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Carnegie Uecbnfcal Scbools Gext Boofts

MATHEMATICS
FOR

ENGINEERING STUDENTS

BY
PROF. S. S. KELLER
CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

ALGEBRA AND TRIGONOMETRY

SECOND EDITION, REVISED

NEW YORK:
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STS.

1908
 UBrtARY of CONGRESS?
Iwu CoDtes KtCWttffl

SEP 22 l^W

01 A3* (X AAfc nc*.

Copyright, 1907, 1908, by

D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

Stanbopc Ipress
F. H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTO N. U. S A.
 PREFACE.
Although this book has been designed to meet the
specific needs of the Carnegie Technical Schools, the grow-
ing demand in the field of technical education for a form of

mathematical instruction that will eliminate the purely

speculative and concentrate the more utilitarian features

of mathematical science, leads the author to believe that

such a work as this will not be entirely inept outside of
the Carnegie Technical Schools.
It is believed that the intellectual stimulus and dis-

cipline that is usually attributed to mathematical studies

can be as readily conveyed by those things that are at the
same time practically useful, as by those that are merely
speculative; perhaps much more. readily.
The child can be taught to read as successfully by
giving it exercises that contain useful information, as by
requiring it to drone over masterpieces of prose and verse
that leave no valuable residue whatever in the childish

mind.
The subjects discussed and the problems illustrative of
them have been selected after a careful gleaning of the
author's experience with students of varying tastes and
mentality, with the end in view of making the subjects
vitaland pertinent to the special training they are seeking,
and at the same time of developing their powers of inde-
pendent and accurate thinking.
The vital thing in the art of instruction, in the author's
opinion, is to retain for the subject under investigation,
iii
iv Preface.

not only the students interest but his respect and confi-
dence. To that end he must feel that he is not simply
grinding thin air to make, too often, an intellectual fog.
An effort has been made to avoid the extreme of
pruning too closely, and, in consequence, everything that
in the author's judgment can have even a remote bearing
upon a student's usefulness in technical pursuits has
been inserted more or less briefly.

The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to

Mr. W. A. Bassett and Mr. Lightcap, instructors in the
Carnegie Technical Schools, and especially to Professor
Walter F. Knox, for valuable assistance and suggestions.
S. S. K.
Ca rnegii \ Ti u 7/ // u 'al SV 'h oo Is
.
,

Pittsburg I"ii.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Algebra and Arithmetic Definitions . = , 1-2
Symbols . . .
3
Addition :

Addition of Monomials . . . . . 4
Addition of Polynomials 5
Subtraction of Monomials 5
Subtraction of Polynomials 6
Addition of Negative Numbers .
7
Subtraction of Negative Numbers . , .
7
Multiplication 9
Division 10
Exponents. 10
Multiplication of a Polynomial by a Monomial . . n
Division of a Polynomial by a Monomial 11
Multiplication of a Polynomial by a Polynomial . . . 12
Division of a Polynomial by a Polynomial 12

CHAPTER II.

Definitions and Type Forms ...... 16-19

Greatest Common Divisor 20-24
Least Common Multiple . . , 24-26
Fractions 27-29

CHAPTER III.

Equations . . 30-39
Uses of Literal Equations 31
Uses of Letters in General 31
Degree of an Equation ............. . 32
Clearing of Fractions . .
^^
v
vi Table of Contents.
PAGE
Transposition 34
Solution of Linear Equation of One Unknown ... 34
Simultaneous Linear Equations 35
Elimination by Substitution 37
Elimination by Indeterminate Coefficients 38
More than two Unknowns 39

CHAPTER IV.

Graphics 47~53

CHAPTER V.

The Binomial Theorem 54

Involution and Evolution 58
Extraction of Roots 59
Extraction of Square Root ....
Extraction of Cube Root ... ......... 6]

CHAPTER VI.

Surds 65
Fractional Exponents 66
Radical Signs ....
To Simplify Surds 67
Order of a Surd 68
Reduction of Mixed Surds
Addition and Subtraction of Surds
Multiplication and Division of Surds 69-70
Comparison of Surds 70
Rationalizing Denominators 71
Root of Quadratic Surds 74
Another Method 75
Imaginaries 77
Multiplication of Imaginaries 77

CHAPTER VII.

