus, the exact nature of which bears
no consensus itself; analogical reason; seeking the public interest; juristic discretion; the
rulings of the first generation of Muslims; and local customs.[2] Hanafi school frequently
relies on analogical deduction and independent reasoning, and Maliki and Hanbali
generally use the Hadith instead. Shafi'i school uses Sunnah more than Hanafi and
analogy more than two others.[1][3][better source needed] Among Shia, Usuli school of Ja'fari
jurisprudence uses four sources, which are Qur'an, Sunnah, consensus and the
intellect. They use consensus under special conditions and rely on the intellect to find
general principles based on the Qur'an and Sunnah, and use the principles of
jurisprudence as a methodology to interpret the Qur'an and Sunnah in different
circumstances. Akhbari Ja'faris rely more on scriptural sources and reject ijtihad.[1][4]
According to Momen, despite considerable differences in the principles of jurisprudence
between Shia and the four Sunni schools of law, there are fewer differences in the
practical application of jurisprudence to ritual observances and social transactions. [5]

The Qur'an is the first and most important source of Islamic law. Believed to be the
direct word of God as revealed to Muhammad through angel Gabriel in Mecca and
Medina, the scripture specifies the moral, philosophical, social, political and economic
basis on which a society should be constructed. The verses revealed in Mecca deal with
philosophical and theological issues, whereas those revealed in Medina are concerned
with socio-economic laws. The Qur'an was written and preserved during the life of
Muhammad, and compiled soon after his death.[6]

The verses of the Qur'an are categorized into three fields: "science of speculative
theology", "ethical principles" and "rules of human conduct". The third category is
directly concerned with Islamic legal matters which contains about five hundred verses
or one thirteenth of it. The task of interpreting the Qur'an has led to various opinions and
judgments. The interpretations of the verses by Muhammad's companions for Sunnis
and Imams for Shias are considered the most authentic, since they knew why, where
and on what occasion each verse was revealed.[1][6]

Sunnah
The Sunnah is the next important source, and is commonly defined as "the traditions
and customs of Muhammad" or "the words, actions and silent assertions of him". It
includes the everyday sayings and utterances of Muhammad, his acts, his tacit consent,
and acknowledgments of statements and activities. According to Shi'ite jurists, the
sunnah also includes the words, deeds and acknowledgments of the twelve Imams and
Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter, who are believed to be infallible.[1][7]

Justification for using the Sunnah as a source of law can be found in the Qur'an. The
Qur'an commands Muslims to follow Muhammad. [8] During his lifetime, Muhammad
made it clear that his traditions (along with the Qur'an) should be followed after his
death.[9] The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider the sunnah to be essential
supplements to and clarifications of the Qur'an. In Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an
contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims but there are no specific
Qur'anic rules on many religious and practical matters. Muslims believe that they can
look at the way of life, or sunnah, of Muhammad and his companions to discover what
to imitate and what to avoid.

Much of the sunnah is recorded in the Hadith. Initially, Muhammad had instructed his
followers not to write down his acts, so they may not confuse it with the Qur'an.
However, he did ask his followers to disseminate his sayings orally. As long as he was
alive, any doubtful record could be confirmed as true or false by simply asking him. His
death, however, gave rise to confusion over Muhammad's conduct. Thus the Hadith
were established.[7] Due to problems of authenticity, the science of Hadith (Arabic:
`Ulum al-hadith) is established. It is a method of textual criticism developed by early
Muslim scholars in determining the veracity of reports attributed to Muhammad. This is
achieved by analyzing the text of the report, the scale of the report's transmission, the
routes through which the report was transmitted, and the individual narrators involved in
its transmission. On the basis of these criteria, various Hadith classifications developed.
[10]

To establish the authenticity of a particular Hadith or report, it had to be checked by

following the chain of transmission (isnad). Thus the reporters had to cite their
reference, and their reference's reference all the way back to Muhammad. All the
references in the chain had to have a reputation for honesty and possessing a good
retentive memory.[7] Thus biographical analysis (`ilm al-rijāl, lit. "science of people"),
which contains details about the transmitter are scrutinized. This includes analyzing
their date and place of birth; familial connections; teachers and students; religiosity;
moral behaviour; literary output; their travels; as well as their date of death. Based upon
these criteria, the reliability (thiqāt) of the transmitter is assessed. Also determined is
whether the individual was actually able to transmit the report, which is deduced from
their contemporaneity and geographical proximity with the other transmitters in the
chain.[11] Examples of biographical dictionaries include Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani's "Tahdhīb
al-Tahdhīb" or al-Dhahabi's "Tadhkirat al-huffāz."[12]

Using this criterion, Hadith are classified into three categories: [7]

1. Undubitable (mutawatir), which are very widely known, and backed up by

numerous references.
 2. Widespread (mashhur), which are widely known, but backed up with few original
references.
3. Isolated or Single (wahid), which are backed up by too few and often
discontinuous references.
in a shariah court a qadi (judge ) hears a case, including witnesses and evidence . then
the qadi makes a ruling . sometimes the qadi consults a mufti or scholar of law, for an
opinion.

Sources of islamic law

Islamic law represents one of the world's great legal systems. Like Judaic law, which
influenced western legal systems, Islamic law originated as an important part of the
religion.

Sharia, an Arabic word meaning "the right path," refers to traditional Islamic law. The
Sharia comes from the Koran, the sacred book of Islam, which Muslims consider the
actual word of God. The Sharia also stems from the Prophet Muhammad's teachings and
interpretations of those teachings by certain Muslim legal scholars. Muslims believe that
Allah (God) revealed his true will to Muhammad, who then passed on Allah's commands to
humans in the Koran.

Since the Sharia originated with Allah, Muslims consider it sacred. Between the seventh
century when Muhammad died and the 10th century, many Islamic legal scholars
attempted to interpret the Sharia and to adapt it to the expanding Muslim Empire. The
classic Sharia of the 10th century represented an important part of Islam's golden age.
From that time, the Sharia has continued to be reinterpreted and adapted to changing
circumstances and new issues. In the modern era, the influences of Western colonialism
generated efforts to codify it.

Development of the Sharia

Before Islam, the nomadic tribes inhabiting the Arabian peninsula worshiped idols. These
tribes frequently fought with one another. Each tribe had its own customs governing
marriage, hospitality, and revenge. Crimes against persons were answered with personal
retribution or were sometimes resolved by an arbitrator. Muhammad introduced a new
religion into this chaotic Arab world. Islam affirmed only one true God. It demanded that
believers obey God's will and laws.

The Koran sets down basic standards of human conduct, but does not provide a detailed
law code. Only a few verses deal with legal matters. During his lifetime, Muhammad
helped clarify the law by interpreting provisions in the Koran and acting as a judge in legal
cases. Thus, Islamic law, the Sharia, became an integral part of the Muslim religion.

Following Muhammad's death in A.D. 632, companions of Muhammad ruled Arabia for
about 30 years. These political-religious rulers, called caliphs, continued to develop Islamic
law with their own pronouncements and decisions. The first caliphs also conquered
territories outside Arabia including Iraq, Syria, Palestine, Persia, and Egypt. As a result,
elements of Jewish, Greek, Roman, Persian, and Christian church law also influenced the
development of the Sharia.

Islamic law grew along with the expanding Muslim Empire. The Umayyad dynasty caliphs,
who took control of the empire in 661, extended Islam into India, Northwest Africa, and
Spain. The Umayyads appointed Islamic judges, kadis, to decide cases involving Muslims.
(Non-Muslims kept their own legal system.) Knowledgeable about the Koran and the
teachings of Muhammad, kadis decided cases in all areas of the law.

Following a period of revolts and civil war, the Umayyads were overthrown in 750 and
replaced by the Abbasid dynasty. During the 500-year rule of the Abbasids, the Sharia
reached its full development.

