CONCEPT OF GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY
Geo – means earth
Graphea/Grapher – means to write, to draw and to describe about the earth
Geography is the study of distribution and interrelationship of phenomena in relation to
the earth’s surface. or
Geography is a science that deals with the earth and its life, the description of Land Sea, air,
plants and animal life including human being and their activities. or
It is the science of distributions and is concerned with spatial variations in any physical or
cultural.
BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
There are three main branches of geography namely: -
(a) Physical geography
(b) Human and economic geography
(c) Practical geography
A. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Is concerned with Land formation processes, weather and climate. Also it is the
branch of geography that studies all physical features e.g .Mountain, rift valley
B. HUMAN AND ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OR REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY.
It deals with all activities of human on the earth’s surface, which includes
mining, agriculture, transportation, settlement, tourism etc,
C. PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY
Is concerned with field study of photograph interpretation, map work, statistics and
research.
Exercise 01
Why are we studying geography?
i. To gain skills of observing, measuring ,recording and interpreting phenomena
ii. To understand interaction between our country and other countries and share ideas of
solving problems.
iii. To acquire skills for combating environment problems in order to conserve and manage
the environment in a sustainable way.
iv. To develop awareness and knowledge about natural resources(Land forests, mineral
deposits, water etc) wild animals climatic regions and other natural resources.

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 v. It provide base for specialization career for example cartographer, climatology, geologist
etc
vi. It helps to learn on how other countries in the world solve different problems like fire
outbreak disease, environment problems e.t.c
vii. It help us to understand aspect of weather and climate and how it influence the
environment
viii. To gain the knowledge of employment opportunities

Exercise 2
1. What is geography?
Geography is the study of human and environment in relation to the earth
2. How many branches of geography do we have?
 There are three branches of geography namely;
i. Physical geography
ii. Human and economic geography
iii. Practical geography
Physical geography concerned with Land formation process, weather and climate.
Human and economic geography deals with all activities of human on the earth’s surface.
Practical geography is concerned with field study, photograph interpretation, map work and
research
3. Why are we studying geography? (give three strong reasons and examples)
i. To develop awareness of our country and heritage.
ii. To expand our knowledge of employment opportunities.
iii. To gain skills of observing, measuring, recording and interpreting
phenomena.
THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Is the arrangement of sun, planets and other solid objects in the space in relation to the
position of the sun.
The planets are not arranged in a single line from the sun, they are scattered in the space.

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1. Mercury = 57,600,000 km
2. Venus = 107,200,000 km
3. Earth = 148,800,000 km
4. Mars = 227,200,000 km
5. Jupiter = 772,800,000 km
6. Saturn = 1,417,600,000 km
7. Uranus = 2,854,400,000 km
8. Neptune = 4,468,800,000 km

A. SUN
Sun is the star. It is one among the millions of stars that one sees at night except that it
looks much bigger because it is closer to the earth than other distant stars.
The sun is much larger than other distant stars from the earth, in fact much larger than all
the planets put together. It's diameter is approximately 1.4 million kilometers and its mass
is approximately 330,000 times greater than that of the earth. The elements that form the
material of the sun are also in different proportion from those of the earth.
The sun is composed of approximately;
 75% hydrogen
 23% helium
 3% of other elements
The earth is relatively cold body but the sun is so hot that nearly all molecules are broken
into their separate atoms and all are mixed together into a single hot gas. Its average surface
temperature is about 60000c, it is much hotter in the interior where it is about
14,000,0000c.
The sun is the main source of all light and heat that the planets receive.
B. SOLAR ENERGY
The sun is the source of all energy in the earth. This is called solar energy. Solar energy is
the energy produced by the sun
USES OF SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy is used in many ways: -

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 i. In drying clothes, grains, fruits and meat.
ii. Growing plants :- when plants grow they use energy from the sun to manufacture
their food through the process known as photosynthesis
iii. Solar energy captured in solar panels and stored in batteries provides electricity used
in generating industrial and home
iv. Appliances like television, refrigerator, Oven, electric iron and cooker.
v. Many everyday items such as calculators and other low power consuming devices can
be powered by solar energy effectively
vi. Is used as a source of vitamin D for human being
vii. It is used for evaporation of water from water bodies which is necessary for rain
formation
Coal energy is the solar energy stored in the bodies of plants grew thousands of years ago,
which after being barred under the earth for a very long time turned into coal similarly gas
and oil formed from died bodies of organic matters which lived thousands of years ago.
HOW THE USE OF SOLAR ENERGY PROMOTES ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSERVATION
 Solar energy is used by plant during manufacturing its food through the photosynthesis.
In this process plants take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and releasing oxygen.
In doing so carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere making the ozone layer safe
and more oxygen to be used in troposphere by other living organisms
 Moreover, solar energy is clean and safe type of energy suitable for heating and lighting.
This is due to the fact that it does not release soot.
 The use of solar energy in households helps to promote and conserve environment in
the sense that it would reduce the need for firewood and charcoal, where by both once
extracted pollute and destroy forest.
 The use of solar energy also reduces the use of fuel like kerosene as a result it helps to
reduce environmental pollution caused by smoke from burning fuel
SOLAR ENERGY IN RELATION TO THE EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN
(HOW SOLAR ENERGY CONTRIBUTE TO THE EMANCIPATION OF
WOMEN)
i. Helps to reduce the time would be consumed/used by the women searching firewood
from forest.
ii. The use of solar energy equipment’s on cooking makes them to have more time to be
involved in money making activities such as business or farming.
iii. Through the use of solar energy equipment in cooking and other domestic’s tasks,
young girls get time to go to school and private study as it was to the boys.
C. PLANETS

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 The planets are bodies that revolve around the sun. They include:-
1. Mercury 4. Mars 7. Uranus
2. Venus 5. Jupiter 8. Neptune
3. Earth 6. Saturn
As they revolve around the sun they appear to move around the star. That is why the Greeks
called them planets means “Wandering stars”. All planets revolve around the sun in the
same orbit that are elliptical and nearly the same plane.
The time taken to complete an orbit round the sun depends on the distance of the planet
from the sun. All the light and heat of the planets come from the sun. Hence the
temperatures on the planet depend on their relative distances from the sun.
However, Pluto is not a planet because an object to be a planet, it needs to meet these
requirements (criteria) defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as follows:
i. It needs to be in orbit around the sun
ii. It needs to have enough to pull itself in a spherical shape
iii. It needs to have "Cleared neighborhood of its orbit"
Note: Any object that doesn't meet this 3rd criteria is considered a dwarf planet. And so,
Pluto is a dwarf planet is not a planet.
PLANETS POSITION AND CHARACTERISTICS
Approximate distance No. Average
Planet from the sun moon temperature Period per orbit
planet
Mercury 58km million 0 340 0c 88 days

Venus 108km Million 0 40 0c 225 days

Earth 150km million 1 - 365.5 days
Mars 288km million 2 100 0c 1 year and 322 days
Jupiter 777km million 16 138 0c 11 years and 315 days
Saturn 1426 million km 20 247 0c 21 years and 167 days
Uranus 2869 million km 15 200 0c 84 years and 6 days
Neptune 4495 million km 2 265 0c 164 years 288 days

D. COMETS

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Sometimes at night one sees objects with leading heads and right tail at the sky. These are
called comets.
At present many scientists believe that comets are composed of ice crystals and fragment
matters.
Comets revolve around the sun far beyond the limits of Pluto. They can be seen from the
earth only when they come close to the sun.
E. ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are solid heavenly bodies revolving around the sun mostly between the orbits of
Mars and Jupiter. There are thousands of these, the largest having diameter of less than
800km. These bodies cannot be seen without a telescope because they are very far away.
F. METEORS
Meteors are process of hard matter falling from outer space become visible between 110
and 145 km above the earth’s surface, where as a result of friction with the atmosphere
become hot and usually disintegrate. When they do completely disintegrate as they pass
through the atmosphere reach the earth’s surface and are known as meteorites.
Meteorites are usually made of nickel, iron or silica fragments of disintegrated comets.
There are two known meteorites in Tanzania one is found in Mbozi District and the other
fell at Malampaka in Kwimba District in 1930.
Sometimes meteors reach the earth’s surface with such force, hence they make large holes or
craters. An example of such craters in the world is the great meteor crater in Arizona desert
in United states of America which is 150 meters deep and about 1 kilometer width.
G. SATELLITES
Satellites are moons of the planets. The number of satellites depend on the nature and size
of planet up to the moment space researches have proved that only seven planets have
satellites
H. THE EARTH
We live on the planet earth. The Earth is made of the:
 Atmosphere (air)
 Hydrosphere (water bodies)
 The crust solid
 Molten material

Biosphere (living things)

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About ¾ of the earth’s surface is covered by water. In fact no other planet in the solar
system is known to have water bodies, the shape of the earth is a flattened sphere. This
flattening is very slight as indicated by measurements in diameters through poles and at the
equator. The diameter through the poles is 12,713 km while at the equator it is 12,757 km.

EVIDENCES OF THE EARTH’S SHAPE

There are some several evidences which are used to prove that the earth is sphere like
structure, some of them are shown in the following: -
(i) SUNRISE AND SUNSET
The sunrise and sunset at different places of the earth, people in the east see the sun earlier
than the people in the west due to earth’s rotation from west to east. If the earth was flat
the whole world would have sunrise and sunset at the same time.

(ii) CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE EARTH

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If traveling from a certain point of the earth and you go straight around the earth you will
come to the point of origin. The first traveler around the world named Magellan in 1519-
1522 proved this, image did not encounter abrupt edge over the world in his voyage.

(iii) AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs taken by satellites or aeroplane from the air show that the earth has
a curved or round shape.

(iv) SHIP’S VISIBILITY

If you are in the coast viewing a ship which is very far you will see the soot, then the pipe
and eventually the whole ship gradually appears. If the earth were flat the ship would have
been seen all at once

(v) LUNAR ECLIPSE

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 The shadow of the earth thrown to the moon during lunar eclipse is always
round. Only a spherical object can give a circular shadow

THE MOON
The moon is a natural satellite of the earth. It has a solid spherical body with a diameter of
3456 kilometers. The distance from the earth to the moon is a 384,403 kilometers. The
moon takes l29 ½ days to make a complete revolution around the earth.
The moon appears to rise in the east and set in the west because the earth spins from west
to east.
Among all planets only the earth sustains life due to its position from the sun. It is not very
close or very far from the sun.
Other bodies such as Pluto which is very far from the sun does not sustain life because it is
very cold. Likewise Mercury which is very close to the sun does not sustain life because it is
very hot.
Exercise 1
1. Define the following terms
(i) Solar system -Is an arrangement of the sun, planets and solid objects in the space in
relation to the position of the sun.
(ii) The sun - Sun is a big star.
(iii) Solar energy - Is an energy produced by the sun.
(iv) The planets - Are bodies that revolve around the sun.
(v) Comets - Are the objects with leading heads and bright tail on the sky.

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(vi) Asteroids - Are solid heavenly bodies revolving around the sun mostly between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
(vii) Meteors - Are process of hard matter falling from outer space.
(viii) Meteorites - Are usually made of nickel, iron or silica fragments of disintegrated
comets.
(ix) Satellite - Are moons of the planet.
2. List down four uses of solar energy;
(i) It is used for domestic purposes. e.g. For cooking, to generate electricity, etc.
(ii) It is used as a source of vitamin D for human being
(iii) It is used for manufacturing of food to the plants
(iv) It is used for evaporation of water from water bodies which is necessary for rain
formation
3. Mention five evidences which are used to prove that the earth is sphere like;
(i) Sunrise and sunset
(ii) Circumnavigation of the earth
(iii) Aerial photographs
(iv) Ship’s visibility
(v) Lunar eclipse
EARTH’S MOVEMENT
The earth is in motion all the time. One does not feel this motion because one moves with
it, like all other planets, the earth has two motions known as: -
(a) Rotation
(b) Revolution
ROTATION
Rotation is the spinning of a body on its axis.
Earth’s rotation – is a spinning of the earth on its axis.
Axis – is an imaginary line joining the north and south poles through the center of the earth
The earth’s axis makes an angle of 660 from the perpendicular. The earth rotates on its
Axis from west to east.

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It makes one complete rotation after every twenty four hours or one day, the following
observations illustrates the earth’s rotation from west to east;
1. When traveling in a fast moving vehicle we notice trees and other objects on both
sides of the road moving in the opposite direction. This observation is similar to the
movement of the earth’s rotation to the sun.
2. In the morning the sun appears to rise over the eastern horizon but due to the fact
that the sun is the center of the solar system we know that it does not move in relation to
the solar system. This shows that the earth is moving from west to east.
3. At night most of the stars appear to move across the sky from east to west. This
shows that the earth is moving from west to east.
ROTATION OF THE EARTH CAUSES/ EVIDENCE TO PROVE THAT THE
EARTH ROTATES;
- Day and night
- Different hours
- Deflection of winds and ocean currents
- Daily rising and falling of tides
A: DAY AND NIGHT
When the earth rotates, it causes day and night. The side that faces the sun will be
expecting day light while the side that is not facing the sun at that time will be in darkness.
Therefore as the earth rotates its parts come alternatively in the light pass out of it again.

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Exercise 2
1. What is rotation?
Rotation is the spinning of a body on its axis
2. What is the earth’s axis?
The earth’s axis is an imaginary line joining the north and south pole through the center of
the earth.
3. Mention the degrees of the earth’s axis Earth’s axis it makes 660 degrees.
4. What is the direction of the earth rotation? From west to east.
5. What time is used by the earth to make one complete rotation? 24 hours or one day.
6. Mention four causes of the earth’s rotation
(i) Day and night
(ii) Different hours
(iii) Deflection of wind and ocean currents.
(iv) Daily rising and falling of tides.

REVOLUTION
Is the movement of one body around another. Earth’s revolution: -
- Is the movement of the earth around the sun
- The earth takes 365 ¼ days for a complete revolution
- When the earth takes 366 days to accomplish one revolution is called a Leap year

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- The earth revolution revolve around the sun in an elliptical
- Due to the shape of the earth’s orbit, the earth is very closer to the sun at one point
of the year than at another.
APHELION AND PERIHELION
Aphelion is the furthest position of the earth’s orbit from the sun.
-The earth is at Aphelion each year on 4th July when it is in 152 million kilometers from the
sun.
Perihelion is the nearest position of the earth from the sun.
-The earth is at perihelion each year on 3rd January when it is 147.3 million kilometers from
the sun.
Therefore the speed of revolution is about 29.66 km per second.

