BIOPHYSICS

RAMOS
CLASSICAL MECHANICS AND BIOMECHANICS (I) INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
KINEMATICS – The average acceleration of an object over an
Kinematics – how objects move infinitesimally short time interval.
𝚫𝐯
Dynamics – effect of force in object’s motion 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝚫→𝟎 𝚫𝐭
Mechanics – branch of physics that deals with motion
and related concept of force and energy Velocity and acceleration are vectors.
Reference Frame – any measurement of + v The object is moving in (+) x-direction
position, distance, or speed must be made – v The object is moving in (–) x-direction
with respect to a reference frame. + a The object is accelerating/decelerating in (+) x-direction.
– a The object is accelerating/decelerating in (–) x-direction.
Position – must be known at all times to describe the motion The (+) and (–) of acceleration does not mean speeding up
of an object. (accelerating) or slowing down (decelerating).
DISPLACEMENT *If velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the object is
accelerating (speeding up).
∆𝑥 = 𝑥! − 𝑥"
EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS
Unit meter (m)(SI)
Five (5) kinematic variables:
AVERAGE SPEED AND VELOCITY Displacement 𝒙 or 𝚫𝒙
AVE. SPEED AVE. VELOCITY Acceleration 𝐚 constant
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 Final Velocity 𝒗 or 𝒗𝒇 at time 𝒕
𝒂𝒗𝒆. 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝒂𝒗𝒆. 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Unit for both: meter per second (m/s)(SI) Initial Velocity 𝒗𝟎 at time 𝒕𝟎 = 𝟎𝒔
Time Elapsed 𝒕 since time 𝒕𝟎 = 𝟎𝒔
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
(Constant acceleration)
– (at any moment) is the average velocity of an object over
an infinitesimally short time interval. 𝒙 𝒂 𝒗 𝒗𝟎 𝒕
! Ave. velocity does not convey any information how fast
an object is at a particular interval/instant of time. 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕 – ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
– The magnitude of instantaneous velocity is the 𝟏
𝒙= (𝒗 + 𝒗)𝒕 ✓ – ✓ ✓ ✓
instantaneous speed. 𝟐 𝟎
– If the object has the same velocity throughout… 𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐 ✓ ✓ – ✓ ✓
𝑣̅ = 𝑣 𝟐
– If object speeds up or slows down… 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ –
Applications of the Equations of Kinematics
Steps for solving problems:
1. Read and understand the whole problem.
x ! RULING: Right-hand side is (+) x-direction; Left-hand
(m) side is the (–) x-direction.
2. Draw a diagram and choose coordinate axes
0 2 4 6 8 10
t (s) 3. Write down the known (given) quantities, and then the
– If the object is speeding up constantly… unknown ones.
𝑣! + 𝑣#
𝑣̅ = 2𝑣̅ = 𝑣 4. Plan an approach to a solution.
2 * What physics applies here?
ACCELERATION
* Which equations relate the known and unknown
– An object whose velocity varies from moment to moment
quantities?
is said to be accelerating.
* Are they valid in this situation?
– Specifies how rapidly the velocity of an object is changing.
5. Solve algebraically for the unknown quantities, and check
AVERAGE ACCELERATION (𝒂
)) that your result is sensible (correct dimensions).
𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 𝚫𝒗 ! Keep in mind that there may be two possible answers to
𝒂
)= =
𝒕𝒇 + 𝒕𝒊 𝚫𝐭 a kinematics problem.