Under their absolute rule, the Abbasids transferred substantial areas of criminal law from
the kadis to the government. The kadis continued to handle cases involving religious,
family, property, and commercial law.

The Abbasids encouraged legal scholars to debate the Sharia vigorously. One group held
that only the divinely inspired Koran and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad should
make up the Sharia. A rival group, however, argued that the Sharia should also include the
reasoned opinions of qualified legal scholars. Different legal systems began to develop in
different provinces.

In an attempt to reconcile the rival groups, a brilliant legal scholar named Shafii
systematized and developed what were called the "roots of the law." Shafii argued that in
solving a legal question, the kadi or government judge should first consult the Koran. If the
answer were not clear there, the judge should refer to the authentic sayings and decisions
of Muhammad. If the answer continued to elude the judge, he should then look to the
consensus of Muslim legal scholars on the matter. Still failing to find a solution, the judge
could form his own answer by analogy from "the precedent nearest in resemblance and
most appropriate" to the case at hand.

Shafii provoked controversy. He constantly criticized what he called "people of reason"

and "people of tradition." While speaking in Egypt in 820, he was physically attacked by
enraged opponents and died a few days later. Nevertheless, Shafii's approach was later
widely adopted throughout the Islamic world.

By around the year 900, the classic Sharia had taken shape. Islamic specialists in the law
assembled handbooks for judges to use in making their decisions.

The classic Sharia was not a code of laws, but a body of religious and legal scholarship
that continued to develop for the next 1,000 years. The following sections illustrate some
basic features of Islamic law as it was traditionally applied.

Family Law

Cases involving violations of some religious duties, lawsuits over property and business
disputes, and family law all came before the kadis. Most of these cases would be
considered civil law matters in Western courts today.

Family law always made up an important part of the Sharia. Below are some features of
family law in the classic Sharia that would guide the kadi in making his decisions.

■ Usually, an individual became an adult at puberty.

■ A man could marry up to four wives at once.
■ A wife could refuse to accompany her husband on journeys.
■ The support of an abandoned infant was a public responsibility.
■ A wife had the right to food, clothing, housing, and a marriage gift from her
husband.
■ When the owner of a female slave acknowledged her child as his own, the child
became free. The child's mother became free when the owner died.
■ In an inheritance, a brother took twice the amount as his sister. (The brother also
had financial responsibility for his sister.)
■ A husband could dissolve a marriage by repudiating his wife three times.
■ A wife could return her dowry to her husband for a divorce. She could also get a
decree from a kadi ending the marriage if her husband mistreated, deserted, or
failed to support her.
■ After a divorce, the mother usually had the right of custody of her young children.

Criminal Law

The classic Sharia identified the most serious crimes as those mentioned in the Koran.
These were considered sins against Allah and carried mandatory punishments. Some of
these crimes and punishments were:

● adultery: death by stoning.

● highway robbery: execution; crucifixion; exile; imprisonment; or right hand and left
foot cut off.
● theft: right hand cut off (second offense: left foot cut off; imprisonment for further
offenses).
● slander: 80 lashes
● drinking wine or any other intoxicant: 80 lashes.

Officials of the caliph carried out the penalties for these crimes.

Crimes against the person included murder and bodily injury. In these cases, the victim or
his male next of kin had the "right of retaliation" where this was possible. This meant, for
example, that the male next of kin of a murder victim could execute the murderer after his
trial (usually by cutting off his head with a sword). If someone lost the sight of an eye in an
attack, he could retaliate by putting a red-hot needle into the eye of his attacker who had
been found guilty by the law. But a rule of exactitude required that a retaliator must give
the same amount of damage he received. If, even by accident, he injured the person too
much, he had broken the law and was subject to punishment. The rule of exactitude
discouraged retaliation. Usually, the injured person or his kinsman would agree to accept
money or something of value ("blood money") instead of retaliating.

In a third category of less serious offenses such as gambling and bribery, the judge used
his discretion in deciding on a penalty. Punishments would often require the criminal to pay
a reparation to the victim, receive a certain number of lashes, or be locked up.

Criminal Procedure

The victim of a criminal act or his kinsman ("the avenger of the blood") was personally
responsible for presenting a claim against the accused criminal before the court. The case
then went on much like a private lawsuit. No government prosecutor participated although
certain officials brought some cases to court.

The classic Sharia provided for due process of law. This included notice of the claim made
by the injured person, the right to remain silent, and a presumption of innocence in a fair
and public trial before an impartial judge. There were no juries. Both parties in the case
had the right to have a lawyer present, but the individual bringing the claim and the
defendant usually presented their own cases.

At trial, the judge questioned the defendant about the claim made against him. If the
defendant denied the claim, the judge then asked the accuser, who had the burden of
proof, to present his evidence. Evidence almost always took the form of the direct
testimony of two male witnesses of good character (four in adultery cases). Circumstantial
evidence and documents were usually inadmissible. Female witnesses were not allowed
except in cases where they held special knowledge, such as childbirth. In such cases, two
female witnesses were needed for every male witness. After the accuser finished with his
witnesses, the defendant could present his own.

If the accuser could not produce witnesses, he could demand that the defendant take an
oath before Allah that he was innocent. "Your evidence or his oath," the Prophet
Muhammad taught. If the defendant swore he was innocent, the judge dismissed the case.
If he refused to take the oath, the accuser won. The defendant could also confess to a
crime, but this could only be done orally in open court.

In all criminal cases, the evidence had to be "conclusive" before a judge could reach a
guilty verdict. An appellate system allowed persons to appeal verdicts to higher
government officials and to the ruler himself.

Islamic Law Today

In the 19th century, many Muslim countries came under the control or influence of Western
colonial powers. As a result, Western-style laws, courts, and punishments began to appear
within the Sharia. Some countries like Turkey totally abandoned the Sharia and adopted
new law codes based on European systems. Most Muslim countries put the government in
charge of prosecuting and punishing criminal acts. In the area of family law, many
countries prohibited polygamy and divorce by the husband's repudiation of his wife.

Modern legislation along with Muslim legal scholars who are attempting to relate the will of
Allah to the 20th century have reopened the door to interpreting the Sharia. This has
happened even in highly traditional Saudi Arabia, where Islam began.
Since 1980, some countries with fundamentalist Islamic regimes like Iran have attempted
to reverse the trend of westernization and return to the classic Sharia. But most Muslim
legal scholars today believe that the Sharia can be adapted to modern conditions without
abandoning the spirit of Islamic law or its religious foundations. Even in countries like Iran
and Saudi Arabia, the Sharia is creatively adapted to new circumstances.

For Discussion and Writing

1. How did the Sharia develop differently than Western law systems like our own?
2. What differences do you see between the criminal law and court procedures of the
classic Sharia and the criminal justice system in the United States today? What
similarities are there?
3. Which features of the classic Sharia do you agree and disagree with the most?
Why?

For Further Reading

'Awa, Muhammad Salim. Punishment in Islamic Law : A Comparative Study. Indianapolis:

American Trust Publications, 1982.

Bassiouni, M. Cherif, ed. The Islamic Criminal Justice System. London: Oceana, 1982.

Hallaq, Wael B. Law and Legal Theory in Classical and Medieval Islam. Brookfield, Vt. :
Variorum, 1995.

Khadduri, Majid, Law in the Middle East, edited by Majid Khadduri and Herbert J.
Liebesny. Washington: Middle East Institute, 1955.

ACTIVITY
The Classic Sharia and Early Islamic Society

Laws can tell us much about a culture. They can inform us about the society's government,
economy, geography, family relations, religious beliefs, technology, and much more.

Listed below are seven statements concerning the classic Sharia of the 10th century. Form
small groups. Assign each group one of the statements. Members of each group should:

(1) Examine their assigned statement and any other material relating to it in the article.

(2) Write down as many facts about early Islamic society as they can infer from the
statement.

(3) Report the facts they have discovered to the rest of the class in order to develop a
picture of early Islamic society.