REVOLUTION

THE EFFECTS OF EARTH’S REVOLUTION

When the earth revolves around the sun it causes: -
(a) Seasons of the year
(b) Eclipse
(c) Difference in the length of day and night
(d) Change of midday sun in the latitudes.
Exercise 3
1. To define the following terms

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(a) Rotation Is the spinning of a body on its axis.
(b) Earth rotation Is the spinning of the earth on its axis.
(c) Axis Is an imaginary line spinning the north and south poles through the center of
the earth.
(d) Revolution Is the movement of one body around another.
(e) Earth revolution Is the movement of the earth around the sun.
(f) Aphelion Is the furthest position of the earth’s orbit from the sun.
(g) Perihelion Is the nearest position of the earth from the sun
2. Mention 4 effects of earth’s rotation
(i) Day and night
(ii) different hours
(iii) Deflection of wind ocean currents
(iv) Daily rising and falling of tides
3. List down 4 effects of earth's revolution
(i) Seasons of the year
(ii) Eclipse
(iii) difference in the length of day and night
(iv) change of midday sun in the latitude
4. What causes of day and night?
The day and night; the side that faces the sun will be experiencing day light while the side
that is not facing the sun at that time will be in darkness.
5. To mention three observations illustrate the earth rotation from west to east
(i) it makes one complete rotation every twenty four hours or one day
(ii) At night most of stars appear to move across the sky from west to east
(iii) In the morning the sun appear to rise over the eastern horizon due to the fact that
the sun is the center of solar system.

SEASONS

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Season is one of the four periods of the year separated from each other by different
temperature conditions. The seasons are summer, autumn, winter and spring. They are more
pronounced between 230c and 660c of latitudes. At the equator the year is divided between
hot and wet seasons while at the poles is very cold all the year around and the season cannot
be identified easily.
The Northern hemisphere summer months are May, June and July. Autumn months are
August, September and October, Winter Months are November, December and January
while spring months are February, March and April. In the Southern Hemisphere summer
months are November, December and January, Autumn months are February, March and
April Winter has May, June and July while spring months are August , September and
October.
CAUSE OF SEASONS
Seasons are caused by inclination of the earth’s axis and the earth’s revolution around the
sun. The earth’s axis is tilted at an angle of 660 to the earth’s orbital plane and it is always
pointing to the same direction in space. In its revolution around the sun one of the
hemispheres is inclined towards the sun to one period of the year and away from it at
another period of the year.

ECLIPSE
This is the movement of one heavily body between the two others, such that it casts shadow
over the other.
The eclipse involves three heavily bodies namely; the Sun, the Earth and the Moon. So long
as the sun is the central body of the solar system, it never moves, only the earth and the
moon are in the motion all the time.
An eclipse is said to be total eclipse when the whole body is obscured i.e completely
blocked from the sun light and it is described as a partial eclipse when the only part of the
body becomes obscured. At any place an eclipse will last short time, hardly seven minutes
because both the earth and the moon are in motion.

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TYPES OF ECLIPSE
There are two types of eclipse i.e Lunar eclipse and solar eclipse LUNAR ECLIPSE
(ECLIPSE OF THE MOON)
This occurs when the earth moves between the sun and the moon, this casting its shadow
over the moon.
ECLIPSE OF THE MOON

THE SOLAR ECLIPSE

The solar eclipse is also known as the eclipse of the sun.
This occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun casting its shadow over
the earth.

Umbra or total eclipse is when the whole body is obscured i.e completely blocked from the
sun’s light.

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Penumbra or partial eclipse is when only part of the body becomes obscured.

Exercise 4
1. Define the following terms.
Eclipse Is the movement of one heavily body between two others such that it casts shadow
over the other.
Lunar eclipse: This occurs when the earth moves between the sun and the moon thus
casting its shadow over the moon.
Solar eclipse: Is also known as the eclipse of the sun. This occurs when the moon passes
between the earth and the sun, thus casting its shadow over the earth.
Penumbra: Is when only part of the body becomes obscured. Umbra
Is when the whole body is obscured i.e completely blocked from the sun’s light. Seasons
Is one of the four periods of the year separated from the other by different temperature
conditions.
2. Mention 4 seasons of the year
(I) Summer
(II) Autumn
(III) Winter
(IV) Spring

At any place an eclipse will last for short time or hardly seven minutes THE APPARENT
MOVEMENT OF THE OVERHEAD SUN
The apparent movement of the overhead sun is related to the different positions of the
earth on its movement as it revolves around the sun. The overhead sun appears to move
north wards and south wards in an osculating (swinging) manner.
However the overhead sun’s northward limit is latitude 230N. People beyond this latitude
never see the sun vertically above their head . The latitudes 230N is known as Tropical of
cancer . Similarly the overhead sun ends 230S in its apparent Southward movement. This
latitude is known as the Tropic of Capricorn on 21st June the sun is vertically overhead on
the Tropical of cancer. This is known as the summer solstice in the Northern hemisphere.

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On 22nd December the sun is vertically overhead on the Tropic of Capricorn this is the
winter solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.
Solstice means equal night or is when the sun on these days appears to stand still between
its north ward and southward journeys.
WINTER SOLSTICE

THE SOLSTICES
The sun is overhead twice a year at the equators 21st March and 23rd September. 21st
March is known as the Spring equinox and 23rd September is known as the autumn equinox
in the Northern Hemisphere.
Equinox means equal nights, at equinox the length of day and night is equal over all places
on the earth’s surface. Viewed from the Southern Hemisphere the solstices and the
equinoxes are reversed.
LENGTH OF DAY AND NIGHT

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Places along the equator experience equal day and night all the year, but north wards or
south wards towards the poles, the length of day and night vary with latitudes. For instance
in Northern Summer when the Northern Hemisphere is inclined towards the sun, days are
longer than nights. However at latitude 660N known as the Arctic. Cycle and beyond the
sun appears around the sky without setting. in the North pole day light is experienced for
six months before the sunset.
Then this region remains in darkness for the next six months, Latitude 66° south is known
as the Antarctic cycle.
The Polar Regions south of the Antarctic cycle experience the long six months night from
March to September and the six months day light from October to February.
PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS.
Parallels are more commonly known as Latitudes
Latitude/Parallel
The arc or angular distances (measured in degree minutes and seconds) of a point on the
surface north or south of the earth from the equator.
Meridians: Are commonly known as Longitude.
Longitude/Meridian: Is angular distance measured in degrees East or west of the prime
meridian, they run from north to south.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PARALLEL AND MERIDIANS
a) Longitudes (meridian) enable us to calculate local and International times of different
places on the earth/s surface.
b) Latitudes (parallel) help us to explain and understand the variation in climate on the
surface of the earth.
c) Parallel and meridians are used by pilots and sailors to guide their path.
a) They enable us to locate places on maps, for example Tanzania is found at Latitude
6°00′S of the equator and Longitude
35°00′ E of Greenwich meridian.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
Latitude: Is the angular distance north or south of the equator measured in degrees, minutes
and seconds. OR
Are the lines drawn on a map from east to west.

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- The equator is latitude of 0°
- The equator divides the earth into two equal parts (Hemisphere)
- The hemisphere north of the equator is northern hemisphere
- The hemisphere south of the equator is known as Southern hemisphere
- Latitude are also known as a parallel lines of equator because they never meet.
- The lines of latitude are measured from 00 (the equator) to 900 north and south.
LINES OF LATITUDE ARE

- The equator 00
- The tropical of cancer 23 ½0N
- The Tropical of Capricorn 23 ½0S
- Arctic cycle 66 ½0N
- Antarctic cycle 66 ½0S
PARALLEL OF LATITUDE 300N

Longitude Is an angular distance measured in degrees east or west of the prime meridian,
they run from north to south.

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Greenwich is a longitude 00 . It is also known as prime meridian.
The prime meridian is the line running through the poles (North and South) and is known
as Greenwich 00
Longitudes are measured from 00 to 1800 East or West of Greenwich, all meridians are
passing through the North and south poles.
LONGITUDE AND TIME
The earth rotates on its own axis from west to east once every twenty four hours (one day).
This means that the earth turns through 3600 in twenty four hours.
All places along a given meridian will experience midday along the same meridian, it is
known as Local Mean, on the Greenwich meridian is known as Local Mean Time (LMT).
When it is 12:00 noon, on the Greenwich meridian it will be 1:00 pm at a place of 150E or
11:00 at a place of 150W.
To find time for example for Musoma in Tanzania (340) when it is 12:00 in Kinshasa
Zaire
1. Note the longitude position of Kinshasa 150 300E and Musoma 340
2. Find the difference in degree of longitude between Kinshasa and Zaire 340 - 15030
= 18 ½
3. Find the difference in time between Kinshasa and Zaire 18 ½ x 4 = 1 7/30 or 1
hour and 14minutes
60
OR,

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1° = 4 minutes 18 ½ = x
x= 4 X 18 ½ = 1 hour and 14 minutes.
1
4. Since Musoma is to the east of Kinshasa , Musoma time will be ahead of that of
Kinshasa by 1 hour and 14 minutes therefore time for Musoma will be 12:00 +1:14 =
13:14 pm Or 1:14 pm.
In the other hand, given the time difference between two places and the longitude of one of
them, one can calculate the longitude position of the second places Kinshasa 150 300 and 1
hour and 14 minutes. behind the time of Musoma.
Find the longitude position of Musoma
Difference in time between Musoma and Kinshansa 1 hour and 14 minutes.
Difference in degrees of longitude between Musoma and Kinshansa is 1hr and 14 minutes
= 74/4 or 180 300
Since the time of Kinshasa is behind that of Musoma, Musoma must be east of Kinshansa.
Therefore the longitudinal position of Musoma will be 150 30′ + 180 30′ = 340E.
GREAT CIRCLE
The intersection of the surface of a sphere and a plane through its centers for example
meridians of longitude and equator are great circle in the earth's surface. Therefore there is
no limit to the number of great circle that can be drawn.
Great circle also is a circle drawn on a globe (or other sphere) with a center that includes
the center of the globe. Thus a great circle divides the globe into two equal halves.

IMPORTANCE OF GREAT CIRCLE

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i) The great circles are important for aeroplanes which use them as route ways to guide
their path
ii) Great circles are important for ship to follow routes along great circles
TIME.
Refers to a period that is used for a event or activity. It is measured in seconds, minutes,
hours, days, months or years.
TIME ZONES
Is the region having the same standard time. Standard time is common on time for all
countries
belonging to the same time zone for example, Tanzania, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Djibouti
and Somalia use the same standard time. This is commonly referred to a the East African
Standard time.
There would be problems of telling time if every place had its own time set according to
local mean time. For example, there would be great confusion in railway and airway time
table or in radio programs if they had to show difference time each one place within a small
area. To avoid this problem, different stretches of land take their time from great Meridian.
The time adopted is known as STANDARD TIME.
In East Africa, standard time is taken from meridian of 450E when a whole stretch of land
keeps to the same standard time that stretches from a time zone . Therefore time zone
refers to a stretch of land where standard time is accepted throughout a longitudinal zone
150 width.
Countries with large stretches of land have several standard time zones. There are 24 time
zones in the world. The Greenwich Meridian is the starting point for dividing the globe
into 24 time zones, the standard time for Greenwich is known as the Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT).

Essence of Time Zone

- In a certain place there could be a place on the surface using its' own local time. This
would brought a lot of confusion example every radio station would have to announce
different times for every region within the same country: Local time of Bukoba would be
different from that of Dodoma.

23 Geography form One

- The above confusion was avoid when it was internationally agreed to split the world
into 24 time zone according to Longitudes
- The longitudinal division across the earth with an approximates with of 15° of
longitude which is regular across the oceans.
- Each time zone has a standard time which is the time of the longitude(meridian near
the center of time zone. In the same way, all countries belonging to the same time zone
have common time.
Note: Large countries like Canada, USA and Russia have different standard times for
different regions within them because they are crossed by many time zone
Exercise 5
1. If it is 9:30 am at kasse 330 150E what time is in Zanzibar 450 150E? 450 .150
-330 . 150

12 . 00
9.30 am 0.48
10.18 = 10.18 minutes
2. Find the time for the youncle 30°w if it is 12.00 noon London
30° – 0° = 30°
15 = 300 x 1hr = 2hr
15 15
12.00 – 2.00
10.00
= 10.00 a.m
3 When it is 3.30pm at Nairobi (250E) what is the time for Comoro 1200E?
1hr x950 = 950 = 6 1/3x 60
15 15
= 6hrs and 20 minutes
3.30+ 6.20
9.50 p.m

24 Geography form One

INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE.
The line where date is changed or where the calendar day begins.
One travels eastwards and cross the date line, one will gain a day, if one travels westwards
and cross the date line, one will lose a day, if Greenwich it is noon on Tuesday a place 90 0w
would be 10am on Tuesday, at a place 1800w it would be midnight Monday . On the other
hand a place 900E would be 6.00pm on Tuesday and at a place 1800E would be midnight
on Tuesday.

MAJOR FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE

Earth is the fifth largest planet in the solar system. Its surface is approximately 510 millions
square kilometers. This means that earth is very large. The surface of the earth is made up
of two main features LAND and WATER BODIES The land's surface area is estimated at
29.2% of the total area of the earth's surface, while water covers the remaining 70.8%.
Most of the land exists in large blocks called Continents.
Likewise, most of the water is contained in large water bodies called seas and oceans.
CONTINENT
Continent is a major landmass rising from the ocean floor. Formerly the continents were big
landmass known as Pangaea. Due to the forces operating continuously, the landmass was
separated into two parts namely Laurasia to the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland to
the Southern hemisphere. Further separation or drifting led to the formation of the present
continents which include Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and
Southern America.