6. Re-check the solution and units.
BIOPHYSICS
RAMOS
FREE FALL 𝒚
– One great example of constant acceleration is the 𝟏
𝒗𝒚 = 𝒗𝒐𝒚 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕 𝒚= (𝒗 + 𝒗𝒚 )𝒕
acceleration due to gravity. 𝟐 𝒐𝒚
– If the distance of the fall is small compared to the radius 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒗𝒐𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒚 = 𝒗𝟐𝒐𝒚 + 𝟐𝒂𝒚 𝒚
of the Earth, then the acceleration remains essentially 𝟐
constant throughout the descent. PROJECTILE MOTION
– In the absence of air resistance, it is found that all bodies – Under the influence of gravity alone, an object near the
at the same location above the Earth fall vertically with surface of the Earth will accelerate downwards at 9.80/s2
the same acceleration. – Projectile motion is motion with constant acceleration in
– The idealized motion is called free-fall and the two dimensions.
acceleration of a freely falling body is called acceleration Projectile Motion
due to gravity. 𝒂𝒚 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
Gravity 𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎
â
𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖 𝟎𝒎/𝒔𝟐 𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎𝒙 (constant)
= −𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 𝒇𝒕/𝒔𝟐 DYNAMICS
FREE FALL FORCE
𝟏 – It is an interaction between two objects or between an
𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒈𝒕 𝒙= (𝒗 + 𝒗)𝒕 object and its environment. (It is the push or pull).
𝟐 𝟎
𝟏 – When a force involves a direct/physical contact between
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒈𝒚 𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒈𝒕𝟐
𝟐 two bodies, it is called a contact force.
– When two objects exert forces on one another even
Displacement (𝒚 or 𝚫𝐲) Acceleration (𝒚 or 𝒈) constant
though they are not touching, such forces are referred to
as noncontact forces, action-at-a-distance forces
âv âa speed increases
(Newton), or field forces (Faraday).
speed decreases – is a vector quantity (𝐹⃑ )
áv âa In which case the object eventually comes to a MASS
momentary halt and then falls back to earth. – It is a measure of the amount of “stuff” contained in an
– The acceleration due to gravity is always a downward- object.
pointing vector. o Quantity of matter
KINEMATICS IN 2-D – It is a scalar quantity (m).
Displacement Average Velocity (𝒗
)) o Unit: kilogram (kg)(SI)
𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝒊 𝚫𝐫 Newton’s Laws of Motion
𝚫𝐫 = 𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝒊 𝒗
)= = – Isaac Newton developed three important laws that deal
𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊 𝚫𝐭
with force and mass. These laws provide the basis for
Instantaneous Velocity (𝒗) understanding the effect that forces have on an object.
𝚫𝐫 1st Law of Motion (often called law of inertia)
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭 – Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform
Unit: meter per second (m/s)(SI)
velocity in a straight line, unless compelled to change
KINEMATICS IN 2-D that state by a net force.
Average Acceleration (𝒂
") Instantaneous Acceleration (𝒂) – The net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting
𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊 𝚫𝐯 𝚫𝐫
𝒂
"= = 𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 on an object.
𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊 𝚫𝐭 𝚫𝐭→𝟎 𝚫𝐭

EQUATIONS OF KINEMATICS IN 2-D

𝒙
𝟏
𝒗𝒙 = 𝒗𝒐𝒙 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝒙= (𝒗 + 𝒗𝒙 )𝒕
𝟐 𝒐𝒙
𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒗𝒐𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒙 = 𝒗𝟐𝒐𝒙 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙 𝒙
𝟐
BIOPHYSICS
RAMOS
– Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain – Whenever one object exerts a force on a second
at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a object, the object exerts an equal force in the
straight line. opposite direction on the first.
– An inertial reference frame is one in which Newton’s – Any time a force is exerted on an object, that force is
Law of Inertia is valid. caused by another object.
o All accelerating (and rotating) reference frames – A key to the correct application of the third law is that
are non-inertial. the forces are exerted on different objects. Make sure
– Mass is the measure of inertia of an object. you don’t use them as if they were acting on the same
o It is a measure of the object’s resistance to object.
changes in its motion due to a force. – Helpful notation: the first subscript is the object that
! MASS ≠ WEIGHT the force is being exerted on; the second is the source.