Statements From the Classic Sharia

1. A Muslim could be tried and punished for not performing his religious duties.
2. A woman counted as one-half a man if called as a witness in a trial.
3. When the owner of a female slave acknowledged her child as his own, the child
 became free. The mother became free when her owner died.
4. The most serious crimes in the Sharia included adultery, highway robbery, theft,
and drinking alcohol.
5. Islamic criminal courts exercised due process of law.
6. If witnesses were not produced, the defendant could be asked to take an oath
before Allah that he was innocent.
7. Punishments included death by sword and stoning, mutilation, lashes, retaliation,
"blood money," reparation, and imprisonment.

● Scientific knowledge and inventions in the light of quran and sunnah

"We (God) shall show them Our signs in the Universe and within themselves, until it
becomes clear to them that this is the Truth." Quran 41:53

The Quran, the book of Islam, is the final book of revelation from God to humanity and the
last in the line of revelations given to the Prophets.

Although the Quran (revealed over 1400 years ago), is not primarily a book of science, it
does contain scientific facts that have only been discovered recently through the
advancement of technology and scientific knowledge. Islam encourages reflection and
scientific research because understanding the nature of creation enables people to further
appreciate their Creator and the extent of His power and wisdom.

The Quran was revealed at a time when Science was primitive; there were no telescopes,
microscopes or anything close to today's technology. People believed that the sun orbited
the earth and the sky was held up by pillars at the corners of a flat earth. Against this
backdrop the Quran was revealed, containing many scientific facts on topics ranging from
astronomy to biology, geology to zoology.

Some of the many scientific facts found in the Quran include:

Fact #1 - Origin of Life

"And We (God) made every living thing from water. Will they not believe?"Quran

21:30

Water is pointed out as the origin of all life. All living things are made of cells and we now
know that cells are mostly made of water. This was discovered only after the invention of
the microscope. In the deserts of Arabia, it would be inconceivable to think that someone
would have guessed that all life came from water.

Fact #2 - Human Embryonic Development

God speaks about the stages of man's embryonic development:

"We (God) created man from an extract of clay. Then We made him as a drop in a

place of settlement, firmly fixed. Then We made the drop into an alaqah [leech,

suspended thing, and blood clot], then We made the alaqah into a mudghah

[chewed substance]..."Quran, 23:12-14

The Arabic word "alaqah" has three meanings: a leech, a suspended thing and a blood
clot. "Mudghah" means a chewed substance. Embryology scientists have observed that
the usage of these terms in describing the formation of the embryo is accurate and in
conformity with our current scientific understanding of the development process.

Little was known about the staging and classification of human embryos until the twentieth
century, which means that the descriptions of the human embryo in the Quran cannot be
based on scientific knowledge from the seventh century.

Fact #3 - Expansion of the Universe

At a time when the science of Astronomy was still primitive, the following verse in the
Quran was revealed:

"And the heaven We (God) constructed with strength, and indeed, We (God) are [its]

expander."Quran 51:47

One of the intended meanings of the above verse is that God is expanding the universe
(i.e. heavens). Other meanings are that God provides for, and has power over, the
universe - which are also true.

The fact that the universe is expanding (e.g. planets are moving further away from each
other) was discovered in the last century. Physicist Stephen Hawking in his book 'A Brief
History of Time' writes, "The discovery that the universe is expanding was one of the great
intellectual revolutions of the twentieth century."

The Quran alludes to the expansion of the universe even before the invention of the
telescope!

Fact #4 - Iron Sent Down

Iron is not natural to earth, as it came to this planet from outer space. Scientists have
found that billions of years ago, the earth was struck by meteorites which were carrying
iron from distant stars which had exploded.

"We sent down iron with its great inherent strength and its many benefits for

humankind."Quran 57:25

God uses the words 'sent down'. The fact that iron was sent down to earth from outer
space is something which could not be known by the primitive science of the seventh
century.

Fact #5 - Sky's Protection

The sky plays a crucial role in protecting the earth and its inhabitants from the lethal rays
of the sun, as well as the freezing cold of space.

God asks us to consider the sky in the following verse:

"We (God) made the sky a protective ceiling. And yet they are turning away from

Our signs!"Quran 21:32

The Quran points to the sky's protection as a sign of God, protective properties which were
discovered by scientific research conducted in the twentieth century.

Fact #6 - Mountains

God draws our attention to an important characteristic of mountains:

"Did We not make the earth a resting place, and the mountains as stakes?"Quran

78:6-7

The Quran accurately describes the deep roots of mountains by using the word "stakes".
Mount Everest, for example, has an approximate height of 9km above ground, while its
root is deeper than 125km!

The fact that mountains have deep 'stake'-like roots was not known until after the
development of the theory of plate tectonics in the beginning of the twentieth century. God
also says in the Quran (16:15), that the mountains have a role in stabilising the earth "…so
that it would not shake," which has just begun to be understood by scientists.

Fact #7 - Sun's Orbit

In 1512, astronomer Nicholas Copernicus put forward his theory that the Sun is motionless
at the centre of the solar system and the planets revolve around it. This belief was
widespread amongst astronomers until the twentieth century. It is now a well established
fact that the Sun is not stationary but is moving in an orbit around the centre of our Milky
Way galaxy.

"It is He who created night and day, the Sun and the Moon, each floating in its

orbit."Quran 21:33

Fact #8 – Internal Waves in the Ocean

It was commonly thought that waves only occur on the surface of the ocean. However,
oceanographers have discovered that there are internal waves that take place below the
surface which are invisible to the human eye and can only be detected by specialised
equipment.

The Quran mentions:

"... a deep ocean which is covered by waves, above which are waves, above which

are clouds, layers of darkness, one upon the other..."Quran 24:40

This description is amazing because 1400 years ago there was no specialist equipment to
discover the internal waves deep inside the oceans.

Fact #9 - Lying & Movement

There was a cruel oppressive tribal leader who lived during the time of Prophet
Muhammad (peace be upon him). God revealed a verse to warn him:

"No Indeed! If he does not stop, We will seize him by the forehead; his lying, sinful

forehead."Quran 96:15-16

God does not call this person a liar, but calls his forehead (the front part of the brain) 'lying'
and 'sinful', and warns him to stop. Numerous studies have found that the front part of our
brain (frontal lobe) is responsible for both lying and voluntary movement, and hence sin.
These functions were discovered with medical imaging equipment which was developed in
the twentieth century.

Fact #10 - The Two Seas that do not Mix

Regarding the seas, our Creator says:

"He has let loose the two seas, converging together, with a barrier between them

which they do not break through."Quran 55:19-20

A physical force called surface tension prevents the waters of neighbouring seas from
mixing, due to the difference in the density of these waters. It is as if a thin wall were
between them. This has only very recently been discovered by oceanographers.

Couldn't Muhammad Have Authored the Quran?

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) was known in history to be illiterate; he
could not read nor write and was not educated in any field that could account for the
scientific accuracies in the Quran.

Some may claim that he copied it from learned people or scientists of his time. If it was
copied, we would have expected to see all the incorrect scientific assumptions of the time
also being copied. Rather, we find that the Quran does not contain any errors whatsoever -
be they scientific or otherwise.

Some people may also claim that the Quran was changed as new scientific facts were
discovered. This cannot be the case because it is a historically documented fact that the
Quran is preserved in its original language - which is a miracle in itself

Just a Coincidence?