25 Geography form One

The boundaries of the continents with the exception of Asia and Europe were filled with
water. Ural Mountains separated Europe and Asia. While other continents are separated by
water bodies called seas and oceans. For instance African continent and Asia to the north
are separated by Mediterranean sea and Red sea. Africa and South America are separated by
Atlantic ocean, etc.
LOCATION AND SIZE OF CONTINENTS

FORMATION OF CONTINENTS

26 Geography form One

Land surface of the earth
The land surface occupies 29% of the surface of the earth, it forms seven continents. It
includes Islands adjacent to the continents. The seven continents are Asia, Africa, South
America, North America, Australia, Europe and Antarctica. Oceans surround these
continents. There is more land surfaces in the Northern Hemisphere than in the southern
hemisphere.
Southern hemisphere
This is the southern most continent, it is situated in the South Pole and almost all of it lies
within latitude 660S, it is surrounded by the southern Ocean. It is uninhabited.
Exercise 1
1. The name of the continents of the earth’s surface are: -
(i) Africa.
(ii) Europe.
(iii) North America.
(iv) South America.
(v) Asia.
(vi) Antarctica.
(vii) Australia.
2. List the name of planets in the solar system
(i) Mercury (ii) Venus (iii) Earth (iv) Mars (v) Jupiter (vi) Saturn (vii)
Uranus (viii) Neptune
3. To mention four uses of solar energy
(i) It is used for domestic purpose
(ii) It is used for solar cookers
(iii) It is used to provide vitamin D for human being
(iv) It is used for manufacturing food through Photosynthesis process
4. What is the meridian time in Mombasa 390 35′ E when it is noon meridian time at
Kampala 320 35′E
Solution. 39°35′e 1hr = 150 = 1 x7° = 7° = 28 minutes

27 Geography form One

-32°35′e ? = 7° 15° 15°
7.00
.12. 00+ 28
12: 28 pm
5. What is the approximate different in meridian time between Mwanza (330c) and
Colombo (800c)?
Soln 800c -330c = 47° 1hr =15° = 1 hr X 47° = 03:02 hrs

? = 47° 15°
6. Define the following terms:
(a) Lunar eclipse- It occurs when the earth moves between the sun and moon, this
casting its shadow over the moon.
(b) Solar eclipse – It occurs when the moon passes between the earth and the sun, this
casting its shadow over the earth.
(c) Solar energy – Is the energy produced by the sun.
(d) Continent - Is a major landmass rising from the ocean floor.
(e) The international date line- Is the line where date is changed.
(f) Longitude – Are the imaginary lines drawn on a map from north to south.
(g) Latitude- Are the imaginary lines drawn on a map from east to west.
7. To mention four evidences of the earth’s shape.
I] Sunrise and Sunset Ii] Circumnavigation Iii] Aerial photograph Iv] Ship’s visibility
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What is Geography?
Geography is the science that study distribution and Interactions of phenomena in reaction
to the earth’s surface.
2. Mention three branches of geography.
(i) Physical geography
(ii) Human and economic geography

28 Geography form One

(iii) Practical geography
3. What is earth's rotation? Mention four effects of earth rotation.
Earth rotation – Is the spinning of the earth on its axis
4. List four effects of earth rotation;
(a) Day and night
(b) Different hour.
(c) The deflection of the wind
(d) Ocean tides.
5. What is earth revolution?
Earth revolution- Is the movement of the earth around the sun. Define:
(i) Eclipses – Is the movement of the one heavily body between two others such that it
casts shadow over the other.
(ii) Lunar eclipse – The earth becomes at the center between the sun and moon
(iii) Solar eclipse – The moon becomes at the center between the sun and earth
6. Draws the well labelled diagrams of Lunar and solar eclipses
Solutions

MAJOR RELIEF FEATURES OF CONTINENTS

The surface of any continent is not smooth. It has mountains, hills, plain and plateaus, river
valleys, lakes, basins and rift valleys. Altitude and slope give rise to the different relief
features. Plain, plateaus and mountains form the major relief features of continent.
1. PLAINS
A great part of any continent is plain. Plains are continuous stretches of comparatively flat
land and not rising much above the sea level. Many extensive plains are a result of down

29 Geography form One

warping of the earth’s crust for example, Siberia in Asia, North European plains, Indo- getic
plain and the Great central plains of North America.
PLATEAUS
Extensive high altitude areas with more or less uniform summit levels are known as plateaus.
They are formed when forces formed within the earth uplift a plain region. Major plateaus
regions include the central plateau of Africa, the Brazilian Highlands and the Arabian
plateau. The African plateau is higher in the South and East of the continent than it is in
the north and west. In some areas, the outflow and spread of lava have formed plateaus over
an extensive area, for instance the Deccan plateau in the India sub-continent and Colombia
plateaus in the United states.

MOUNTAIN
There are three major types of Mountains: These are; a] Fold mountains
b] Block mountain
c] Volcanic mountain
a) FOLD MOUNTAIN
The wrinkling of the earth’s crust forms fold mountains, folding once occurs where rocks
are laid in layers, fold mountains usually consist of high ranges that extend for hundreds of
kilometers across the continent. Thus fold mountains form the most extensive ranges in the
world. For example the Rock mountains in North America vary in width from 640 to
1,600 kilometers and are about 5,000 kilometers in length.
These types of mountains have some of the highest peaks of the world. Mountain Everest
is 8,848 meters above sea level and the Andes is 7,003m above sea level. Apart from the
Himalayas in Asia and the Andes in South America, this group of mountains includes the
Andes- in South America, the Alps in Europe, the Atlas in North Africa, the Cap Rangers
in South Africa, the Appalachians in U.S.A and the Great Divide Range in Australia.

30 Geography form One

 b) BLOCK MOUNTAINS
Block Mountains are formed when a movement in the earth’s crust forces the rocks
to break. As a result, enormous cracks or faults are formed when sets of faults run
parallel to each other and the ground between is forced up, a block mountain (horst)
is formed.

Usually Block Mountains do not extend over wide areas as Fold Mountains do. Example of
block mountains are the Sambara, Uruguru and Ruwenzori mountains in East Africa, the
Vosges and Black forest mountains in Europe and mount Sinai in Asia.
Other features associated with faulting and Block Mountains are rift valleys or grabens. Rift
valleys are formed when the land is between two sets of faults sink down. The Great East
African Rift valley is the longest in the world. It stretches from the Baka’s valley east of the
Lebanon mountains, through the Red sea, Ethiopia, East Africa to the lower Zambezi Area.
branch of the valley runs along Lake Tanganyika in Tanzania to Lake Albert in Uganda.
Another less extensive rift valley is the middle Rhine Rift valley between the Vosges and
black forest mountains. The walls of a rift valley form fault lines or escarpments. Trenches
formed by rift valley are sometimes filled with water to form Lakes like Lake Nyasa, Lake
Albert, Lake Eyas, and Lake Turkana all of which are in East Africa and the Dead Sea in
Jordan.
c] VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN
Volcanic mountains are formed from the pouring up and cooling of hot molten lava and
ashes that are thrown out from the earth’s interior after a volcanic eruption. Among the
existing volcanic mountains some still experience a periodic eruptions for example the
mountain Italy, the Krakatoa in Indonesia, the Mufumbiro in Uganda, the Oldonyo Lengai
in Tanzania and the Cameroons in Equatorial Africa. These are said to be active volcanic.
The volcanic mountains, which erupted only once in historical time and are no longer
active, are said to be dormant. Good examples are the Kilimanjaro and Meru mountains
both of which are in Tanzania. That volcanic mountain which have not erupted for a very
long time and have not shown any signs of erupting again are said to be extinct (dead).
Good examples are the Kenya, Elgon and Rungwe Mountains, all of which are in East
Africa.

31 Geography form One

TYPES OF VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN
i) Active volcanic mountain
ii) Dormant volcanic mountain
iii) Extinct ( dead) volcanic mountain
Volcanic Mountains are usually conical in shape and mostly contain craters at their
summits, for example, Fujiama and Kilimanjaro Mountains. Sometimes craters are filled
with water to form crater lake for example, Lake Duluti and Ngorongoro both of which are
in Arusha Region in Tanzania. Also Lake Ngozi found at Rungwe district in Mbeya.
RESIDUAL MOUNTAINS
Apart from the three types of mountains, there are Residual Mountains which are formed
by a prolonged denudation. Denudation involves removing weaker rocks from the land the
result of which landforms are lowered leaving behind resistant rock. The remaining resistant
rock is known as residual mountains. Examples of residual mountains include the Haggard
Mountains of central Sahara, the Sekenke hills of Singida in Tanzania, the Adamawa
mountains of Eastern Niger, the Highlands of Scotland. The sierras of central Spain, and
the Mess and Butlers of the western plateau of the United States.
BASINS AND DRAINAGE OF THE CONTINENT
A basin : Is a form of natural or artificial depression (hollow) varying in size in the earth’s
surface
Drainage: Is the removal of water from the land.
The over land flow : Is the flow of rain water on the ground surface.
Underground flow: Is when rain water sinks into the ground and finds its way to the
surface.
Run- off: Is the flow of rain water over and under the ground.

32 Geography form One

RIVERS
When rain falls or snows melt, water flows in small channels which finally join together and
form large streams or RIVERS. OR
Is the natural out floor of water from different sources can be from Lakes, Spring, melted
ice etc. to the mouth which an be ocean, lake or sea.
TRIBUTARIES:
These are the streams that join together to form main streams or parent.
DISTRIBUTARIES: These are the small streams which are formed when the main
river branches off before it enters the sea or lake.
The area from which the river system collect its rain water known as RIVER BASIN or
DRAINAGE BASIN or CATCHMENT AREA.
The boundary between one drainage basin to the next is known as WATER DIVIDE or
WATER SHED or BASIN PERIMETER.
RIVER SYSTEM (THE WATER) DIVIDE ENCLOSING A DRAINAGE BASIN
Water flows down a slope by the help of force of gravity, While flowing it carries minerals
in solution, rock fragments and organic matters from high land area to low land area.
The end of running water (run-off) is to the SEA/OCEAN.

THE MAIN RIVERS IN AFRICA

These are : The Congo River, The Niger river, The Orange river, The Nile river, The
Zambezi river and the Limpopo river.
 The Congo, Niger and Orange rivers flows and pour their water into Atlantic
Ocean. Ø Zambezi and Limpopo flows into Indian Ocean.
 River Nile flows into Mediterranean Sea.

33 Geography form One

THE VOLUME OF WATER IN THE RIVERS
 . The volume of water in the river varies seasonally.
 .During the rainy season or when ice melts, streams channels carry more water than in
dry season.
 .When it rains heavily the stream channel fail to hold all of it so the water- over flows
the river banks and floods the river valley.
 Flood causes destruction to crops, building, animals and human.
LAKES:
Is a hollow in the earth's surface in which water collects.
Lakes are formed when some run-offs (running and being holded by depressions or hollows
on the continent) have their outlets to the sea. Example of Lakes is Nyasa, Victoria and
Kyoga in Africa.
OCEANS
Ocean is a large body of salt water. that occupies about 75 percent of the earth’s surface.
There is more water surface in the Southern hemisphere than in the North Hemisphere.
Ocean include the Indian, the pacific, the Atlantic, the Arctic and
the Southern Ocean.
The pacific Ocean is the largest. It is about 165. 3 million square kilometers. The second
largest Ocean is the Atlantic which is about 82.2 million square kilometers. The Indian
Ocean which is about 3.4 million kilometers is the third largest followed by Atlantic Ocean
which is about 14.0 million square kilometers.
Ocean water contains a number of dissolved mineral salts. They include sodium Chloride
(common salts) which makes up about 78 percent of all salt in the ocean water. Ocean
water also contain compounds of magnesium, potassium, and calcium, Most of these
minerals are in the ocean as a result of constant accumulation. Since the formation of the
oceans Most minerals come from the land have been dissolved by water and brought into
the ocean by rivers, wind and ice. Another source has been volcanic activity that takes place
in the oceans.
Saltiness of the ocean water is not the same everywhere in the ocean. Saltiness of ocean
water depends mainly on temperature which affects capacity of water to dissolve salt, the
amount of fresh water brought into the ocean by rivers and rainfall and the amount of
evaporation taking place from surface.
Generally temperature of ocean water decreases from the equator where surface temperature
is about 250c, to the Polar Regions where water is very cold temperature drops to 2.20C.

34 Geography form One

However, in polar regions where the ocean surface is permanently covered with ice
temperature increases with depth up to 1.10C.
Ocean water is constantly in motion. There are two types of movement .One is horizontal
movement, which is in the form of current and the other is a vertical movement which is the
rising of sub- surface water and the sinking of surface water.
Ocean Current
An ocean current is the movement of surface water in the ocean. These are warm and cold
currents. Currents of the oceans are set in motion by prevailing winds, differences of density
and temperature of the ocean water, the rotation of the earth and the shape of continent
influence the flow of the major ocean current of the world.

Tides
Tides are the rising and falling in the level of water in the ocean. The tides occur twice in
24 hours. The level of which tides rise and fall varies slightly. On the days when it rises to
its highest level it also falls to its lowest level. This rising and falling is caused by the pull
of gravity of the moon and the sun.

Waves.
Waves are the up and down movement of the surface of water. The highest part of the
waves is called the crest and the lowest is called the trough. The distance from one crest to
the next or from trough to trough called the wave length. Upper waves travel in a definite
direction, while the lower waves are the up and down movement . For example a cork
thrown into the water does not travel with the waves. It moves up and down but not
forward. Waves are driven to the shore by wind. The higher of the wave and the force with
which it is driven are determined by the strength of the wind and the distance of open water
which it has blown.

35 Geography form One

The ocean floor
Is the bottom of the surface of the ocean

The floor of the ocean is irregular. The major relief features of the ocean floor are;
The continental shelf
The continental shelf is a gently sloping margin of a continent. Continental shelf are
occupied by shallow water that extends from the coast to the depth of about 200 meters
towards the ocean basin.
The continental Slope
The continental slope is found at the point where the continental shelf forms a steep slope
towards the ocean floor.
Oceanic Deep or Trenches
Ocean Deep or trenches are long narrow depressions or trough found on the ocean floor.
Deep sea plains
Deep sea planes are the most extensive area of the ocean floor. They are monotonous
undulating areas. Large parts of these plains are covered with time mode.
Exercise 2
1. 1. The name of the continents of the earth surface are
A) Asia
B) Africa

36 Geography form One

C) North America
D) South America
E) Europe
F) Australia
G) Antarctica
2. 2. There are three types of mountains. These are
a) Fold mountain
b) Block mountain
c) Volcanic mountain
3. Ocean currents are set in motion by
a) Prevailing winds
b) Differences of density
c) Temperature of the ocean water
d) The rotation of the earth and the shape of continents
4. Saltiness in ocean water has accumulated over long period of time from:
A. Volcanic activity in oceans
B. Salt rocks lying at the bottom of the sea
C. Land materials blown by wind into the sea
D. Rivers that pours their water into the sea
E. Land materials brought into the sea by moving ice

5. Why Saltiness of the ocean water is not the same in all over the oceans?. The
saltiness of ocean depend mainly on
a) Amount of evaporation taking place
b) Amount of fresh water brought into the sea by rivers and rainfall
c) Amount of temperature which effects capacity of water to dissolve minerals
d) Ocean current
6. 6. Define

37 Geography form One

a) Ocean current: Is the movement of surface water in the ocean
b) Tides: Are the rising and falling in the level of water in the ocean
c) Waves: Are the up and down movement of the surface of water.
6. With examples mention two types of ocean current
I. Cold current- Banguela, Labrador, Canaries
II. Warm current- Mozambique, Brazil current, East Greenland current
8. The major relief feature of the ocean floor are.
a) Ocean deep
b) Ocean ridge
c) Oceanic Island
d) Continental slope
e) Continental shelf
f) Ocean plain
g) Basin
9. The name given to the first land mass was PANGAEA
10. Explain how each type of mountain is formed with diagram
Each type of mountain if formed with diagram due to the mode of its formation and the
nature of materials evolved (especially to the volcanic mountains).