– Mass is a property of an object. Weight is the force This need not be done indefinitely but is a good idea
exerted on that object by gravity. until you get used to dealing with these forces.
– Mathematically, the net force is written as Σ𝐹⃗ . 𝐹⃑/0 = −𝐹⃑/0
– If the object is at rest or at constant velocity on a 𝐹⃑12 = −𝐹⃑21
straight line, Σ𝐹⃗ = 0. TYPES OF FORCES (an overview)
2nd Law of Motion (often called law of inertia) – In nature, there are two general types of forces:
– Newton’s first law explains what happens to an object fundamental and nonfundamental.
that has no net force (net force is zero) acting on it. Fundamental Nonfundamental
– An object that does have a net force acting on it will 1. Gravitational – Gravitation 1. Friction
accelerate. 2. Weak – W and Z Bosons 2. Tension
– When a net external force acts on an object of mass, 3. Electromagnetic – Photon 3. Normal
the acceleration that results is directly proportional to 4. Strong – Gluon
the net force and has a magnitude that is inversely – Theory of Everything is the theoretical framework that
proportional to the mass. The direction of the would unify the four fundamental forces.
acceleration is the same as the direction of the net GRAVITATIONAL FORCE
force. – The acceleration due to gravity is like any other
Σ𝐹⃗ acceleration, and Newton’s second law indicates that it
𝒂
K⃑ = Σ𝐹⃗ = 𝑚𝑎⃑
𝒎 must be caused by a net force.
– Force is a vector, so Σ𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 is true along each – In addition to his famous three laws of motion, Newton
coordinate axis also provided a coherent understanding of the
o The unit of force: newton (N) (SI) gravitational force.
Units for Mass and Force NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION
System Mass Force – Every particle in the universe exerts an attractive
force on every other particle is a piece of matter,
newton (N)
SI kilogram (kg) small enough in size to be regarded as a mathematical
(= 𝑘𝑔 × 𝑚/𝑠 . )
point. The force that each exerts on the other is
dyne
cgs gram (g) directed along the line joining the particles.
(= 𝑔 × 𝑐𝑚/𝑠 . )
British slug pound (lb)
1 dyne = 10-5 N;
Conversion factors: 1 lb ≈ 4.45 N;
1 slug ≈ 14.6kg.
– A free-body-diagram is a diagram that represents the
object and the forces that act on it.
3rd Law of Motion (often called law of inertia)
– All forces occur in pairs and there is no such thing as
an isolated force, existing all by itself.
BIOPHYSICS
RAMOS
For two particles that have masses m1 and m2 and are 𝐹8 = 𝑊 + 𝑚𝑎
separated by distance r, the force has a magnitude given Apparent Weight = 𝐹8 True Weight = 𝐹8
by: FRICTION
Gravitational Force – When an object is in contact with a surface there is a force
𝑚5 𝑚. acting on that object. The component of this force that is
𝐹=𝐺
𝑟. parallel to the surface is called the frictional force.
Universal Gravitational Constant – Surfaces that appear to be highly polished can actually
𝐺 = 6.673 × 10455 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚. /𝑘𝑔. look quite rough when examined under a microscope.
! (Kinetic) friction opposes object’s motion (Applied Force)
that causes it to slow down and stop.
– When the two surfaces are not sliding across one another
friction is called static friction.
– It is the frictional force that keeps an object at rest.
Static Friction
𝑓9 ≤ 𝑓9:;<
WEIGHT :;<
𝑓9 = 𝜇9 𝐹8
– The weight of an object on or above the earth is the
0 ≤ 𝜇9
gravitational force that the earth exerts on the object.
𝜇9 – 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The weight always acts downwards, toward the
center of the earth. – Kinetic friction is the frictional force that acts between a
moving object and the surface with which it is in contact.