"We (God) will show them Our Signs in the universe, and in their own selves, until it

becomes manifest to them that this Quran is the truth."Quran 41:53

While this pamphlet has only focused on scientific miracles, there are many more types of
miracles mentioned in the Quran: historical miracles; prophecies that have come true;
linguistic and literary styles that cannot be matched; not to mention the moving effect it has
on people. All these miracles cannot be due to coincidence. They clearly indicate that the
Quran is from God, the Creator of all these laws of science. He is the one and same God
who sent all the Prophets with the same message - to worship the one God only and to
follow the teachings of His Messenger.
The Quran is a book of guidance that demonstrates that God did not create humans to
simply wander aimlessly. Rather, it teaches us that we have a meaningful and higher
purpose in life - to acknowledge God’s complete perfection, greatness and uniqueness,
and obey Him

It is up to each person to use their God-given intellect and reasoning abilities to

contemplate and recognise God’s signs - the Quran being the most important sign. Read
and discover the beauty and truth of the Quran, so that you may attain success!

● Muslim contribution in the field of science and technology

The religion of Islam in its final form was founded during the lifetime of the prophet
Muhammad (pbuh). After his death in 632, Islam continued to expand under the leadership
of Muslim rulers, known as caliphs. The lands destined to become parts of the medieval
Islamic world—from Transoxiana (Tr. Maveraunnehir) to Andalusia—were consolidated
into a new spiritual universe within a single century after the death of the Prophet (pbuh).
The revelation contained in the Qur’an, and expressed in the sacred language (Arabic),
provided the unifying pattern into which many foreign elements became integrated and
absorbed, in accordance with the universal spirit of Islam. In this region of the home of
many earlier civilizations, Islam came into contact with a number of sciences, which it
absorbed, to the extent that these sciences were compatible with its own spirit and was
able to provide nourishment for its own characteristic cultural life.

Muslim scholars calculated the angle of the ecliptic; measured the size of the Earth;
calculated the precession of the equinoxes; explained, in the field of optics and physics,
such phenomena as refraction of light, gravity, capillary attraction, and twilight; and
developed observatories for the empirical study of heavenly bodies. They made advances
in the uses of drugs, herbs, and foods for medication; established hospitals with a system
of interns and externs; discovered causes of certain diseases and developed correct
diagnoses of them; proposed new concepts of hygiene; made use of anesthetics in
surgery with newly innovated surgical tools; and introduced the science of dissection in
anatomy.

Muslims furthered the scientific breeding of horses and cattle; found new ways of grafting
to produce new types of flowers and fruits; introduced new concepts of irrigation,
fertilization, and soil cultivation; and improved upon the science of navigation. In the area
of chemistry, Muslim scholarship led to the discovery of such substances as potash,
alcohol, nitrate of silver, nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and mercury chloride.

Muslims scientists also developed to a high degree of perfection the arts of textiles,
ceramics, and metallurgy.” According to a US study published by the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in its Journal on 21 February 2007; ‘Designs
on surface tiles in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages revealed their maker’s
understanding of mathematical concepts not grasped in the West until 500 years later.
Many Medieval Islamic buildings walls have ornate geometric star and polygon or ‘girih’,
patterns, which are often overlaid with a swirling network of lines – This girih tile method
was more efficient and precise than the previous approach, allowing for an important
breakthrough in Islamic mathematics and design.’

Muslims Scholars of Theology and Science:

According to the famous scientist Albert Einstein; “Science without religion is lame.
Religion without science is blind.” Francis Bacon, the famous philosopher, has rightly said
that a little knowledge of science makes you an atheist, but an in-depth study of science
makes you a believer in God. A critical analysis reveals that most of Muslim scientists and
scholars of medieval period were also eminent scholars of Islam and theology. The earlier
Muslim scientific investigations were based on the inherent link between the physical and
the spiritual spheres, but they were informed by a process of careful observation and
reflection that investigated the physical universe.

Influence of Qur’an on Muslims Scientists:

The worldview of the Muslims scientists was inspired by the Qur’an and they knew that:
“Surely, In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and the
day, in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain which
Allah sends down from the skies, with which He revives the earth after its death and
spreads in it all kinds of animals, in the change of the winds and the clouds between the
sky and the earth that are made subservient, there are signs for rational
people.”(Qur’an;2:164). “Indeed in the alternation of the night and the day and what Allah
has created in the heavens and the earth, there are signs for those who are God
fearing.”(Qur’an;10:6). They were aware that there was much more to be discovered. They
did not have the precise details of the solar and lunar orbits but they knew that there was
something extremely meaningful behind the alternation of the day and the night and in the
precise movements of the sun and the moon as mentioned in Qur’an: One can still verify
that those who designed the dome and the minaret, knew how to transform space and
silence into a chanting remembrance that renews the nexus between God and those who
respond to His urgent invitation.

Famous Muslim Scientists and Scholars:

The traditional Islamic institutions of learning produced numerous great theologians,
philosophers, scholars and scientists. Their contributions in various fields of knowledge
indicate the level of scholarship base developed among he Muslims one thousand years
ago. Only few are being mentioned here:

Chemistry:
Jabir ibn Hayyan, Abu Musa (721-815), alchemist known as the “father of chemistry.” He
studied most branches of learning, including medicine. After the ‘Abbasids defeated the
Umayyads, Jabir became a court physician to the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun ar-Rashid. Jabir
was a close friend of the sixth Shi’ite imam, Ja’far ibn Muhammad, whom he gave credit
for many of his scientific ideas.

Mathematics, Algebra, Astronomy & Geography:

Al-Khwarizmi (Algorizm) (770–840 C.E) was a researcher of mathematics, algorithm,
algebra, calculus, astronomy & geography. He compiled astronomical tables, introduced
Indian numerals (which became Arabic numerals), formulated the oldest known
trigonometric tables, and prepared a geographic encyclopaedia in cooperation with 69
other scholars.

Physics, Philosophy, Medicine:

Ibn Ishaq Al-Kindi (Alkindus) (800–873 C.E) was an intellectual of philosophy, physics,
optics, medicine, mathematics & metallurgy. Ali Ibn Rabban Al-Tabari(838–870 C.E) was a
scholar in medicine, mathematics, calligraphy & literature. Al-Razi (Rhazes) (864– 930
C.E), a physical and scientist of medicine, ophthalmology, smallpox, chemistry &
astronomy.

Ar-Razi’s two most significant medical works are the Kitab al-Mansuri, which became well
known in the West in Gerard of Cremona’s 12th-century Latin translation; and ‘Kitab al-
hawi’, the “Comprehensive Book”. Among his numerous minor medical treatises is the
famed Treatise on the Small Pox and Measles, which was translated into Latin, Byzantine
Greek, and various modern languages.

Al-Farabi (Al-Pharabius) (870- 950 C.E) excelled in sociology, logic, philosophy, political
science & music. Abu Al-Qasim Al-Zahravi (Albucasis; 936 -1013 C.E) was an expert in
surgery & medicine known as the father of modern surgery.

Ibn Al-Haitham (Alhazen) (965-1040 C.E); was the mathematician and physicist who
made the first significant contributions to optical theory since the time of Ptolemy
(flourished 2nd century). In his treatise on optics, translated into Latin in 1270 as Opticae
thesaurus Alhazeni libri vii, Alhazen published theories on refraction, reflection, binocular
vision, focusing with lenses, the rainbow, parabolic and spherical mirrors, spherical
aberration, atmospheric refraction, and the apparent increase in size of planetary bodies
near the Earth’s horizon. He was first to give an accurate account of vision, correctly
stating that light comes from the object seen to the eye.

Abu Raihan Al-Biruni (973-1048 C.E); was a Persian scholar and scientist, one of the
most learned men of his age and an outstanding intellectual figure. Al-Biruni’s most
famous works are Athar al-baqiyah (Chronology of Ancient Nations); at-Tafhim (“Elements
of Astrology”); al-Qanun al-Mas’udi (“The Mas’udi Canon”), a major work on astronomy,
which he dedicated to Sultan Mas’ud of Ghazna; Ta’rikh al-Hind (“A History of India”); and
Kitab as-Saydalah, a treatise on drugs used in medicine. In his works on astronomy, he
discussed with approval the theory of the Earth’s rotation on its axis and made accurate
calculations of latitude and longitude. He was the first one to determine the circumference
earth. In the filed of physics, he explained natural springs by the laws of hydrostatics and
determined with remarkable accuracy the specific weight of 18 precious stones and
metals. In his works on geography, he advanced the daring view that the valley of the
Indus had once been a sea basin.