WEATHER
Weather: The conditions of the atmosphere which occur at a place at specific time period (
from
hour to hour or day to day) are known as weather. Importance of weather:
a) Good weather improves people' s lives
b) Weather determines the kind of clothing to be worn by people in an area.

38 Geography form One

c) Knowledge of the weather of a place enables people to carry out economic activities
which can be sustained by the weather in that place. E.g. dairy cattle do well in a cool and
wet place.
d) By studying the weather of a place over a long time, we can establish its climate.
Weather and Human activities
Most human activities affected by weather that is experienced at a place. For example, when
the rains are heavy, flooding occurs and causes damage to crops, animals and infrastructure
like roads. This means that few economic activities can take place.
When there is no rain, plants and animals die, rivers and streams dry up, and irrigation and
other economic activities like fishing cannot be carried out. Therefore weather affects the
social economic activities of a place.
Elements of Weather
Are the basic atmospheric condition of a place at a given time.
There are 7 element of weather
i) Sunshine
ii) Temperature
iii) Humidity
iv) Cloud cover
v) Precipitation
vi) Wind
vii) Atmospheric pressure
IMPORTANCE OF EACH ELEMENT OF WEATHER
i. Sunshine
Sunshine refers to the sun' s rays that reach the surface of the earth.
Importance of Sunshine:
• The sun' s energy enables plants to manufacture food through the process of
photosynthesis
• People need sunshine to dry their crops, food like cassava, millet, maize and fish
• They also use sunshine to warm themselves Dries clothes after washing them

39 Geography form One

ii. Temperature
Refers to how hot or cold an object or place is. The heat in the atmosphere is supplied by
th sun
Importance of Temperature:
Warm is essential for plant and animal survival Plants need warm in order to manufacture
their fool Facilitates formation of clouds
iii. Humidity Is the amount of water vapor ( moisture) in the atmosphere There are two
types of humidity:
a) Absolute humidity and
b) Relative humidity
a) Absolute humidity: Is the actual amount of water vapor or moisture in a given
volume of air at a particular temperature.
b) Relative humidity:
I s the ratio of the actual amount of water vapor or moisture in a given volume of air ( i.e.
absolute humidity) to the maximum amount of water vapor that the same volume of air
can hold at the same temperature.
iv. Cloud cover
Clouds are masses of tiny droplets of water or ice particles or both which are suspended in
the atmosphere.
They are formed when water vapor or moisture in the atmosphere cools and condenses.
Importance of cloud cover:
Are important because they condense to form rain and other forms of precipitation
v. Precipitation
This refers as the fall or deposition of moisture water vapor or frozen water from the
atmosphere onto the earths surface.
Importance of Precipitation:
• All life on the earth is purely dependent on moisture provided through precipitation
• The importance of rain is that, rain provides water for plants to grow ( i.e. water for
irrigation, growth of grass and pasture depend on rain)

40 Geography form One

• Also animals too need water to drink and human needs for domestic and industrial
uses.
Note: Excess rain and rainstorms result in disasters due to flooding
vi. Wind
Wind is air in motion. I t is made up of variety of gases, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Wind move horizontally from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure.
Importance of wind:
 They are important in many aspects of weather for instance they cause flow of heat and
moisture and their transfer from one point to another and are also responsible for the
movement of clouds.
 Wind direction and wind speed or velocity are two important aspects in geography.
Wind direction is important because it help us to understand characteristics of the
particular winds in terms of temperature and moisture content.
 Wind speed or velocity determines wind strength or force and therefore determines
weather conditions of a place. Example, When strong winds blow over a place, little or
no rainfall will be experienced.
vii. Atmospheric Pressure
This is the force at a point on the earth' s surface due to the weight of air above that point.
The atmosphere is the air surrounding earth' s surface and it has weight, which is force with
which it presses down on a unit area. The weight of atmosphere on the earth' s surface and
at sea level at 1033.3g/ cm2
- Areas of very low pressure cause feeling of weightlessness and that is the feeling one
gets when he or she is on top of a very high mountain like Mt Kilimanjaro.
- Areas under very low pressure may experience very strong winds periodically as air
flows into such areas from high pressure regions.
WEATHER STATION
I s a place where the elements of weather are measured and recorded. Examples of the
elements are temperature, humidity, pressure, rainfall, wind direction and speed, cloud
cover, and sunshine.

41 Geography form One

STEVENSON SCREEN
A Stevenson screen is made to allow air temperature to be measured. I t consists of a
wooden box with louver sides in order to allow free air to enter inside. I n order to prevent
sun’ s heat to reach inside, the roof is double bodied. The screen is painted white to
improve insulation. The screen is then placed on a stand which is about 121 centimeters
above the ground. Other instruments include rain gauge, wind vane, anemometer,
barometer, hygrometer, and the camp- bell stokes sunshine recorder. Weather and climate
affect the physical environments as well as human activities.
1. Temperature:
Temperature is the degree of heat of a body, measured by a thermometer and expressed in
degrees of a centigrade or Fahrenheit scales. There are several types of thermometer which
shows the highest temperature reached during a day and the minimum thermometer which
shows the lowest temperature reached.
Maximum thermometer

42 Geography form One

The figure above shows the maximum thermometer with a metal index. Thermometer is
made of glass and it contains mercury in a bulb. A mercury column extends from a bulb at
one end of the thermometer along a fine glass tube. The length of the mercury column
shows changes in temperature when temperature rises, the mercury expands and the length
of the column increases, pushing along the metal index.
The maximum temperature is read from the side of the metal index nearest to the mercury.
When the temperature falls the mercury falls , leaving behind the metal index still indicating
the maximum temperature reached. A magnet is used to bring back the metal index into
contact with the mercury.
Minimum thermometer
The minimum thermometer contains alcohol instead of mercury. Alcohol is used because
it has lower freezing point than mercury. Any fall in temperature will cause the alcohol
column to contract and the meniscus ( the curved upper surface of the alcohol column)
will pull the index back along the tube whenever temperature rises, the alcohol will expand
and flow freely past the metal index without pushing it up. Therefore the metal index is
always left as a record of the lowest temperature reached between the readings. The part of
the metal index away from the bulb will indicate the lowest temperature reached.
Six’ s thermometer

The six’ s thermometer can also be used for measuring maximum and minimum
temperature
The thermometer consists of a “ U” shaped glass tube. The metal index nearest to the
bulb indicates the minimum temperature and the other metal records the maximum
temperature. When the mercury in the tube maximum temperature falls, the alcohol in the

43 Geography form One

bulb contracts. This causes the mercury to push index B towards the bulb. The minimum
temperature is read from the part of index B from the mercury.
Reading and Recording Temperature
Temperature reading is taken every day either at regular and fixed intervals ( for example,
after every four or six hours) or once in twenty four hours – I n some meteorological
stations temperature are recorded continuously by a self recording instrument called a
thermograph. The maximum and minimum temperature which are recorded for a specific
period of time are used to calculate;
Daily range of temperature, which is the different between the maximum and the minimum
temperatures.
The mean daily temperature which is the average of the maximum and minimum
temperature. The monthly range of temperature which is the difference between the highest
mean daily temperature and the lowest mean daily temperature in a month. The annual
range of temperature in a year which is the difference between the highest mean monthly
temperature and the lowest mean monthly temperature.
To get a mean temperature daily for a month of a particular year add the mean daily
temperature and divide the total by the number of days in that month. The average monthly
temperature of a place such as Dar es Salaam for January is obtained by adding all the mean
January temperature for thirty years or more and dividing the sum by the same number of
years. This mean monthly temperature is used to show the temperature condition of the
place for January.
When mean monthly temperature for a given month are obtained for many places, they can
be shown on a map. Lines are drawn to connect places with the same mean monthly
temperature. These lines are known as isotherms.
Mean January temperature in 0f.

44 Geography form One

The way of presenting temperature data for a town is by using a graph. Mean monthly
temperature figures for a year are plotted on the graph and points are joined by a smooth
line.
Factors affecting temperature
Factors that affect temperature include: altitude, ocean currents, distance from the sea,
latitude and prevailing winds.
• Altitude
Temperature decreases with an increase in altitude at the rate of 0.60c for every 100 meters.
That is why the summit of Mount Kilimanjaro with 5895 meters above sea level
permanently covered with ice.
• Ocean currents
Ocean currents are either warm or cold. Warm currents raise the temperature of wind
blowing across them while cold currents lower temperature of such winds. Some winds
blowing on shore will influence the temperature of such winds in some of coastal areas with
the temperature of the ocean currents.
• Distance from the sea
Distance from the sea affects temperature. This is because large areas of land masses lying at
great distance from the sea do not get the moderating influence of the oceans. Lack of this
moderating effects makes the land masses experience very low temperature in winter and
very high temperature in summer. This extremely results in high annual range of
temperature. The interior of the continent of Asia is a typical example.
• Latitude
The amount of heat received at any place depends on the angle at which the sun’ s rays
strike the surface of the earth and the duration of sunshine. At the equator the sun’ s rays

45 Geography form One

reached the earth’ s surface at almost right angles. Throughout the year but the angle
decreases as one move towards the poles ( fig 3.8) Therefore temperature decreases with
increase in latitude because the sun rays spread over a larger area and its heating effect
decreases.
EFFECTS OF LATI TUDE ON TEMPERATURE

2. Humidity
The sun’ s heat causes water to evaporate from the surface of the ocean and other water
bodies. to form water vapor in the atmosphere.
Humidity is the amount of water vapor in air. Or
Humidity is the state of the atmosphere in relation to the amount of water vapour it
contains. Humidity indicates the degree of dampness of the air and it is one of the main
influences on weather. I t is expressed in either absolute or relative terms.
Absolute humidity, expressed in grams per cubic meter, is the actual amount of water
vapour present in a certain volume of air at a given temperature. Relative humidity is the
amount of water vapour present in a mass of air expressed as a percentage of the total
amount of water vapour that would be present when that air is saturated at the
temperature. Air is saturated when the atmosphere cannot hold any more water vapour.
This condition depends on the temperature and pressure of the air.
Humidity is measured by a hygrometer which consists of wet and dry bulb thermometers.
The wet bulb thermometer is kept moist ( wet) by wrapping it in a Muslin which is then
dipped in a container of distilled water.

46 Geography form One

When the air is not saturated water evaporates from the muslin and cools the wet bulb.
The cooling effect causes the mercury to contract. The dry bulb is not affected in the same
way as wet bulb because it does have a Muslin wrapping. I t is affected by the surrounding
air. So when the air is not saturated the two thermometers show different readings, when
the air is saturated the two thermometers show the same readings.
Therefore when there is a big difference in reading between the two thermometers humidity
is low and when there is small difference humidity is high.
Exercise
1. Define the following terms:
a) Climate : Is the average weather condition of an area recorded over a long period of
time ( over 30 year)
b) Weather station: Is an established area where daily records of weather are done
accurately.
c) Temperature: Is the degree of heat of a body.
d) Maximum thermometer: Is used to show the highest temperature
e) Minimum thermometer: Used to show the lowest temperature
f) Humidity: Is the state of the atmosphere in relation to the amount of water vapour it
contains.
(i) Absolute humidity: Is the actual amount of water vapour present in a certain volume
of air at a given temperature
(ii) Relative humidity: Is the amount of water vapour present in a mass of air.
(iii) Weather: Is the condition of the atmosphere which occurs at place at a specific
period of time (FROM HOUR TO HOUR OR DAY TO DAY).

47 Geography form One

2. Mention seven elements of weather and their instruments
i) Temperature-Thermometer
ii) Humidity-Hygrometer
iii) Precipitation- Rain gauge
iv) Clouds- Human eyes
v) Winds-Wind vane, anemometer
vi) Sunshine- Camp bel, Stokes sunshine recorder
vii) Pressure- Barometer
3. The records of maximum and minimum thermometers are used for;
i) Daily range temperature which is the difference of maximum and minimum
thermometer.
ii) Daily temperature which is the average between maximum and minimum
temperature.
4. How can you obtain the following;
a) Daily range temperature : Difference between maximum and minimum temperature.
b) Mean daily temperature : The average between maximum and minimum temperature.
5. Lines draws on a map to connect places with the same mean monthly temperature
are known as Isotherms
6. Temperature data are presented by using Graph
7. List down five factors affecting temperature
i) Altitude
ii) Ocean currents
iii) Distance from the sea
iv) Latitude
v) Prevailing winds

3. Precipitation:
Precipitation refers to the deposition of moisture from the atmosphere on the earth’s
surface. I t includes dew, frost, snow, mist and hail, sleet and rain.

48 Geography form One

Dew:
I s the water vapor that condense on solid objects when the dew is reached. The droplets
formed after condensation of water vapour which is then deposited on the cool surface such
as building, leaves, grass and stones.
Frost:
Frost is a tiny ice crystals deposited on objects on the ground, frost is formed when
temperature falls below freezing point.
Snow:
Snow is the frozen droplets of water, snow formed when water vapour in the atmosphere
turns into crystals of ice and reach the ground before melting.
Mist:
Mist refers to tiny water droplets suspended immediately above the ground. Frost is
similar to mist but it is denser with less visibility.
Hail:
Hail is the form of precipitation falling with small ice blocks, sleet is a mixture of snow
and rain. I t forms when the temperature of the ground is lower than the temperature above.
Rain:
Rain are the droplets of water falling from the atmosphere after condensation. When water
vapour rises, I t cools at high altitude until dew point is reached. Dew point is the
temperature rate at which the atmosphere is saturated with water vapour. Condensation
takes place after dew point has been reached to form water droplets. These droplets
combine to form larger drops which fall as rain.