Weight
Kinetic Friction
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
The unit weight: newton (N)(SI) 𝑓= = 𝜇= 𝐹8
0 ≤ 𝜇9
– On or above another astronomical body, the weight
𝜇= – 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
is the gravitational force exerted on the object by that
– The static frictional force increases as the applied force
astronomical body.
increases, until it reaches its maximum. Then the object
Relation between Mass and Weight
starts to move, and the kinetic frictional force takes over.
𝑀3 𝑚 𝑀3 *The magnitude of
𝑊 = 𝐺 . KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK⃗
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑔 = 𝐺 .
𝑟 𝑟 the frictional force
Gravitational Force on Earth’s Surface
does not depend on
𝑀3 the contact area of
𝑔=𝐺 .
𝑅3 the surfaces.
(5.98 × 10.6 𝑘𝑔) – Friction depends
= (6.67 × 10455 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚. ⁄𝑘𝑔. ) ×
(6.38 × 107 𝑚) on the nature of
.
= 9.80𝑚/𝑠 material from which
NORMAL FORCE each surface, and
– The normal force is one component of the force that a other variable such as temperature.
surface exerts on an object with which it is in contact – – In an inclined plane, the value of coefficient of static
namely, the component that is perpendicular to the friction can be determined by
surface.
𝜇9 = tan 𝜃>?@
APPARENT WEIGHT 𝜃– 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑒
– The apparent weight of an object is the reading of the
TENSION
scale. It is equal to the normal force the man exerts
– It is the forces transmitted by ropes and cables.
on the scale.
– A massless rope will transmit tension undiminished from
one end to the other.
Apparent Weight – If the rope passes around a massless, frictionless, pulley,
ΣF = ma the tension will be transmitted to the other end of the
𝐹8 − 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑎 rope undiminished.
BIOPHYSICS
RAMOS
CLASSICAL MECHANICS AND BIOMECHANICS (II)
MECHANICAL EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM – when a body is at rest or moving with
constant velocity in an inertial frame of 𝒯 = 𝐹C 𝑑
reference 2nd CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
STATIC – at rest The sum of the torques due to all external
DYNAMIC – in motion forces acting on the body, with respect to any
CONDITIONS FOR EQUILIBRIUM specified point, must be zero.
Σ𝐹⃗ = 0 ΣτK⃗ = 0 The rotation will depend on the direction of the force applied.
• Torque is positive (+) if the rotation is counterclockwise.
1st CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
– Following Newton’s 1st law of motion. • Torque is negative (–) if the rotation is clockwise.
– For a system to be a rest, the sum of forces acting on a Σ𝜏⃗ = Σ𝜏DD + Σ𝜏DE = 0
system must add up to zero. STABILITY AND BALANCE
Σ𝐹⃗ = 0 – If, however, the forces tend to move it away from its
! Since the force is a vector, the components of the force equilibrium point, it is said to be in unstable equilibrium.
must each be zero – If the object remains in its new position, it is said to be in
KKK⃗@ = 0 KKK⃗ KKK⃗B = 0 neutral equilibrium.
Σ𝐹 Σ𝐹 A =0 Σ𝐹
– An object in stable equilibrium may become unstable if it
is tipped so that its center of gravity is outside the pivot
point. Of course, it will be stable again once it lands.
– In general, an object whose CG is above its base of support
will be stable (balance) if a vertical line projected
downward from the CG falls within the base of support.
* The larger the base and the lower the CG, the more stable
the object.
– People carrying heavy loads automatically adjust their
CENTER OF GRAVITY posture, so their center of mass is over their feet.
– A point where the sum of gravitational forces (weights) of – In an amputee, because some mass is excised, the center
the object acts on it of the mass of the person changes.
– If the body is homogeneous (its mass is distributed evenly) WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER
and symmetric, its CG must lie on the axis of symmetry. WORK
– Otherwise, it is necessary to calculate the point’s location – In Physics, work describes what is accomplished when a
– Different parts of the object may have different weights force acts on an object, and that object moves through a
(acceleration due to gravity not uniform across the object). distance.