Ibn Sina (Avicenna, 981–1037 C.E); was a scientist of medicine, philosophy, mathematics
& astronomy. He was particularly noted for his contributions in the fields of Aristotelian
philosophy and medicine. He composed the Kitab ash-shifa` (“Book of Healing”), a vast
philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and the Canon of Medicine, which is among the
most famous books in the history of medicine.

Ibn Hazm, (994-1064 C.E) was a Muslim litterateur, historian, jurist, and theologian of
Islamic Spain. One of the leading exponents of the Zahiri (literalist) school of
jurisprudence, he produced some 400 works, covering jurisprudence, logic, history, ethics,
comparative religion, and theology, and The Ring of the Dove, on the art of love.

Al-Zarqali (Arzachel) (1028-1087 C.E); an astronomer who invented astrolabe (an

instrument used to make astronomical measurements). Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058-1111
C.E); was a scholar of sociology, theology & philosophy.

Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) (1091-1161 C.E); was a scientist and expert in surgery & medicine.

Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1128- 1198 C.E); excelled in philosophy, law, medicine, astronomy
& theology.

Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi (1201-1274 C.E); was the scholar of astronomy and Non-Euclidean
geometry.

Geber (flourished in 14th century Spain) is author of several books that were among the
most influential works on alchemy and metallurgy during the 14th and 15th centuries. A
number of Arabic scientific works credited to Jabir were translated into Latin during the
11th to 13th centuries. Thus, when an author who was probably a practicing Spanish
alchemist began to write in about 1310. Four works by Geber are known: Summa
perfectionis magisterii (The Sum of Perfection or the Perfect Magistery, 1678), Liber
fornacum (Book of Furnaces, 1678), De investigatione perfectionis (The Investigation of
Perfection, 1678), and De inventione veritatis (The Invention of Verity, 1678).

They are the clearest expression of alchemical theory and the most important set of
laboratory directions to appear before the 16th century. Accordingly, they were widely read
and extremely influential in a field where mysticism, secrecy, and obscurity were the usual
rule. Geber’s rational approach, however, did much to give alchemy a firm and respectable
position in Europe. His practical directions for laboratory procedures were so clear that it is
obvious he was familiar with many chemical operations. He described the purification of
chemical compounds, the preparation of acids (such as nitric and sulfuric), and the
construction and use of laboratory apparatus, especially furnaces. Geber’s works on
chemistry were not equaled in their field until the 16th century with the appearance of the
writings of the Italian chemist Vannoccio Biringuccio, the German mineralogist Georgius
Agricola, and the German alchemist Lazarus Ercker.

Muhammad Ibn Abdullah (Ibn Battuta) (1304-1369 C.E); was a world traveler, he
traveled 75,000 mile voyage from Morocco to China and back. Ibn Khaldun(1332-1395
C.E) was an expert on sociology, philosophy of history and political science.

Tipu, Sultan of Mysore (1783-1799 C.E) in the south of India, was the innovator of the
world’s first war rocket. Two of his rockets, captured by the British at Srirangapatana, are
displayed in the Woolwich Museum of Artillery in London. The rocket motor casing was
made of steel with multiple nozzles. The rocket, 50mm in diameter and 250mm long, had a
range performance of 900 meters to 1.5 km.

Turkish scientist Hazarfen Ahmet Celebi took off from Galata tower and flew over the
Bosphorus, two hundred years before a comparable development elsewhere. Fifty years
later Logari Hasan Celebi, another member of the Celebi family, sent the first manned
rocket into upper atmosphere, using 150 okka (about 300 pounds) of gunpowder as the
firing fuel.

Contribution of Great Muslim Women & Scholars:

Islam does not restrict acquisition of knowledge to men only, the women are equally
required to gain knowledge. Hence many eminent women have contributed in different
fields. Aishah as-Siddiqah (the one who affirms the Truth), the favourite wife of Propeht
Muhammad (peace be upon him), is regarded as the best woman in Islam. Her life also
substantiates that a woman can be a scholar, exert influence over men and women and
provide them with inspiration and leadership. Her life is also an evidence of the fact that
the same woman can be totally feminine and be a source of pleasure, joy and comfort to
her husband. The example of Aishah in promoting education and in particular the
education of Muslim women in the laws and teachings of Islam is one which needs to be
followed. She is source of numerous Hadith and has been teaching eminent scholars.
Because of the strength of her personality, she was a leader in every field in knowledge, in
society and in politics.

Sukayna (also “Sakina), the great granddaughter of the Prophet (peace be upon him), and
daughter of Imam Husain was the most brilliant most accomplished and virtuous women of
her time. She grew up to be an outspoken critic of the Umayyads. She became a political
activist, speaking against all kinds of tyranny and personal, social and political iniquities
and injustice. She was a fiercely independent woman. She married more than once, and
each time she stipulated assurance of her personal autonomy, and the condition of
monogamy on the prospective husband’s part, in the marriage contract. She went about
her business freely, attended and addressed meetings, received men of letters, thinkers,
and other notables at her home, and debated issues with them. She was an exceedingly
well-educated woman who would take no nonsense from anyone howsoever high and
mighty he or she might be.

Um Adhah al-Adawiyyah (d. 83 AH), reputable scholar and narrator of Hadith based on
reports of Ali ibn Abu Talib and Ayesha; Amrah bint Abd al-Rahman (d. 98 AH), one of the
more prominent students of Ayesha and a known legal scholar in Madina whose opinions
overrode those of other jurists of the time; Hafsa bint Sirin al-Ansariyyah (d. approx. 100
AH), also a legal scholar. Amah al-Wahid (d. 377 AH), noted jurist of the Shafaii school
and a mufti in Baghdad; Karimah bint Ahmad al-Marwaziyyah (d. 463 AH), teacher of
hadith (Sahih Bukhari); Zainab bint Abd al-Rahman (d. 615 AH), linguist and teacher of
languages in Khorasan. Zainab bint Makki (d. 688 AH) was a prominent scholar in
Damascus, teacher of Ibn Taimiya, the famous jurist of the Hanbali school; Zaynab bint
Umar bin Kindi (d. 699 AH), teacher of the famous hadith scholar, al-Mizzi; Fatima bint
Abbas (d. 714 AH), legal scholar of the Hanbali school, mufti in Damascus and later in
Cairo; Nafisin bint al Hasan taught hadith; Imam Shafaii sat in her teaching circle at the
height of his fame in Egypt. Two Muslim women — Umm Isa bint Ibrahim and Amat al-
Wahid — served as muftis in Baghdad. Ayesha al-Banniyyah, a legal scholar in
Damascus, wrote several books on Islamic law. Umm al-Banin (d. 848 AH/ 1427 CE)
served as a mufti in Morocco. Al Aliyya was a famous teacher whose classes men
attended before the noon prayer (Zuhr) and women after the afternoon prayer (Asr). A
Muslim woman of the name of Rusa wrote a textbook on medicine, and another, Ujliyyah
bint al-Ijli (d. 944 CE) made instruments to be used by astronomers. During the Mamluk
period in Cairo (11th century) women established five universities and 12 schools which
women managed.

Rabi’a al-Adawiyya al-Basri (717 C.E), is honored as one of the earliest and greatest sufis
in Islam. Orphaned as a child, she was captured and sold into slavery. But later her master
let her go. She retreated into the desert and gave herself to a life of worship and
contemplation. She did not marry, and to a man who wanted her hand she said: “I have
become naught to self and exist only through Him. I belong wholly to Him. You must ask
my hand of Him, not of me.” She preached unselfish love of God, meaning that one must
love Him for His own sake and not out of fear or hope of rewards. She had many disciples,
both men and women.