TYPES OF RAI NFAL

49 Geography form One

a) Convectional rainfall
When rain is formed through vertical rising of moist air currents it is called convectional
rain

Convectional currents arise due to differential heating of the earth’ s surface. Convectional
rains are common in the tropical areas.
b) Relief rain

Sometimes moist winds are forced by a high mountain to rise and when they reach high
altitude the moisture in them condenses to form droplets, which fall as rain.
Rain formed in this way is called relief or orthographical rain.

The sides of the mountain facing the direction of the winds is known as the wind ward side
while that which faces away from the direction of the wind is known as the lee wards side
or the rain shadow, the lee ward side gets very little rain . A typical example of rain shadow
in Tanzania is found in the western side of mountain Kilimanjaro, winds blow from the
Indian Ocean in the east and are forced by this mountain to rise and drop most of their
moisture on the eastern and south eastern slopes. When these winds blow to the western
side of the mountain they already relatively dry.
c) Cyclonic rain

50 Geography form One

When large masses of air with different characteristics of temperature and moisture,
cyclonic rain may occur. As the warm and moist air is forced up over the cool and dry air, it
expands. At higher altitude the warm air cools and water vapour condenses to form clouds
and rain.
On the other hand tropical cyclones are formed over oceans is the tropical between latitude
80N and 80S. They usually bring very heavy rainfall and are associated with thunderstorms
and very fast moving wind, which often causes destruction along coastal settlements . I n
the Caribbean and
U.S.A tropical cyclones are called hurricanes in Africa they are known as cyclones and in
China and Japan they are called typhoons.

Rainfall is measured by using a rain gauge. The rain gauge consist of an outer case , a
copper- receiving vessel, a funnel whose diameter is normally 13 centimeters, a clear glass
jar or bottle and a graduated measuring cylinder.

Normally reading is done once every 24 hours. I f necessary comments on the nature, time
and duration of rainfall should be added to the record. Mean monthly rainfall for a station
is usually obtained by adding up rainfall records of a particular month ( say January) for a
number of years ( say 30 years) and dividing the total by the same number of years.
The figures so obtained can be presented in the form of graphs known as histogram.
Figures for different places are plotted on a map and places with the same amount of
rainfall are joined by smooth line. The line joined places with the same amount of rainfall
are known as I sohyets

51 Geography form One

Mean Rainfall I n Bukoba

Rainfall Variation.
Rainfall variation is a normal phenomenon on the earth which is caused by a number of
factors. Some of them include Ocean currents, distance from the equator, prevailing winds,
water bodies, nature and shape of the coast, distance from the sea, altitude and human
activities.
Ocean Currents.

52 Geography form One

There are two types of Ocean Currents. The warms and the cold currents. The warm Ocean
Currents yield rainfall over the adjustment land. This is because the winds cross over them
do carry large amounts of moisture for example Mozambique current. Much rainfall is
experienced along the East Coast of Africa.
Cold ocean currents are crossed by wind which have no moisture, hence brings very little or
no rain in the adjacent land. For example banguera currents in south- west Africa coast and
the canary current in the north- west coast of Africa.
Distance from the equator
Areas along the equator receive more rain than areas away from it. This is because of high
amount of solar radiation, which result into evaporation and raising of air moisture hence
condensation takes place resulting into convectional rainfall. Congo basin and Brazil are few
examples which receive much rainfall due to their position.
Prevailing winds.
Winds blowing from the land towards the sea ( off- shore) are carrying moist air from the
land and yield no rainfall except in the sea. These winds usually lead to dryness of the land
with very low rains in the coast. Effects of these winds are development of deserts. Eg, the
Sahara Dessert in the North of Africa.
Lack of water bodies.
Areas with large water bodies such as areas around lake Victoria receive much rain than
areas without water bodies like central Tanzania and North Eastern Kenya. Water bodies
increase much rain to adjacent areas.
Nature and shape of the coast.
The coastal areas, which align parallel to the prevailing wind such as the N.E trade winds
move parallel with the North Eastern Coast of Kenya, yield no rainfall. As result a dry
climate is experienced along the coast.
Distance from the sea.
The areas near the sea or ocean experience high rainfall due to winds blowing moisture
from the sea which would cause rainfall to the coastal areas. Areas that are very far from the
sea receive very little or no rainfall for example, Dar es Salaam in Tanzania and Mombasa in
Kenya receive heavier rains than Dodoma, Singida and Tabora, which have long distance
from the Indian Ocean.
Altitude.
Altitude is also a factor for uneven distribution of rainfall, highlands force the warm air to
rise over them. When they condense, they cause rain to fall on the wind ward side. The

53 Geography form One

other side of the highland ( leeward) may receive very little or no rainfall at all. People of
such areas includes the eastern part of South Africa receives heavy rain ( orographic) while
the Western part experiences prolonged droughts due to effects of Drankensburg
mountains. The eastern part of East Africa also receives heavier rainfall than the western
side due to warm moist winds blowing from the Indian Ocean.
Human activity.
Besides other environmental benefit plants or trees intercept precipitation and return
moisture to the air through transpiration and evaporation. This process becomes balanced
when there is no destruction of the vegetation. Human activity such as settlement, animal
rearing, farming and transportation however can cause rainfall variations on the earth’ s
surface through land degradation. When people cut trees or clear the bushes, land is
naturally destroyed.
The destruction of vegetation disturbs evaporation, condensation and precipitation process,
which are necessary elements of rainfall. I n turn the amount of precipitation in the air is
interrupted either by causing floods or droughts. The California desert in U.S.A and the
Sahel in Africa are the results of droughts caused by human activities, which have led to the
expansion of the deserts in the 1980s.
RAINFALL EFFECTS
Too much rainfall for example, the case of Elnino ( 1998) results into negative impacts on
life and properties. Heavy rainfall may cause destruction of houses, roads and bridges, crop
and loss of life for both human and animals. I n addition to the loss of life and property,
floods, which are the results of heavy rainfall results into eruption of diseases such as
malaria, cholera, and dysentery.
On the other hand, too little rainfall leads to little yield of food and cash crops. Famine and
hunger in the parts of the world is a result of lack of rainfall.

Prolonged dry seasons in some parts of the world have resulted into the loss of lives of both
animals and the people. North Eastern Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, and Ethiopia are some of
the areas where people and animals have lost their lives because of long droughts.
Rainfall reliability leads to continuous crops production and animal keeping hence
improves standard of living and the industrial development of a nation may be realized.
Sustainable agriculture is made possible and people are assured of enough food and cash
crops.

Pressure.

54 Geography form One

The air surrounding the earth’ s surface from the atmosphere. The atmosphere has weight.
The force with which it presses down on a unit area is called atmospheric pressure. The
pressure is exerted equally in all directions. To demonstrate that atmospheric pressure is
exerted equally in all directions one can do the following experiment.
• Take a glass with full of water.
• Cover the top of the glass with a piece of thin paper
• Hold the glass upside down.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by an instrument called a barometer. There are two types
of barometer, mercury barometer and aneroid barometer. A mercury barometer is a simple
apparatus consisting of a glass of about 9.2 centimeters long and bowl filled with mercury.
The glass tube is filled with mercury and being put upside down in the bowl of mercury. At
sea level the mercury will fall until the column is about 76 centimeters above the surface of
the mercury in the bowl. A vacuum is left at the top of the tube. To read the pressure
centimeter rule is placed besides the glass tube and the change in height of the mercury
column gives the reading of the atmospheric pressure. Mercury barometers are not portable.

Barometer

Another instrument commonly used is the aneroid barometer. I t consists of an air fight box
of thin metal containing very little air. The top of this box moves inwards and outwards
with changes in atmospheric pressure. This movement is transmitted by a system of levers
to a circular seal with a pointer which shows the reading of atmospheric pressure.
Pressure is expressed in millimeters with reference to the height of mercury column or in
millibars. A bar is the standard unit of pressure measurement. I t is divided into one

55 Geography form One

thousand units called millibars. At sea level pressure is one thousand millimeters of mercury
or 1.5 kilograms of force per square centimeters. This is equivalent to 1013.2 millibars
approximately one bar.
Lines joining places with the same pressure are called isobars and the pressure is greater at
sea level where the whole thickness of the atmosphere exert its weight. Pressure decreases at
the rate of 10 millibars for every 100 meters increase in height because the thickness of the
atmosphere decreases.

Pressure
1. What is pressure?
Pressure is the air surrounding the earth’ s surface forms the atmosphere.
2. Define atmospheric pressure – I s the force with which atmosphere presses down on
a unit area
3. Atmospheric pressure is measured by a barometer
4. Two types of barometers are;
a) A mercury barometer.
b) Aneroid barometer.
5. Pressure is expressed in millimeter.
6. A bar is the standard unit of pressure measurement
7. I t is divided into one thousand units called millibars.
8. Lines joining places with the same pressure is called isobars.
9. Mention three roles of pressure in human life.
a) Partial filling of tires hinders proper movement of the vehicle.
b) Pressure is also helpful to the patients whose parts of body fail and pump blood to
other parts of the body.
c) Other pressured things include the decoration balloons and playing… 10.Pressure
decreases at the rate of 10 millibars for every 100 meters

WI NDS
Wind is air in motion from high pressure to low pressure area.

56 Geography form One

SEA BREEZE( DAY)

LAND BREEZE( NIGHT)

During the day the land is usually warmer than the sea, and the air pressure on the land is
lower than that over the sea. Therefore winds blow from sea to land. These winds are
known as sea breezes. During the night the land is cooler than the sea and there is low
pressure on the sea. Therefore winds blow from land to sea, these are called land breezes.
There are great variations in the general patterns of wind systems in areas of the earth’ s
surface where there are large land masses adjacent to large water bodies. During summer,
intense low pressure develops in central Asia in the Northern hemisphere and winds blow
inform of high pressure over the Indian and pacific oceans.
July wind pattern

57 Geography form One

During winter, intense high pressure develops in central Asia while intense low pressure
develops over the I ndian Ocean causing winds to blow from the land to the ocean. Such
winds that reverse their direction with changes in seasons are called monsoon winds. The
word monsoon is derived from an Arabic word “ mausin” which means season.

January breeze
I n the equatorial belt of low pressure between 5oN and 50S, intense solar heating causes
the moist air to rise in great convention currents. This belt is called the doldrums or low
pressure belt. The rising air spreads out and moves towards the poles. I n so doing it cools
and sinks from a high pressure belt. This take place around latitude 300N and, these
latitudes are called horse latitudes or subtropical high pressure belts.
I n latitudes 300N and 300S some of the high pressure air moves the surface towards the
equator as the north- east and south- east trade winds, and some of it moves over the
surface towards the poles as the western. Cold air blowing from the poles southwards and
northwards expand and its pressure falls. These low pressure belts become noticeable
around latitude 600N and 600S. As air moves away from the poles most of it moves in from
higher levels to take its place. Thus in each hemisphere there are three winds systems; One

58 Geography form One

operates between north poles and latitude 600N and between the south poles and latitude
600S ( polar winds) and a second one operates between latitude 300N and 600N and
between latitude 300S and 600S ( the westerly winds).

Wind belts of the world

Occasionally in the westerly wind system depressions and anticyclones develop. A
depression is an area of low pressure in which winds blow a circular motion. This motion is
anti-clockwise in the Northern hemisphere but clockwise in the southern hemisphere. A
depression develops when cold heavy air comes into contact with warm moisture. A
depression is usually associated with cyclonic rains. Anticyclones are areas of high pressure
in which winds blow in a clockwise circular motion in the Northern hemisphere. They
normally follow a depression and are associated with cool fine weather with no rain.
Wind direction is measured by a wind-vane. A wind-vane consists of a freely rotating arrow
fitted to a central rod. The arrow of the wind-vane always points to the direction from
which winds blows, and the wind is named after this direction. Four arms marking the
directions of the cardinal points are fixed to the stationary central rod.

59 Geography form One

Wind speed is measured by an instrument called an anemometer. This instrument consists
of three or four horizontal arms that when there is wind the arms rotate. This movement
operates a meter which records the speed of the wind in kilometers per hour.
Anemometer

Weather forecasting
Weather forecasting is defined as a prediction of weather condition of a place at a given
time approximately 24 + 48hrs. Weather forecasting is obtained through two methods
namely, traditional and modern methods.
The traditional method predicts weather through observation of types of birds voices,
crocking of frogs, rainbow, migration of birds, changes of wind direction, position of the
moon and general body feeling. The method is still widely used in predicting weather by the
indigenous communities.
Modern method involves the use of modern equipment such as satellites, electronic
computers, radar, and aircraft, balloons, ships, submarines, rockets and daily records from
weather stations. This method of predicting weather is more reliable and accurate.
METHODS AND I NSTRUMENTS USED FOR WEATHER FORECASTI NG (
MODERN METHODS)
1. Radiosonde
This is an instrument used to register pressure and temperature from the ground to roughly
12km above the ground. The instruments are fixed to balloons filled with helium gas and
are released into the atmosphere everyday at a particular time from different weather
stations. The radiosonde transmits radio signals to computers on the ground station where
they are analyzed. The signal transmitted give pressure, temperature and humidity readings
at different altitude. These balloons are made in such a way that they burst when they reach
a certain altitude.

60 Geography form One

2. Satellite
The satellite used for predicting weather are human made space. They move around the
earth so that they can provide various types of information. They are also used in radio,
television and telephone communication. Satellite transmits photographs on weather
conditions on a daily basis. The movement of clouds can be predicted from an analysis of
the movement of winds force period of 24hours.
3. Persistence method
This is simpler way of making a weather forecast. I t assumes that the atmosphere
conditions of a place at the time of forecast will not change. For example, if it is 28°C in
Dodoma today the persistence method predicts that it will still be 28°C in Dodoma
tomorrow. I f two inches of rain fell in Arusha yesterday, this method predicts that two
inches of rain will fall in Arusha today.
4. Statistical forecasting
I n this method, meteorologists ask themselves how is the weather usually like at this time
of the year? . They then collect records of average temperatures and rainfall over the last five
years. This give forecasters an idea of what the weather is " supposed to be like" at the
certain time of year.