– For a constant force and straight-line displacement, work
is the (dot) product of the magnitude of force (F) times the
magnitude of the displacement (d).
WORK
𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽)(𝑆𝐼)
Units of Measurement for Work
! CENTER OF GRAVITY ≠ CENTER OF MASS
System Force × Distance = Work
CENTER OF MASS
– Sum of mass of an object acting on it. SI newton (N) meter (m) joule (J)
– They are only equal IF the acceleration due to gravity is CGS dyne (dyn) centimeter (cm) erg
equal across the body of the object. BE pound (lb) foot (ft) ft ∙ lb
TORQUE The unit for torque (N∙m) is not Joule
– It is the counterpart of force in rotational dynamics.
– The magnitude of applied force times lever arm. 𝑊 = 𝐹F: 𝑑 cos 0 ° = +𝐹F: 𝑑
Lever arm – perpendicular distance from the line action of 𝑊 = 𝐹F: 𝑑 cos 0 ° =– 𝐹G 𝑑
the force to the axis of rotation.
𝜏 = 𝐹𝐼
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 (𝑆𝐼), 𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒𝑠 ∙ 𝑐𝑚 𝑊 = 𝐹F: 𝑑 cos 180 ° =– 𝐹F: 𝑑
• Torque is positive (+) if the rotation is counterclockwise. 𝑊 = 𝐹G 𝑑 cos 0 ° = +𝐹G 𝑑
• Torque is negative (–) if the rotation is clockwise.
BIOPHYSICS
RAMOS
KINETIC ENERGY & WORK ENERGY THEOREM WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
If we want to write work in terms of the velocity, we find that – In normal situations both conservative and
the work done here is: nonconservative forces simultaneously on an object, so
1 1 the work done by the net external force can be written as
𝑊HIJ = 𝑚𝑣 . − 𝑚𝑣K.
2 2 WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
1 .
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 𝑊HIJ = 𝑊D + 𝑊HD
2
KINETIC ENERGY (KE)
– The energy associated with the object’s motion. The net
work (𝑾𝒏𝒆𝒕 ) done on the object equals a change in a
quantity of the form ½ 𝑚𝑣 . . Because this term carries
units of energy and involves the objects speed, it can be
interpreted as kinetic energy.
WORK-ENERGY THEOREM
1 1
𝑊HIJ = 𝐾𝐸# − 𝐾𝐸! = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 . − 𝑚𝑣K.
2 2
When a net external force does work on an object, the kinetic
energy of the object changes by the amount of work done on
it.
• If the net work is positive, the kinetic energy increases.
• If the net work is negative, the kinetic energy decreases.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE)
– It is the energy associated with forces that depend on the
position or configuration of an object/s relative to the
surroundings.
In raising a mass (m) to a height (h), the work done by the
external force is

𝑊 = 𝐹F: 𝑑 cos 0 ° = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ# − ℎK )

Gravity is also acting on the object as it moves

𝑊 = 𝐹G 𝑑 cos 180 ° = −𝑚𝑔ℎ = −𝑚𝑔–ℎ# − ℎK —

Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

𝑃𝐸G = mgh = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ# − ℎK )
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡: 𝑁 ∙ 𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽)(𝑆𝐼)
GPE is valid for any path taken between the initial and final
heights, not just for the straight down path.
𝑃𝐸G = mgy = 𝑚𝑔(ℎ# − ℎK )
For this reason, the gravitational force is called
conservative force.
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCE
Conservative Force
– A force is conservative when it does no work on an object
moving around a closed path, starting and finishing at the
same point. (Examples: gravitational, elastic, electric)
Non-conservative Force
– These forces take energy away from the system as the
system progresses, energy that you can't get back.
These forces are path dependent; therefore, it matters
where the object starts and stops. (Examples: friction, air
resistance, tension in cord, motor or rocket propulsion)