Zubaida (Amatal Aziz bint Jafar), the favourite wife of Harun al-Rashid, the legendary
Abassid caliph. She came to be an exceedingly wealthy woman, a billionaire so to speak,
independently of her husband. Granddaughter of Al-Mansur, she grew up to be a lady of
dazzling beauty, articulate and charming of speech, and great courage. Discerning and
sharp, her wisdom and insightfulness inspired immediate admiration and respect. In her
middle years she moved out of the royal “harem” and began living in a huge palace of her
own. She owned properties all over the empire which dozens of agents in her employ
managed for her. A cultivated woman, pious and well acquainted with the scriptures,
Zubaida was also a poetess and a patron of the arts and sciences. She allocated funds to
invite hundreds of men of letters, scientists, and thinkers from all over the empire to locate
and work in Baghdad. She spent much of her funds for public purposes, built roads and
bridges, including a 900-mile stretch from Kufa to Makkah, and set up, hostels, eating
places, and repair shops along the way, all of which facilitated travel and encouraged
enterprise. She built canals for both irrigation and water supply to the people. She spent
many millions of Dinars on getting a canal built, that went through miles of tunnel through
mountains, to increase the water supply in Makkah for the benefit of pilgrimages. She took
a keen interest in the empire’s politics and administration. The caliph himself sought her
counsel concerning the affairs of state on many occasions and found her advice to be
eminently sound and sensible. After Harun’s death, his successor, Al Mamun, also sought
her advice from time to time. She died in 841 C.E (32 years after Harun’s death).

Arwa bint Ahmad bin Mohammad al-Sulayhi (born 1048 C.E) was the ruling queen of
Yemen for 70 years (1067-1138 C.E), briefly, and that only technically, as a co-ruler with
her two husbands, but as the sole ruler for most of that time. She is still remembered with
a great deal of affection in Yemen as a marvellous queen. Her name was mentioned in the
Friday sermons right after that of the Fatimid caliph in Cairo. She built mosques and
schools throughout her realm, improved roads, took interest in agriculture and encouraged
her country’s economic growth. Arwa is said to have been an extremely beautiful woman,
learned, and cultured. She had a great memory for poems, stories, and accounts of
historical events. She had good knowledge of the Qur’an and Sunnah. She was brave,
highly intelligent, devout, with a mind of her own. She was a Shi’a of the Ismaili
persuasion, sent preachers to India, who founded an Ismaili community in Gujarat which
still thrives. She was also a competent military strategist. At one point (1119 C.E) the
Fatimid caliph sent a general, Najib ad-Dowla, to take over Yemen. Supported by the
emirs and her people, she fought back and forced him to go back to Egypt. She died in
1138 C.E at the age of 90. A university in Sana’a is named after her, and her mausoleum
in Jibla continues to be a place of pilgrimage for Yemenis and others. The other eminent
ladies who played important role in the affairs of state and philanthropy include, Buran the
wife of Caliph Mamun. Among the Mughals Noor Jehan, Zaib un Nisa left their mark in
 Indian history. Razia Sultan was an other eminent women ruler in India

● Characteristics of islamic state

The idea of an Islamic state is a most discussed subject among supporters and opponents. Is
there any such concept? Can we call any state an Islamic state? There are many claimants of
course. Interestingly among the claimants are military dictators as well as monarchs. Can we
legitimately call a state an Islamic state? Is there any criterion to judge the claim? If so, what is
that criterion? Generally some ritualistic aspects of Islam like prayer, fasting, zakat etc. are
imposed in addition to the Islamic punishments to lay claim to the status as an Islamic state. Is
this enough?

First of all we should know whether or not there is any concept of Islamic state in the Qur'an or
Hadith literature. A thorough examination of the scripture and Hadith literature shows that there
is no such concept of Islamic state. In fact after the death of the Holy Prophet the Muslims were
not agreed even on the issue of his successor. The Muslims split on the question - a section
maintaining that the Prophet never appointed any successor and another section maintaining
that he did.

As far as the Qur'an is concerned there is, at best, a concept of a society rather than a state.
The Qur'an lays emphasis on adl and ihsan (justice and benevolence). A Qur'anic society must
be based on these values. Also, the Qur'an strongly opposes zulm and 'udwan (oppression and
injustice). No society thus based on zulm and 'udwan can qualify as an Islamic society. The
Qur'anic values are most fundamental. It is thus debatable whether a state, declaring itself to be
an Islamic state, can be legitimately accepted as such without basing the civil society on these
values. We will throw more light on this later.

The pre-Islamic Arab society had not known any state structure. It was a predominantly tribal
society, which did not know any distinction between a state and a civil society. There was no
written law, much less a constitution. There was no governing authority either hereditary or
elected. There was a senate called mala'. It consisted of tribal chiefs of the tribes in the area.
Any decision taken had to be unanimous and the tribal chiefs enforced the decision in their
respective tribes. If a tribal chief dissented, the decision could not be implemented.

There was no taxation system nor any police or army. There was no concept of territorial
governance or defense or policing. Each tribe followed its own customs and traditions. There
were of course inter-tribal wars and all adult tribals took part in defending one's tribal interests.
The only law prevalent was that of qisas (retaliation). The Qur'an put it succinctly as "And there
is life for you in retaliation, O men of understanding. " (2:179) The whole tribal law and ethic in
pre-Islamic Arabia was based on the law of retaliation.

The Islamic movement in Mecca inherited this situation. When the Prophet and his companions
faced severe persecution in Mecca they migrated to Madina also known as Yathrib. Madina was
also basically a tribal city governed by tribal laws. Like Mecca, there was no state in Madina and
only tribal customs and traditions prevailed. In fact Madina was worse in a way than Mecca. In
Mecca, inter-tribal wars were not much in evidence as it was turning into a commercial society
and inter-tribal corporations for trade were coming into existence. However, Madina, being an
oasis, was a semi- agricultural society and various tribes were at daggers drawn. To get rid of
the inter-tribal warfare, the people of Madina invited the Holy Prophet as an arbitrator.
The Prophet, a great spiritual and religious personality, commanded great respect and set out to
establish a just society in Madina. First of all he drew up a pact between various tribal and
religious groups known as Mithaq-i-Madina (i.e. the Medinese treaty) which guaranteed full
autonomy to all tribes and religious groups like the Jews, the Muslims and other pagan tribes.
All religious groups were free to follow their own laws and traditions. Coercion was not used to
force people to follow other laws and traditions. The Holy Qur'an also declared that "there is no
compulsion in the matter of religion" (2:256). The Mithaq-i-Madina was a sort of preliminary
constitution of the "state" of Madina, which went beyond a tribal structure and transcended the
tribal boundaries in matters of common governance. It also laid down the principle that if an
outside force attacks Madina all will defend it together. Thus for the first time a concept of
common territory, so necessary for a state to operate, was evolved. Before this, as pointed out
earlier, there was the concept of tribal but not of territorial boundaries.

The Prophet, in a way, took a revolutionary step, in dissolving tribal bonds and laying more
emphasis on ideological boundaries on one hand, and territorial boundaries on the other.
However, the Prophet's aim was not to build a political community. He wanted to build a
religious community instead. If Muslims evolved into a political community it was accidental
rather than essential. Hence the Qur'an lays more emphasis on values, ethic and morality than
on any political doctrines. It is Din (religion) which matters most than governance. Allah says in
the Qur'an that al-yauma akmaltu lakum dinakum (I have perfected your Din today, 5:3). Thus
what the Qur'an gives us is a perfect Din, not a perfect political system. The political system had
to evolve over a period of time and in keeping with the needs and requirements.