Weather forecasting is useful to people in the following ways;

a) Farmers planning their work for a year. This is because weather broad casting helps
farmers to adjust their farming activities to suit the expected weather conditions.
b) Weather broadcasting greatly influence transport since it helps sailors and air
travelers to know condition of the winds.
c) Helps in planning sport activities.
d) Helps in selecting suitable clothes.
e) Helps fishermen to plan their fishing activities.
f) Helps contractors to plan for a suitable houses.
g) Helps in geographical expeditions like tours and military.
h) Military personnel benefit from weather broadcasting as they can plan their military
activities depending on weather conditions

61 Geography form One

Exercise
1. I f the temperature at Dar- es- salaam, which is at sea level, is 32oc, the temperature
at a place where altitude is 1, 500 meters will be
a) 0.60c
b) 230c ( C)
c) 80c
d) 170c
2. Circle the letter of the correct response for the following statements.
To obtain the mean monthly temperature of a place for a month in a particular year, take
a) The sum of mean daily temperature for the month.
Number of days in the month.
b) The sum of the monthly temperature x12 Numbers of days in the month.
c) The sum of the monthly temperature for the year 12 months
d) The daily maximum + the daily minimum 2.
3) Study the Temperature graph for Delhi below and answer the following;
a) Which is the coldest month?
b) Which is the hottest month?
c) Calculate the annual range of Temperature.

CLIMATE
Is the average weather condition of an area recorded over a long period of time (over 30
years).
The weather elements listed above are measured and recorded at a weather station. A
weather station is an established area where daily records of weather are done accurately.
Each weather station should have the following instruments; Thermometers which are kept
in Stevenson screen that is maximum thermometers, minimum thermometers (six’s
thermometer), dry bulb thermometer and wet bulb thermometers

62 Geography form One

Major Natural Regions of the World
Temperature on the earth’ s surface varies from place to place. Place near the Equator
usually have high temperatures throughout the year, while places near poles are cold
throughout the years, similarly different areas on the earth’ s surface receive different
amounts of rainfall.
A place in South American, which gets the same amount of rainfall as a place in West
Africa and has similar temperatures, will have the similar natural vegetation.
Likewise, people who live in the two areas under the same natural conditions carry out
similar economic activities, for example, farming.
A region with the same geographical background to human activity such as temperature,
rainfall and natural vegetation, is called a natural region, on this basis the earth’ s surface
may be divided into the following natural regions;
1. Equatorial Region.
2. Tropical Grasslands (Savanna).
3. Monsoon Region.
4. Hot Deserts.
5. Mediterranean.
6. Warm Temperature Eastern Margin (China type).
7. Warm Temperature Interior Region (Steppe type.)

63 Geography form One

8. Cool Temperature West Coast Margin (British type).
9. Cool Temperature Continental Regional (Siberian).
10. Cold Temperature Eastern Margin (Laurentian)
11. Tundra and Polar Regions.
12. Mountain Regions.

The Equatorial Region

The equatorial region is found approximately between latitude 00 and 50 North and South
of the equator. Areas which belong to this type of natural region are the Amazon and
Congo basins, the West Africa Coast, the East Indians and the Coastal plain Colombia.

High temperature and very heavy rainfall characterize the region. The temperature varies
little from 270c throughout the year. The annual range of temperature is generally small
about 20c throughout the year. The total rainfall in these regions is around 2, 000
millimeters with no distinct dry season. The annual distribution of rainfall usually shows
two peaks ( maximal) after the equinoxes fig 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 and table 2( a) , ( b) and ( c)
demonstrates the climate of this region.

64 Geography form One

Table 2: Typical climate figures for the equatorial Region.

65 Geography form One

Rainfall in this region is of the convectional type and is usually accompanied by thunder
and lighting. Heavy rainfall, high humidity and high temperatures throughout the year
result in continuous growth of vegetation' s. The natural vegetation in this region is thick
forest called salve. The forest is always green, because the trees do not shed their leaves at
the same time. The most common trees are mahogany, rosewood, ironwood, green heart
balsa, palms and tree ferns.
The trees can grow to a height of 45 meters and their umbrella- like tops from and almost
continuous cover of tree crowns ( canopy) . The trees are often intertwined with creepers (
Lianas) and have many parasite plants. Because little light reaches the ground hence there is

66 Geography form One

little undergrowth, where man has cleared the forest and practiced shifting cultivation,
deserted areas develop secondary forests with mainly small trees and thick undergrowth.
There are three types of animals found in the equatorial rain forests. The first type consists
of tree dwellers such as the gorilla, the chimpanzee and the monkey. These animals have
long arms, which enable them to swing from branch to branch. I n additional to these
animals there are many varieties of birds, reptiles and insects. The second type consists of
those animals which live in the rivers, such as the hippopotamus and the crocodile. The
third type comprises animals that dwell in the open parts of the forest, especially where the
forest merges into the Savanna.
People living in the equatorial regions usually engage in shifting cultivation or “ slash and
burn” agriculture. I n this type of cultivation the people clear the forest by cutting down
and burning the vegetation, then they tilt the soil and grow crops such as yams,
cassava, groundnuts, maize, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, water melon and
banana. The major type of people in Amazon and Congo basin and East Indians are
engaged in this kind of agriculture. They also do some hunting and fishing.
Another agriculture activity found in the equatorial region is plantation agriculture. A
plantation is a large scale farm in which cash crops such as natural rubber, cocoa and oil
palms are grown. Most rubber plantations are found in Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and
Sri- Lanka. Natural rubber are of great importance to the economy of Malaysia and
Thailand. I t was equally important in the economy of Indonesia before oil was discovered.
Rubber is used in making tires and in the manufacture of many industrial products.
Oil palm is another important crop grown in equatorial regions. I t is grown in Nigeria,
Malaysia and Indonesia. Palm oil is produced from the flesh of the fruit and from the nut.
Palm oil is used for the manufacture of margarine, cooking fat and soap.
I n Nigeria oil palm cultivation is widely spread in the South. The palm belt yields more
palm produce than all the other parts of West Africa put together. The palm belt has ideal
condition for growing palm. I t has heavy annual rainfall about 1500mm, enough sunshine
for opening the palm fruits, and well drained soils. Over 90% of the produce is obtained
from small hold farmers, while the rest is obtained from plantations. Oil is extracted from
the nuts by manual method or in oil mills.
Cocoa was introduced to the West Africa mainland from Fernando Po Islands in the last
part of the 19th century. I t has been developed by peasant farmers. At the beginning, the
quality of cocoa was very poor as a result of lack of new technology in the preparation of
the beans for export. Great improvements have been achieved following the grading of the
cocoa beans and the payment attached to each grade. Ghana is the leading cocoa producing
country in the world, with an annual output of about 250, 000 tons.

67 Geography form One

A piece of land can be kept under cocoa cultivation for as long as 40 years. Preparation of
the farms is done between January and March. Food crops are also grown on the cocoa
farms during the first 4 years when the cocoa trees have not started to bear fruits.
Cocoa seedlings are easily damaged by directly sun rays and heavy rain. That is why a few
trees are left when clearing the bush so that they may provide shades. More shades are
provided by planting bananas.
Flowering begins in December and the main cocoa harvest takes place between October
and February and the “ light crop” is gathered from April to August. During the main
harvest, owners of large cocoa farms are usually forced to hire labours to gather and tend
upon the beans during fermentation. The quality of the crop depends largely on proper
fermentation.
At home, men use sticks to split open cocoa pods. I nside each pod there are about forty
beans lying in a bed for sticky white pulp. Women separate the beans from the pulp.
Children help to carry them to the markets that are close to railway stations. From the
markets the cocoa beans are transported by rail to Accra for export.
( Ghana Main cocoa producing area)

Lumbering in Ghana.
Ghana is among the west African countries that fall under equatorial type of climate. One
of the economic activities carried in Ghana is lumbering. The forest and woodland used to

68 Geography form One

cover about 33.1% of the total land use in Ghana. Up to date the forest land remaining is
only a quarter of the former land. This is due to high exploitation of forests without
replacement, which encourage expansion of deserts and soil degradation. Forest
management is under government control, which involves both natural forest and timber
plantations.
The government encourages timber production for export which employs about 70, 000
people in the timber industry. A national Forestry Administration Program ( NFAP) was
established, supported by international bodies like USAI D, the FAO and the countries
such as Canada and the United Kingdom. Such programs do not realize the government’ s
irresponsibility in conserving the forests but to people who clear forests for new areas of
farms land.
The falling of trees is through both man labour and use of machines. The trees are cut into
logs and packed on the trucks then transported to the ports for export, and other to the
home industries for processing. A part from lumbering people obtain traditional medicines,
firewood, fruits and meet through hunting. These benefits are not realized by the
government.
Tropical Grassland ( Savanna or Sudan) .

These regions are found between 50c and 200c north and south of the equator. They
include West Africa, Sudan, East and Central Africa, the Brazilian plateau, Venezuela and
North Australia.
Tropical Grassland or Sudan type
Temperatures are always high, but with a greater range than in the equatorial region. They
range from 200C during the cool season and 320c in the hot season. This region has an
annual range of temperature of about 80c. Total rainfall mainly during the hot season of
the year ( Tables 3 ( a) and ( b) and figure 4.9 and 4.10)

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The vegetation varies considerably from the areas near the equatorial forest to the desert
margin. The grass are tall and trees are more numerous in regions near the equatorial
forests, but towards the desert margins the grass is short and poor and there are scattered
thorn bushes. The grass grows well and becomes green during the rainy season but it turns
yellow during the dry season. The grassland is known as the Campos while those in
Venezuela are called the llanos. The African and Australian grasslands are known as the
Savanna. The Savannas are the most extensive grasslands.
Table 3: Typical climate figures for the Tropical Grassland ( Sudan type) Region.
a) Cuiba (Brazil)

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Typical trees of the Savanna grasslands are baobabs, miambo, acacias and gum trees. Two
main groups of animals found in the Savanna include the grass and leaf eating animals such
as giraffe, elephant, buffalo, hippopotamus, zebra, antelope and rhino. Animals which feed
entirely on plants are known as herbivorous animals.
The second group consists of the fresh eating or carnivorous animals such as the lion,
leopard and hyena. I n addition, there are many species of birds, Reptiles and insects.
People in the tropical grassland engage mainly in livestock keeping and cultivation. I n the
Campus
of Brazil, cattle are grazed on large farms called ranches. Cattle rearing is also important in
the llanos of Venezuela and Savannas of Africa.
The main crops grown in the tropical grasslands are maize, millet, groundnuts, rice, beans,
onions, cotton, tobacco, sugarcane, sisal and coffee. Maize and millet are the two most
important food crops. Maize grows well in the wet areas while millet thrives in the drier
parts. Groundnuts are important crops in West Africa. I n Brazil and other tropical high
land, coffee is grown mainly on plantations. Cotton is widely grown throughout the tropical
grassland on small peasant plots.

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Most of Tanzania lies in the tropical grassland. I n this part of the country livestock
keeping is one of the major occupations of the Sukuma and the beans are growing mainly
for food by the majority of Tanzanians. Coffee, Cotton, Tobacco are grown in various
parts of the country as cash crops.
Cotton Growing in Sukuma land
Cotton is one of the important cash crops in Tanzania. Over 90% of the outputs comes
from areas around Lake Victoria, specifically Mwanza and Shinyanga regions. These are
usually referred to as Sukumaland and it is inhabited by Sukuma tribe. Other areas together
produce about 10% of the country’ s total output.
Cotton production 1990- 1999

Cotton growing in sukuma land started in Mwanza and Kwimba districts, and later spread
into the surrounding areas of shinyanga, Maswa and Geita. These new areas had a small
population but a lot of flat land. This made large scale cotton farming possible. People
also grow cassava, maize and rice mainly for subsistence.

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I n sukuma land rainfall is seasonal and has great influence in cotton growing. Both the total
annual rainfall, which is between 508 millimeters and 884 millimeters, and the monthly
distribution are of great importance to the quality and quantity of cotton produced.
Table 4. Rainfall Data: Average Monthly totals

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GRAPHS

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Generally Mwanza Region has an altitude varying from 1, 128 meters to 1, 280 meters.
Suitable
land for growing cotton in Mwanza area occurs in patches in the up lands partly because
there is a lot of rocky land in this area and partly because the bottom lands are more
suitable for grazing. I n Mwanza region cotton fields are usually cultivated by family
members. They cultivate the farm in strips down the slopes around the hills.
Shinyanga region has been more recently settled than Mwanza region. Cotton farms in this
area are quite extensive because the land is flat and the farmers use tractors or plough and
hire labour during weeding and harvesting peaks. Geita district is the only district in
Mwanza region which engages in extensive farming similar to that found in Shinyanga
region.
Labour patterns in both Mwanza and Shinyanga regions follow a similar sequence. For
example, a generalized working pattern in Geita district in Mwanza and that of Maswa
district in Shinyanga is as follows;

• In Maswa farmers generally begin to cultivate soon after the first rains. Their working
calendar on the cotton farms is as follows;
November- Mid December
• Clearing the fields.
• Ploughing and spreading manure or fertilizer.
• Collecting seeds from primary societies (about two and a half tons per hectare).
• Planting.
Mid December- March

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• Thinning the seedlings.
• Weeding (done three to four times).
• Spraying (done three to four times).
May - July
• Harvesting
• Sorting and grading June - August
• Selling.
August – September
• Uprooting and burning the cotton plants. Most farmers do the ploughing and planting
at the same time at the beginning of the rainy season.
Weeding is done at least three times. The first weeding is done when the cotton seedlings
are seven to ten centimeters tall. This helps the seedling grow healthy and strong because
they get enough supply of food and in clean fields. The second weeding is done before the
cotton balls open and spraying is done after each weeding to clear off any cotton disease.
The harvesting period is the busiest time for the whole family, usually harvesting is done
between May and July. The beginning and the end of harvesting will depend on when each
individual farmer planted his cotton. But harvesting peaks occur between the last week of
June and the first week of July. After harvesting peaks occur between the last week of June
and the first week of July. After harvesting, Farmers immediately uproot the cotton plants
and burn them. Burning help to kill the cotton pests that might have attacked the cotton
plants. The farms are left clear of any cotton plants ready for the next ploughing period.
Livestock Raising in Tanzania.
Livestock raising in Tanzania include pastoralism, mixed farming and ranching. Pastoralism
is an activity of keeping animals such as cattle, goats and sheep’ s. The pastoralists in
Tanzania include the Masai and Barbaigs who move from one place to another searching
for pastures and water for their animals. Normally they don’ t have permanent settlements.
These are pure pastoralists with large herds of animals.
Ranching is a commercial way of keeping animals. The animals are kept in an enclosed big
area with necessary facilities. Ranches in Tanzania involve beef cattle, piggery and large
poultry projects. Some of these ranches can be found in Kongwa District in Dodoma,
Kikombo in Mpwapwa District. Ruvu in Kibaha District and west Kilimanjaro in hai
District. The government or companies today run most of these ranches.

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Mixed farming is a kind of farming whereby people with permanent settlement keep animal
and involve in crop cultivation. Good examples are the Sukuma, Nyamwezi and Gogo. Few
cattle herders in Tanzania practice transhumance that is seasonal movement with cattle up
to the highlands and down the valleys especially during dry seasons. The good examples
of such movements are the pare who move with herds to the uplands during a day time
and back to their homes in the evening.

Exercise.
Draw a map of Tanzania and show the areas with large number of animals keepers

Monsoon Region
I t was pointed out that the word monsoon comes from an Arabic word “ Mausin” which
means season. The monsoon region is an area in the climate mainly influenced by the wind
blowing alternatively from one direction in one season and the other direction in another
season. The areas which have monsoon type of climate are South East ( India, Pakistan,
Burma, Thailand and China) and Northern Austria. This type of climate is mostly marked
in India.

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I n winter, the interior of Asia is extremely cold. The air over this area is cold and heavy,
forming a region of high pressure without blowing winds. But the sea is comparatively
warm, for it has been gradually gaining at during summer and warm air over it rises,
forming a region of pressure. Wind blows from the high pressure area in the interior
towards the low pressure area over the sea. Since the winds which blow from land are dry,
the monsoon lands receive little rain during winter except for it in coastal areas and island
such as sri- lanka which are reached the winds after passing over the ocean. I n summer the
opposite happen. Except for very high areas, the interior of Asia becomes extremely cold.
The air over the land becomes intensively heated, expand, rises and form a region of low
pressure. Since the sea takes longer to heat than land does, the sea becomes comparatively
cool, and forms an area of high pressure. Winds blow from the sea to the land and bring
rain to South East Asia. Over most India Rain bearing winds blow from the south west. I n
china South East winds blow from the Pacific ocean.
The amount of rainfall the monsoon region receives varies from place to place. For instance,
charrapunji, on the wind ward side of the khusi hill in Assam ( India) , gets around Delhi (
India) receives only 620 millimeters of rainfall ( Table5 ( a) , ( b) and ( c) and fig. 4.17,
4.18 and 4.12.

Table 5: Typical climate figures for the Tropical Monsoon Region;

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The monsoon region has three marked Season. The hot dry season starts from March to
June and has temperatures rising to over 320c, hot wet season which starts from October to
March. Fig 4.17, 4.18 and 4.19 Show rainfall and temperature conditions for three stations
in the monsoon region;

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There is very little of the natural vegetation left in the monsoon areas. However, the main
natural vegetation types still existing vary with the amount of rainfall. Where there is very
heavy rainfall ( over 2000mm) vegetation consists of forests with trees such as teak and
tropical cedar, .the trees grow to a height of about 30 to 35 meters. Where rainfall is
relatively heavy ( 1000-2000mm) less dense forests are found. The trees include iron, wood
and sandal wood. Mangrove trees grow in swampy coasts and many reaching a height of
nine meters. Deciduous any trees such as tamarack and acacias are another type of
vegetation found in this region. This vegetation is found in their desert of India. Because of
population pressure in India, a lot of land which is reserved for wild animals have been used
for human settlement. As a result of luck of natural habitats many wild animals have
disappeared. Among the animals that have survived are the tigers, the hyenas, and the
elephants
About 70 percent of the population in Asia are farmers. Because of the high density of
population in many parts of Asia most farms are small in size and are intensive. Rice is the
most common food crop and is the staple food for most people in the wetter parts of India,
Bangladesh, Burma and indo- china. Wheat, millet, maize and sorghum are grown in the
drier areas where rice cannot be grown, and are important crops in the northern India and
Pakistan. Sugarcane, cotton and jute are important in lower land crops in India, Pakistan
and Bangladesh. Tea is grown in highland areas as a plantation crop particularly in Sri- lank,
Bangladesh and India.
Pigs, cows, buffaloes, sheep, goats and poultry birds are raised in this region. India has a
large number of cows but a cow is regarded as a sacred animal by the Indians and it is
therefore not kept for meat. Cattle is kept for milk and for ploughing. Large urban centers
in the region have developed as major industrial centers.
Paddy growing in India.
Rice is the staple food to the people of India. I t is grown in the tropical lowland where
rainfall exceeds 1780mm per year. it is the most characteristic crop of the monsoon lands
and the total coverage exceeds that of any other crop. Paddy is cultivated in very few areas
outside the influence of the monsoon.

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The factors for paddy growing include heavy rains which exceed 1780mm per year. The
alluvial type of soil brought by rivers and ice melt from the Himalayas increase fertility to
the soil. Water logging in the flooded areas is also another factor for paddy growing, the
additional water through irrigation from the Punjab irrigation schemes, wells and canals
increase yielding of paddy in India. I n areas with less amount of rainfall below 1780mm
allow growing of paddy where as the wet paddy is grown in the heavier amount of rainfall.
The land holding is for subsistence and plantation. The subsistence is mainly for family
consumption where excess is sold to the rural cooperatives. The farmers use oxen borrowed
from the land owners or cooperatives to plough the paddy field and harvest by hand using
seasonal cheap laboures. I n the plantations, they use tractors and often oxen to plough the
paddy fields. The tractors are owned by the government and foreign companies. They apply
fertilizers and insecti sides to improve high yields of the crop. I n harvesting they use
seasonal or migrant laboures and combined harvesters. A large part of the harvest is for
selling.
The Hot Deserts
Hot deserts are found on the western margins of land masses between latitude 200 and 300
north and south of the equator ( fig.4.20). hot deserts occupy about one third of the earth’
s surface. The major hot deserts of the world are, the Sahara, the Kalahari and the
Namibian deserts in Africa, the California deserts( north AMERI CA), the Alabama desert(
south America) , the Arabian, thar and Gobi deserts in Asia and the great Australia desert.

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The desert surface varies from desert to desert and from place to place within the same
desert. On the basis of types of surfaces deserts are classified as:
1. Sand deserts these have sand surfaces and are sometimes known as ergs.
2. Stony deserts where stones prevail. Such deserts are also called series or regs.
3. Rocky deserts (Hamada) which have rocky surfaces. Hot deserts have high
temperatures and very low rain fall (fig. 4.21, 4.22, and tables a,b, c.)
Table 6.typical climatic figures for hot dessert regions.

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I n most deserts, day time temperatures are very high around 400C. Nights are cold with
temperatures as low as 160C. I n winters the night temperatures may fall to 500C. The daily
range of temperatures is large ( 160C) for example in Egypt the mean monthly temperature
in summer is 320C in winter months the temperature may be as low as 160 C.( table 6 figure
4.21, 4.22 and 4.23)

Lima

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Deserts get very little rain usual less than 250mm. in some deserts rain may fall only once in
five or six years.This type of rainfall is heavy and collects into stream of running water
which may form channels. When sub channels are dry they are called wadis.
I n some cases for example in the Sahara strong winds such as harmattan blow across the
desert. These winds carry a lot of sand and dust. Such sandstones are usually called simoom.
Natural vegetation is very scanty in hot deserts and it consists mostly them scrub bushes
and cactus. Wherever agriculture is practiced the crops that are grown include date palm,
cotton, rice, sugarcane , vines, millet, tomatoes , tobacco and fruit trees. Apart from people
who live in these Oases there are nomads who move from place to place to search for
pastures. They keep camels, donkeys, and sheep. Other desert people get their food from
hunting and collection of nuts and fruits. Other occupations include weaving mats, making
tents and ropes and also trading.
Meaning of desert:
Desert refers to an area which receive low amount of rainfall approximately 250mm per
year.
Life in the oasis.
I n the deserts wherever there are oases some forms of settlements is bound to follow. These
are depressions of varying size when underground water reaches the surface for example
tufted oasis in morocco covers 13000 square kilometers which supports many settlements,
including big towns. Other oasis include ghadermes oasis in Libya which is only 2.6 Square
kilometers in size and supports a very low population.
Life in an oasis is very secured and well organized. A wall usually constructed around the
oasis to keep out the violent storm dusts called simooms. I n the oasis people live in mud
bricks houses with flat roofs closely packed together. The streets are narrow and winding (
run around the oasis) . The heart of the settlement is dominated by the suas May ( normal
market place) , mosques, schools and shopping blocks. Suas may also be set up several
kilometers from anywhere and people come from a number of surround settlement on
special days to trade.
Around the settlement is the agricultural land. Most of the crops produced are through
irrigation channels or drawn water from wells by camels or mules. The important crops
include date palm, others are maize, barley, wheat, cotton and sugarcane, fruits and
vegetation.
Importance of deserts to the economy.
Desserts are important for the production of date palms, cotton, sugarcane and wheat which
are raw materials to the world’s industries. Useful animals are also reared in the deserts and

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they walk long distances without eating and drinking. They serve people in transport all
over the world as they are the cheapest means of transport. These animals include camels
and mules. Valuable minerals deposits ( Mining) are found in the deserts for example gold,
caliche ( cemented groves) , copper, sodium nitrate, silver, diamond and uranium which are
very important raw materials in the world’ s industries for different purposes.
Apart from the above mentioned minerals, oil production and the desert. Most of the
petroleum used in the world is obtained from deserts. Petroleum serves as lubricant as fuel
for road construction and domestic uses and as raw materials in oil refined industries.
Desert formation expansion and control.
Desserts are formed by both man’ s activities and natural forces, that influence desert
formation which include drought which is a result of long experiences of low amount of
rainfall or caused by man’ s activity which is made more acute by population increase.
Population increase encourages deforestation for various reasons. Over grazing, use of
unskilled labour, irrigation and over occupation. Desert expansion can be checked through
changing people’ s attitude by planting trees after cutting one, use of proper methods of
irrigation, reducing the number of animals in one area avoid mono cropping by crop
rotation and control population that exceeds resources available.

Revision.
Answer all questions in this section.
Read the following statements carefully and then write the letter of the most correct answer
below in the space provided against the question.
1. One of the following groups are features of the ocean floor.
a) Continental shelf, continental slope, trench. b) Trench, ridge, basin, dune.
c) Horst, plain, volcano, basin.
d) Ridge, basin, plateau and water fall
2. One of the effects of rapid population growth on small scale agriculture is?
a) Low technology.
b) Land degradation.
c) Decline in soil fertility
d) Population pressure.

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3. What will be the temperature of musindi at 1800 meters above sea level, if the
temperature of tanga at sea level is 340c?
a) 2- 820c
b) 49- 80c
c) 28.20c
d) 10.80c
4. Eclipse of the moon( lunar eclipse) takes place
a) When the earth is in between the sun and the moon
b) When the meteors fall on the moon.
c) When the moon is above the sun.
d) All the above answers are correct.
5. Which of the following mathematical statement given is the right answer in minutes
of the time taken by earth to turn one degree of longitude?
a) 3600 x24 hours 60
b) 24 hours x60 minutes
360
c) 3600, 60minutes
I f the time of Maputo 500e is 3:00pm, when the time at Lagos is 12:16 pm, what is the
longitudinal position of Lagos?
a) 610e
b) 900e
c) 440e
d) 900e
Pick out the statement that is not true.
a) All altitude is a great circle
b) All longitudes are great circles
c) All longitudes and equators are great circles.
d) Greenwich meridian is a meridian 1800

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The structure of the earth is composed of:
a) Sima and sial.
b) Carbon and sodium
c) Silicon and alumina
d) Crust, mantle and core
Which of the following statements is not true for an equatorial region?
a) It is found in between 00 and 50 north and south of equator
b) It has two rainfall maximum
c) It has small temperature range
d) It has temperature of above 400c
Match the items in column A with corresponding items in column A by writing the letter of
th correct item in column B against its corresponding number in column.
Column A
i. Meteors ( I ) ii.Water pollution ( E)
iii. I sotherms ( N)
iv. Aneroid barometer ( K)
v. The period when earth becomes nearest to the sun ( O)
vi. Scale ( F)
vii. The cause of day and night( C)
viii. Mozambique ocean current( H)
ix. Volcanic mountains( G)

Column B
a) Has not erupted recently
b) Mbozi in mbeya region and tandura in Ruvuma region
c) Rotation of the earth
d) Cola ocean current
e) Unwanted substances mixed with water

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f) Distance on the map to the actual distance
g) Rungwa in mbeya and Kilimanjaro
h) Warm ocean current
i) Piece of hard matter falling from the outer space
j) Aplolion
k) An instrument used to measure air pressure
l) Restoration of wasteland in productive land
m) Chemical added to water to purify it
n) Lines joining places with the same temperature
o) Perihelion
p) Revolution of the earth
q) Lines joining places with the same air pressure
r) I s the result of earth’ s wrapping.
Calculate the total annual rainfall
100, 80, 70, 60, 40, 16, 20, 60, 10, 90
546+ 70= 606 total annual rainfall is 606mm
To suggest the type of climatic region for station x give the reasons; This is the tropical
region
Because it has more rainfall 500mm- 1500mm I t has above two degrees centigrade
I n which hemisphere is the station located? Southern hemisphere
Suggest two types of crops grown in this area.
a) Banana
b) Coffee
List down four elements of weather
a) Clouds
b) Winds
c) Humidity
d) Pressure

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Write true or false against statements given below.
i. The small stream joining together to form a main river is called a distributary false
ii. Pastoralism is the seasonal movement of live stock to the mountains and to the
valleys. True
iii. A forest is a renewable source. True
iv. Contour terracing is an agriculture aim to prevent loss of soil fertility. False
v. In shifting cultivation permanent crops like coffee, cocoa and banana are grown.
False
vi. All longitudes are great circles. True
vii. Mining activities can destroy the environment. True
viii. Lake nyasa is an example of a lake created by aman. False
ix. Kagera river basin is one of the major sources of the Nile contributing 30% of its
water. False
Mediterranean regions.
The Mediterranean type of climate is found in areas between 300 and 450 in the northern
hemisphere and between 300 and 400 in the southern hemisphere. Places with the
Mediterranean climate are the coastal lands around the Mediterranean sea ( the Maghreb,
Spain, Italy, Greece, Egypt, and Israel) , the western sides of north and south America (
central California and central china) , Australia ( south and western) and south Africa ( cap
province)

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I n the summer these areas are hot and dry because they are under the influence of trade
winds. I n the winter, westerlies from the ocean bring rainfall to these areas. Rainfall is
relatively light and the annual total varies from 500mm to 760mm. temperatures range
from 210C in summer to about 100c in winter.