One of the basic duties of the Muslims is to "enforce what is good and combat what is evil." This
clearly gives a moral and spiritual direction to an Islamic society. The later emphasis on integral
association between religion and politics is, to the best of my knowledge, totally absent in the
Holy Qur'an. The Prophet was an enforcer of good par excellence and he devoted his life to
eradicating evil from society. But he never aspired for political power. He was one of the great
spiritual persons born on this earth. He strove to inculcate spiritual power among his
companions. The following verse of the Qur'an enunciates the basic philosophy of the Muslim
community. "You are the best ummah (nation, community) raised up for people: you enjoin good
and forbid evil and you believe in Allah." (3:109)

Thus it will be seen that the basic task of the Muslim ummah is to build a moral society based
on good and negation of evil. The unity of Muslims is possible only if they remain basically a
religious community engaged in building a just society, which has no elements of zulm
(oppression and injustice), though there may be different ways of approaching the truth. The
Holy Prophet is reported to have said that a society can persist with kufr (unbelief) but not with
zulm (injustice). The Qur'an also describes Allah as Ahkam al-Hakimin (best of the Judges,
95:8). These are all value-giving injunctions and hence give a direction to the society.

Islam never required Muslims to evolve into a political community. Politics leads people
basically to power-seeking projects, and aspirations for power brings about division rather than
unity. The Qur'an required Muslims to remain united and not entertain disputes weakening
themselves. "And obey Allah and His Messenger", the Qur'an says, "and dispute not one with
another, lest you get weak-hearted and your power depart, and be steadfast. Surely Allah is
with the steadfast." (8:46)

When someone aspires for political power they dispute with each other and thus become weak
which is what Muslims have been warned against. And in the history of Islam the dispute
between Muslims arose on the question of political power. Who should wield political power and
rule was the main question after the death of the Holy prophet. Thus Muslims began to divide on
the question of power.

Various disputes arose between different groups of Muslims even leading to bloodshed during
the thirty years of what is known in Islamic history as khilafat-i-Rashidah (period of the rightly
guided rule). This thirty-year period is full of conflict and bloodshed. Three rightly guided Caliphs
out of four were assassinated. Why was the spirit of unity lost? Why did wars break out between
different groups and parties? It was mainly on account of fights between different aspirants for
power and pelf. The first signs of these aspirations appeared immediately after the death of the
Holy Prophet.

The people of Mecca belonging to the tribe of Quraysh claimed their superiority over others and
said that an Imam can only be from the tribe of Quraysh as they first embraced Islam and they
were most cultured and cultivated with adequate experience. The supporters of the Prophet
from Madina the Ansars, on the other, claimed that it is they who helped the Prophet when he
was driven out of Mecca due to severe persecution by the people of Quraysh and hence they
better deserve the succession to the prophet. The Imam or Caliph, they claimed should be from
amongst the Ansars. The members of the family of the Prophet felt that 'Ali, the son-in-law of
the Prophet and leader of the Hashimites, was better qualified to succeed the prophet.

Thus these fissures appeared as different groups aspired for leadership and consequently for
power associated with the 'nascent' Muslim state. It is also necessary to stress here that a
preliminary state structure came into existence because it was an historical and not religious
need. We would like to elaborate on this a bit.

As every Muslim knows the religious duties of Muslims are to pray, fast, donate to the poor
(zakat), perform Haj and believe in tawheed (unity of Allah) and not associate aught with Him.
This is necessary for spiritual control over oneself. A Muslim can perform these obligations
wherever he/she lives. There is no need for an Islamic state for this. A Muslim living in a non-
Muslim society can perform these obligations without let or hindrance. And even when there is
Muslim rule no ruler can forcibly enforce these obligations on Muslims. Matters of 'ibadat (acts
of worship and spiritual exercises) cannot be coercively enforced by any authority. It is a matter
between human beings and Allah.

However, it is different matter as far as mu'amalat (relations between human beings) are
concerned. A state has to govern these mu'amalat and the ultimate aim of the state is to set up
a society based on justice and benevolence ('adl and ihsan in the Qur'anic terms). 'Adl and
'ihsan are most fundamental human values and any state worth its salt has to strive to establish
a society based on these values. But for this, no particular form of state is needed. Even an
honest monarch can do it. It is for this reason that the holy Qur'an praises prophet-rulers like
Hazrat Da'ud and Hazrat Sulayman who were kings but Allah's Prophets too. Even Queen
Bilquis is praised for her just governance in the Qur'an though she was not a prophet herself.

But the Qur'an is also aware that such just rulers are normally far and few in between. The
governance has to be as democratic as possible so that all adults could participate in it. If
governance is left to an individual, or a monarch, the power may corrupt him or her as everyone
knows absolute power corrupts absolutely. It is for this reason that the Qur'an refers to
democratic governance when it says: "And those who respond to their Lord and keep up prayer,
and whose affairs are (decided) by mutual consultation, and who spend out of what We have
given them" (42:38). Thus the mutual affairs (those pertaining to governance) should be
conducted only by mutual consultation which in contemporary political parlance will be
construed as democratic governance. Since in those days there was no well-defined practice of
political democracy, the Qur'an refers to it as `amruhum shura' baynahum (affairs to be
conducted through mutual consultation) which is very meaningful way of hinting at democracy.
The Qur'an is thus against totalitarian or monarchical rule.

Verse 3:158 of the Qur'an is a very important verse in laying down the guidance for governance.
It is a divine statement against dictatorship or authoritarianism. The verse reads: "Thus it is by
Allah's mercy that thou art gentle on them. And hadst thou been rough, hard-hearted, they
would certainly would have dispersed from around thee. So pardon them and ask protection for
them, and consult them in (important matters)..." Thus a ruler has to be gentle not hard-hearted
and rough, and has to act in consultation with the representatives of the people. This verse has
been addressed to the Prophet and no imam from his family can deviate from this divine
injunction.

Thus even an imam from the Prophet's family cannot be absolutist and has to base his rule on
democratic principles. Thus also even the Shi'ah theory of imamah cannot lead to absolutist or
purely personal rule. Also, an imam can be infallible in religious matters, in laying down religious
rulings. But in all secular and worldly matters he will be bound by democratic structures of
governance.

Secondly, the theory of imamah was much more relevant to the close relatives of the Prophet
who lived either during his time or very close to his period. Today, more than fourteen hundred
years after the death of the holy Prophet, no one can claim such physical closeness to the
Prophet and its resultant benefits. And even within the first century of the Prophet's death there
were many claimants for the office of Imam. The Shi'ahs were divided into a number of sects
and sub-sects. Fourteen hundred years after the death of the Prophet who can determine the
authenticity of the claimant to the office of the imamah? The twelve Shi'ahs and also the
Isma'ili-Mustalian Shi'ahs believe in seclusion of their respective imams. No wonder then that
Iran adopted the elective principle of governance, which is the ultimate aim of the Islamic
scripture.

Also, once Islam spread to vast areas of the world outside the confines of Arabia new ethnic
and racial groups were added to its fold. This proved both the strength as well as weakness of
the Islamic society. Strength as far as rich diversity was concerned and weakness as far as
complex problem and group conflicts it gave rise to. The group conflicts became greatly
intensified even within the limited period of Khilafat-i-Rashidah which lasted for slightly less than
thirty years.

During this period, a number of groups came into existence. The most powerful group was of
the tribe of Quraysh who were muhajirs (immigrants) to Madina to which they migrated along
with, or after the Prophet, to avoid persecution in Mecca. They claimed to be the sabiqun al-
awwalun (those who responded to the call of Islam earlier than others and also belonged to the
tribe of the Prophet). After the death of the Prophet they also came out with the doctrine that the
Khilafat be confined to the tribe of Quraysh. However, the Quraysh was divided into several
clans of which the clans of Hashim (to which the Prophet himself belonged) and of Banu
Umayyah were at loggerheads. Among the Qurayshites the Hashimites and the Umayyads
fought against each other for the leadership of the nascent Muslim state. Ali and his sons
(particularly Hasan and Husain) who were claimants to the leadership all belonged to the clan of
Banu Hashim.