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There is little natural vegetation left in the Mediterranean region because much of it has
been cleared for cultivation of commercial crops such as citrus fruits.
Since little rainfalls during the growing season, plant life in these areas is adopted to
summer drought by storing in thick barks and leaves moisture derived from winter
precipitation. The plants also have small waxy, spiny leaves which prevent excessive
transpiration. Some of the common trees found around the shores of the Mediterranean
sea are cork- oaks, cypress and cedar. Where forests have been cleared for cultivation and no
trees are spared. I n areas that have been mostly developed for cultivation scrub land of ever
green shrubs such as deander, lavender, rose marry and thyme are found in California.
The douglasfir, is the most common tree, where as in Australia eucalyptus is the most
common tree.

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Table 7; typical climatic figures for the Mediterranean region.

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The climate permits a wide range of crops to be grown these include fruits and cereals. The
most common cereals are wheat, barley, maize, and citrus fruits ( oranges, lemons, limes.) ,
olives and grapes. Other fruits are peaches, apricots, plums, cherries and pears. Farmers
use both ploughs and hoes. Fields are terraced in order to conserve soil and rain water to
sink into the ground. I n hot districts such as south Spain and Sicily, rice, sugarcane,
oranges and lemons are grown in irrigated areas. Agricultural based industries that have
developed these areas include wine making, flour milling and fruit.
Fruit growing in South Africa.
The cultivation of fruits seems to be the oldest agricultural activity in South Africa which
started as a source of supplying citrus to the passing ships of Dutch east India company to
prevent scurvy among the crews. However interests soon shifted to grapes which were
converted into wine which stood too long in sea journeys.
Citrus fruits were mainly grown for local markets. When the Boer farmers trekked from
Cape Town to the Transvaal they took with them citrus fruit seeds to increase production
of the fruits. The opening of gold mine industry increased the demand for the fruits in the
14th century to Cape Town. The establishment of regular sailing of refrigerated vessels
increased export of fruits from cape town to western Europe. Due to high demand, new
planning was carried out and led to the present huge output . fruit production is an
important occupation practiced by the white farmers in the south western cape province in
south Africa.

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Much fruit growing is practiced in the valley to the east of the Cape Town. The size of
farms in these areas varies from 20 to 120 hectares. Grapes for wine are dominant fruit
crops, with small areas of citrus especially along the breed river valley. On the cooler higher
plateau of the interior other fruits dominate. These are deciduous fruits which include
peaches, plums, pears, table grapes, apricots, prune and apples.
The importance of fruits to South Africa economy can be judged from the fact that citrus
fruits contribute 10% of the total export. Citrus fruits with deciduous fruits and wine
exports contribute about 20% of all its exports.
The republic of South Africa has nearly 10 million citrus trees cared for by 4200 growers.
Many of these growers are members of citrus fruit co- operatives. There are 45 such co-
operatives in the country. These growers have their farms in Cape province.
There are large plantations in northern and eastern Transvaal and in natal owned by whites.
There are variations in production between the provinces. The Cape Province produces
between 20- 25 percent while the Transvaal produces about 65% of the total production.
Much of the remainder comes from natal.
South Africa trades with a number of partners who are interested in her fruits and fruit
products including hard and soft drinks, and jam among others. Britain is one of the
partners who import about 30% of the republic’ s fruits. Others include Scandinavia,
Germany, Netherlands, and Belgium. These take smaller amounts.

MAP WORK
A map is a scale representing the earth’s surface on a flat material. For example a piece of
paper, wall, clothes and a piece of wood.
Map interpretation is the ability to translate the symbols and signs on the map ordinary
language by industries the features that they represent.
COMPONENTS /QUALITIES/ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD MAP
A map is good if it contains all the essentials of maps, therefore the essentials are good
qualities of maps.
The essentials of a good map are:
1) Key.
Used to interpret symbols and signs found on a map. For example.

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2) Title
Used to show what’s map is all about. This is the heading of the map. It can appear on top
of the map or any where else
3) North direction
This is an indication of the north direction. It shows where north is and by knowing north
one can know the direction and bearing of the place.

4) Margin
This is a boundary or limit around the map. It gives or shows the reader and interpreter the
end of the map.
5) Publisher and date publication
This shows when the map was produced and a publisher.
6) A scale
It shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance for example
1cm to 10km means one centimeter on the map represents ten kilometers on the ground
7) Latitude and Longitude / Grid reference .
It used to locate the place on the map. Forexample the map of Tanzania is located at
latitude 6°00' south of the equator and longitude 35°00' east of Greenwich meridian.

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TYPES OF MAPS
The classification of maps are based on the purpose for which each map is drawn.
Therefore map.can be categorized into three types as follows:
i) Sketch map
ii) Atlas map/ wall maps
iii) Topographical maps

i) Sketch maps
A map drawn from observation (rather than from exact measurements) and representing the
main features of an area.
ii) Atlas map/ wall maps
A collection of different maps that have been bound together in one volume to form a
book. These maps are usually drawn to scales example shows town and cities, hills,
mountains, valleys, forests, countries, etc
iii) Topographical maps.
Shows selected physical and human features in an area and their positions on the ground for
example hills, village, mountains, lakes, ponds, rivers

MAP SCALE
Is the relationship or ratio between map distance and actual ground distance

TYPES OF SCALE.
We can classify the scale according to the size in our criteria. There are three types of scales;
a) Large scale.
They are used to present information on small areas for example a map of village buildings
and farms. The map size involves all numbers less than 1:25000
I.e. 1:10000 and 1:5000
Characteristics of large scale.

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i) It has smaller numbers in the denominator.
ii) It shows features clearly
iii) It contains geographical details.
b) Medium scale.
They are used to represent medium details shown on the map.
Map size involves numbers between 1:25000 to 1:250000 i.e. 1:50,000 and 1:100,000.
Example of a map that can be drawn using medium scale is a map of a district, region, city
etc.
c) Small scale.
They are used to present information that is long.
This type of scale covers a big area with less detail. For example a map of a country,
continent or world. May involve numbers between 1 : 500,000 to
Like 1 : 1000,000
Characteristics of small scale.
i) It has the largest denominator.
ii) Contains a lot of geographical information.
iii) It does not show geographical features clearly.
WAYS USED TO EXPRESS MAP SCALE.
i) As a statement.
Refers to the scale which is expressed in terms of words or explanation. For example one
centimeter on a map is equivalent to 10 centimeters on the ground
ii) Linear scale
Is called plain or graphic scale. This is a line which is divided into two parts. The primary
division and secondary division. The secondary are expressed in meters and placed on the
left side from zero and primaries are expressed in kilometers and placed on the right side
from zero.

97 Geography form One

iii) Representative fraction (RF) scale

- That is- the top number (numerator) represents the map distance on the ground and is
usually more than

IMPORTANCE OF SCALE ON THE MAP

a) Scale help to calculate area of a map
b) It enable us to calculate distance on a map
c) Scale shows the relationship between map distance and the actual ground distance
d) Scale help us to enlarge and reduce the area on a map or the whole map
e) Scale can be used to calculate the vertical exaggeration on a map
f) Scale is used to calculate the gradient on a map
Distinguish and explain signs from symbols

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2. Most symbols used in map While signs are not pictorial are pictorial
2) QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION ON MAPS
A) MEASURING DISTANCE ON THE MAP

Distance is the length of an elongated features on the earth’s surface such as road, railway,
river etc.
How to measure distance.
In order to obtain distance of any feature on the map, consideration should be made on
whether the distance to be measured is straight or curved.
Straight distance
For all straight distances a ruler is used to obtain the distance directly from the
topographical map given.
Curved distance.
It becomes difficult to obtain curved distance of the features by the use of a ruler directly
from the topographical map when the area is inclined. In this case the following devices can
be used:-
I. A pair of divider.
A pair of divider is commonly used to measure the distance. You should start by breaking
the
length by using a pair of dividers then transfer some of the already drawn straight lines.
Then transfer the measured line to the linear scale or ruler for calculation to get the actual
distance.
II. A piece of a string

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Slowly measure the distance by a piece of string along a given length then transfer it to a
linear scale or ruler for actual calculation of the distance.
20cm map distance
Scale distance= map distance
Actual distance
½ km ½ x 2 = 240km 1:50000
1/50000 =20cm
100000 = 20cm
50000 = x
=10km.
1. A piece of strip paper
Slowly lay a piece of paper along a given length then break your lengths into short segments
then transfer to the linear scale for measuring and calculation.

MEASURING AREAS ON A MAP/CALCULATE AREA OF REGULAR

IRREGULAR
Area size refers to the bigness or smallness of an area on the earth’s surface i.e. the bigness
or smallness of earth’s surface from topographical map consideration should be made
whether the area is regular or not.

Exercise
1) To state the following.
a) map is a scale representing the earth’s surface on a flat material
b) map reading refers to a scale reading which is obtained from recognizing or
identifying signs and symbols that are used on a map.
c) Scale is the relationship or ratio between map distance and actual ground.

100 Geography form One

d) Contour is a line drawing on a map which shows the area at the same point.
2) Why do we study maps?
i) People use them to reach their directions.
ii) Builders use maps to build new roads.
iii) Maps are used in conducting various geographical researches.
iv) Maps are useful in military activities.
v) Maps are useful in describing the features on the earth’s surface.
3) To state the way of expressing scale.
i) Statement scale; Refers to the scale which is used or expressed in terms of words for
example 1cm on the map is equivalent to 10 km on the ground.
ii) Linear scale; Is called plain, it has the primary division and secondary division.
4) What is the importance of a scale?
- It helps to calculate area of a map
- It enable us to calculate distance on a map
- Scale help us to enlarge and reduce the area on a map
5) List at least 3 methods of calculating the linear distance of an object.
i) A Pair of dividers
ii) A piece of paper
iii) A piece of string.
6) The distance of the road is 36cm from Lindi to Nachingwea, convert the distance in
kilometers if the scale used is 1:100000
Solution Distance =36cm
Scale =1:100, 000
1km =100,000cm 1 Km= x
Hence, 1 cm= 1 km
(after cross multiplication):
Therefore 1cm= 1km
36cm= x (cross multiplication)

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1x =36km
X=36 the distance is 36km.
Therefore, the distance on the ground from Lindi to Nachingwea is 36km.
b) From the above convert the same distance in km if the scale is changed to 1:50000
Solution Distance=36cm
Scale =1:50000 1km =100,000cm
x = 50, 000cm (cross multiplication)
=0.5km
Therefore the distance in Kilometers is 0.5km
REGULAR SHAPE
These are areas with definite shapes such as squares, triangles etc. Their total perimeters or
areas are obtained by mathematical formula i.e. length x width, side x side etc.
IRREGULAR SHAPE
These are areas with indefinite shapes such as lakes, farms, ponds etc where these areas can
be obtained by any of the following three methods;
a) Square method
b) Strip method
c) Geometrical method
SQUARE METHOD
This is the most accurate and most widely method used. Square methods are normally used
as follows;
a) Count all full squares that are complete
b) Count incomplete squares and divide them by 2
c) Add them with the full squares to obtain the total area in km2

102 Geography form One

METHODS USED TO SHOW OR LOCATE POSITIONS OF A PLACE ON A
MAP.
The following are major methods used to show positions of a place on a map.
i) Grid reference.
ii) Place name
iii) Bearing and compass direction.
iv) Latitude and longitude.
Place name.
You can locate the position of a place by where the features are found i.e. Mbeya, Dodoma,
Mtwara.
Grid reference
Grid reference is a network of vertical lines and horizontal lines on a map. Vertical lines
whose numbers increases towards the east are called easting. Horizontal lines whose
numbers increase towards the north is known as Northings. Where horizontal lines and
vertical lines meet or cross each other they form a square known as grid square. (G.S). A
grid reference point is written inform of six digits starting with three digits of Eastings then
three digits of nothings’

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To write down the grid reference of point A, B, C, D. A=12006
B =130065
C =140067 D=14003.
LOCATION AND POSITION:
COMPASS BEARING AND DIRECTION.
Compass direction is divided into
a) 4 cardinal points
b) 8 cardinal points
c) 16 cardinal points
4 cardinal points

8 cardinal points.

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16 cardinal points

HOW TO FIND DIRECTION OF A PLACE ON A MAP.

1) Identify them due to points on the given map. Points may be given by using grid
reference points, place name or letter.
2) Draw a straight line connecting the two points
3) Mark the major four cardinal points at the starting point with the word from.
4) Now look at the question asked then provide your answer.
What is the direction of point A from B. the direction of point A is NW.
COMPASS BEARING.
Bearing are directions which measure degrees clockwise from north. They are written in
three figures i.e. 0900, 0450
HOW TO FIND BEARING ON THE MAP.
1) Identify the grid reference points given on the maps.
2) Draw a straight line connecting the two points
3) Draw the major four cardinal lines at the starting

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4) Now look at the question asked use a protector to measure degree clockwise from
north up to the line joining the two points.
Provide your answer in degrees i.e. what is the bearing of point A from B BEARING.
a) Forward bearing
b) Backward bearing
a) FORWARD BEARING
Is a bearing into a subject.
Procedures to calculate forward bearing
i. Identify the two points.
ii. ii. Join them with a straight lines
iii. Draw north direction on a second point.
iv. Measure the angle by using a protector.
v. State the bearing in terms of degrees of the direction.
i.e. Find the formed bearing of Moa from Midland.

B=1350 SE
Find the bearing of Mbezi to Ubungo.

The bearing of Mbezi to Ubungo is 1350 SE

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b) Backward bearing.
Is the opposite of forward bearing, it’s taken from the object to the observer while forward
bearing is taken from observer to the object.
How to determine the back bearing.
i) Find forward bearing.
ii) Mark the cardinal point north direction of the opposite point
iii) Find the bearing of the observer along the straight line principally to determine the
back bearing= FB +OR- 1800 BB= FB +1800 IF FB<1800BB=FB-180+FB>1800

EXERCISE
Scale conversion
a) To change statement to R.F scale 1cm represents 60km
Soln
1km=100000cm
60km= x 1:6000000
R.F scale = 1:6000000
b) One centimeter represents 0.75km Soln. 1km = 100000 cm
100000 x 0.75=75000
1:75000 R.F scale = 1:75000
c) One centimeter representing two kilo meters
Soln
1km =100000
100000 x 2 = 200000
1:200000 R.F scale =1:200000
IMPORTANCE OF THE USE OF MAPS
a) People use them to reach their directions
b) Maps are used to describe the features of the earth
c) Builders are maps to plan the best use of the land

107 Geography form One

d) Road constructors use maps to construct new roads
e) Maps are useful in military activities
f) Maps are used in conducting various
g) Maps are used in conducting various geographical researches

108 Geography form One