Then there were Ansars (those who belonged to the tribes of Aws and Khazraj of Madina and
who had helped the Prophet by swearing allegiance to the Prophet and helping him (hence
Ansars i.e. helpers) migrate to Madina and supporting him vis-a-vis his powerful opponents. The
Ansars also claimed leadership of the state after the death of the Prophet on the basis that they
had helped the Prophet and that without their help his mission would not have survived. But the
Qurayshites strongly resisted their claim to the Khilafat. Then the leaders of the Ansars
proposed a compromise and said let one from the Quraysh and one from the Ansars share the
leadership but this was also turned down by the Qurayshites that it would lead to more conflict
and confusion.

Islam had tried to usher in a just society based on compassion, sensitivity towards other fellow
human beings, equality and human dignity. However, the well entrenched vested interests,
though paying lip service to these values, in practice sabotage them in various ways and
continue to impose their own hegemony. The weaker sections and the downtrodden attracted
by the revolutionary thrust of Islam and its sensitivity towards them felt disillusioned and
revolted. This revolt brought about near anarchy in society and resulted in civil war in which
thousands were killed.

Ultimately the Umayyads captured power and Khilafat was converted into monarchy. Maulana
Abul A'ala Maududi has thrown detailed light on it in his book Khilafat aur Mulukiyyat. Thus we
see that the Islamic society went through great deal of turmoil and bloodshed and could not
evolve a universally acceptable form of state. When the Abbasids overthrew Umayyads in the
first half of the second century of Islam, there again was great deal of bloodshed. When the
Abbasids captured power, some Umayyads fled to Spain and established their own rule there.
Two Caliphs simultaneously existed.

Thus we see that the political theory of Islam had to undergo frequent changes to accommodate
the empirical reality. It is, therefore, not possible to talk of an 'Islamic State' with a sense of
finality. It is extremely difficult task to evolve any ijma (consensus of Muslims) on the issue.
Today also there are several Muslim countries with as varied forms of state as monarchical to
dictatorial or semi-dictatorial to democratic. All these states, however, call themselves as
'Islamic State'.

The forms and structures of state are bound to vary from place to place and time to time. It
would be very difficult, for example, to create a democratic state in a feudal society. Thus the
Qur'an does not give much importance to the form of state but greatly emphasizes the nature of
society. While the state is contingent the society based on values like justice, equality,
compassion and human dignity is a necessity in Islam. And needless to say in our time it is only
a democratic state with widest possible power-sharing arrangement, which can guarantee such
a society. Also, as per the Qur'anic teachings, the Islamic state should guarantee equal rights to
all ethnic, racial, cultural, tribal and religious groups. The Qur'an considers racial, nationality,
tribal and linguistic differences as signs of Allah and indicative of identity (see 30:22). It also
accepts the right of other religious communities to follow their own religion and it also accords
equal status to men and women (see 33:35 and 2:228). The Qur'an accepts plurality in society
as the will of Allah (5:48).

Thus in view of all this an Islamic state should have following characteristics:

1) It should be absolutely non-discriminatory on the basis of race, color, language and

nationality;

2) It should guarantee gender equality;

 3) It should guarantee equal rights to all religious groups and accept plurality of religion
as legitimate and

4) Lastly it should be democratic in nature whose basic premise will be human dignity
(17:70).

Only those states which fulfill these criteria can be construed to be Islamic in nature. Thus an
Islamic state is the very epitome of modern democratic pluralistic state.

● Fundamentals of islamic foregin policy

The United States still lacks an integrated and sustainable strategy to confront religious
extremism in the Muslim world. Policymakers have failed to recognize that the challenge is not
only a conflict with the West but also involves ideological shifts within the Muslim world. These
shifts have precipitated a major battle for the future of Islam as a faith and a civilization. • The
single most important initiative the United States can take to combat Islamist extremism is to
support “Islamic renewal,” a diffuse but growing social, political, and intellectual movement
whose goal is profound reform of Muslim societies and polities. The United States must engage
moderate Islam because core aspects of the religion have an enormous moderating and
modernizing potential that policymakers have overlooked. • Previous efforts to address the
challenges of the Muslim world have often contradicted one another and worked at cross-
purposes. There is a visible misunderstanding of the region’s political culture, particularly
regarding the questions of terrorism, extremism, and political reform. Security cooperation with
authoritarian regimes to deal with the terrorist threat has reinforced negative attitudes about the
United States and its policies. • Democracy promotion efforts are likely to empower
fundamentalists in many Muslim states. Although desirable in principle, free elections may not
be the best mechanisms to negotiate substantive political issues, and deep suspicion toward
formal authority structures persists in Muslim societies. • Islamic renewal seeks to reclaim the
religion’s heritage from extremist, traditionalist, and fundamentalist groups. Today’s reformers
have a long history and cultural tradition to draw upon. From the early period of Islam, when the
Prophet Muhammad saw himself as a religious reformer, to the adoption of modern public and
international law, Islam has shown great potential to adapt and modernize. Today the
movement is on the ground and has the capacity to make coherent a scattered cluster of
reformist ideas on social and political issues. • American policy could tip the balance between
extremist and moderni The term “Islamic renewal” describes the systematic reconsideration and
rationalization of Islamic doctrines, institutions, beliefs, and practices. Many individuals and
institutions are involved. Although not formally connected, their efforts coalesce around
research centers, individual scholars, modernist religious figures, moderate religious
organizations, political parties, and activist Web sites scattered throughout the Muslim world and
the Muslim diaspora in the West. While geographically diffuse and lacking a coherent agenda,
these efforts have two overarching purposes. The first is to reclaim the Islamic heritage from
traditional clerics (associated with autocratic states), extremist Islamist groups (bent on waging
holy war against the West and their own “adulterated” societies), and fundamentalist
movements (whose goal is to apply strict Sharia law once they gain power through democratic
elections or through informal da’wa—a religious call to fellow Muslims to abide by Islamic
principles). The major fault lines between modernist Muslim reformers and radical Islamists
include the sources of law in the country, the role of religion in public life, gender equality, the
foundations of government, the balance between individual and collective rights, and relations
with other religions. The reformists’ second goal is to adapt Islamic principles, values, and
institutions to the modern world while recognizing the importance of Islam as a cultural frame of
reference. In the western context, the idea of “Islamic renewal” recalls the Christian
Reformation. This frequently used analogy requires a word of caution, however. First, Islam
does not have a church to be reformed and separated from the state, and it does not have a
single religious leader such as the pope from whom religious scholars can dissent. Furthermore,
the history of the Christian Reformation is not linear and coherent, as is conventionally
assumed. Any analogy would have to specify the geographical location, historical context, and
sociological strand of various Christian Reformations at different times and places. Finally,
although the Christian Reformation analogy might render intelligible what the Muslim world is
going through, it could create false political expectations and posit erroneous evolutionary
stages.4 At the same time, the idea of “Islamic renewal” may evoke in western popular
understanding the specter of Islamic fundamentalism wrapped in legal garb. So we must
distinguish the renewal movement from both the conservative Islamist parties that seek to
establish Sharia through democratic elections and the more moderate Islamist parties that
advocate a modern social and political agenda. Conservative Islamist parties use the modern
political process as a peaceful means to establish and legitimate the Islamic state, economy,
and society. Although moderate Islamic parties are forward-looking and do not advocate strict
application of Sharia, their main objective is still to achieve political power. That may involve
building alliances with religious conservatives and curtailing basic democratic rights if
necessary. Hence, without a broad modernist worldview, even moderates may fall back on
conservative, populist ideologies to harness votes during severe domestic or external crises
(such as Bangladesh in 1991, Indonesia in 2004, Malaysia in 1999, Pakistan in 1990 and 1993,
and Turkey in 1995 and 1999). As a strategy, “Islamic renewal” can bring coherence to a
significant but scattered.