Indeterminate Equations 80-87

 Table of Contents. vii

CHAPTER VIII.
PAGE
Quadratic Equations ......... . 88
Quadratics ix Single Unknown . . . 88
Kinds of Quadratics 88
Roots of a Quadratic ^
Solution of an Incomplete Quadratic . , . . . . . 89
Solution of a Complete Quadratic 89
Geometrical Illustration 90
Literal and Numerical Equations 90
Solution by Factoring 91
Solution of Substitution «
93
Equations involving Radicals 93
Equations of a Higher Degree . . . . 94
Solution by Factoring 95
Character of Roots , . . . 96
Maxima and Minima 102
Equations of Two or More Unknowns of a Degree
Higher than the First ........ 105

CHAPTER IX.
Logarithms . . 114
Logarithms of Decimals ...... 117
cologarithms . . . 119
To Find a Number from Its Logarithm ....... 120

CHAPTER X.
Inequalities . . 125
Ratio, Variation and Proportion 127
Laws of Proportion 131

CHAPTER XI.
Progressions .
136
Arithmetical Series D . . . 136
Arithmetical Mean ...... 138
Geometrical Progression 141
Value of Any Term 141
viii Table of Contents.
PAGE
Geometrical Mean 142
Infinite Series 143
Harmonical Progression 145

CHAPTER XII.

Interest and Annuities 147

Interest Definitions 147
Simple Interest 147
Compound Interest 147
Annuities 14S

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
PART I.

Relation between Angle and Line 155

Trigonometric Ratios 156
Functions of 45 [6i
Inunctions of (ic 162
Identities [68
Trigonometric Equations 169

PARI II.

Solution of Triangles:
The Right Triangle 172
The Isosceles Triangle 17 \

Regular Polygons 175

Areas 177

PART III.

Further Relation between Angle and Line 185

To Express Functions of any Angle in Functions of a
First Quadrant Angle 193
SiN'O* -f y) and Cos (x + y) 200
Functions of Half an Angle 209
Sum and Difference of Functions 211
Inverse Trigonometrical Functions 213
 Table of Contents ix

PART IV.
PAGE
Solution of Oblique Triangle ............ 215
To Express Angles in Radians 222

PART V.

Spherical Trigonometry 225

Right Spherical Triangles > 225
The Isosceles Triangle 230
The Oblique Triangle 231

PART VI.

Applications 244
Area of a Spherical Triangle 248
 ALGEBRA.
CHAPTER I.

ALGEBRA AND ARITHMETIC.

Article i. Algebra merely an extension of the field

is

of Arithmetic, the primal*}- difference being the use of

letters as symbols, in addition to that of the Arabic char-
acters (i, 2, 3, 4, etc.) and the general employment of
equations.

Fundamental Operations.

Art. 2. The arithmetical operations called addition,

and division, have the same
subtraction, multiplication,
meaning in algebra. For instance, in arithmetic we
would understand by the symbols 5 + 4, that 5 and 4 are
added so in algebra by the symbols a + b, we would under-
;

stand that a quantity represented by a was added to

another quantity represented by b. Also a — b would
mean, as in arithmetic, that b was to be subtracted
from a.

Negative Numbers.

Art. 3. In arithmetic it is always necessary in sub-

traction that the quantity subtracted (called the sub-
trahend) be less than the quantity from which it is taken
(called the minuend).
The use of when unknown quantities
letters, especially
are thus represented, makes desirable an extension of the
operation of subtraction, making it always possible.
The desirability of representing in symbols such
 :

2 Algebra.

balancing conditions as debit and credit, profit and loss,

above zero and below zero, etc., has suggested the idea of
negative numbers.
Illustration. A business man whose assets are $9000
loses $10,000; he not only has nothing left, but is $1000
in debt.
To express this condition the idea of negative numbers
must be introduced, and it is said that he is worth
— $1000.
Again, A travels from C to D 5 miles. At Z), his
distance from C is 5 miles then. He returns from D to C,
and each mile he travels toward C reduces
his distance
from C one mile, and he is Successively 4, 3, 2, 1, and o
miles from C the last symbol (zero) indicating that he
;

has arrived at C. Suppose he is carried through C to E

2 miles, then we may say he is — 2 miles from ('.
The idea of positive and negative quality may thus be
represented by opposite directions, from a fixed point
Let this idea be applied to the series of numbers, o, 1. 2. 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, etc. It is plain that this scries can be
extended to the right indefinitely by adding 1 to each
successive number, but if, starting from any number in
we return toward
this series, the left, by subtracting 1

each time we cannot extend this process indefinitely,

because the series of arithmetical numbers, here repres-
ented, ends on the left with what we call zero.
Now suppose we agree to extend the series to the left
of zero, still subtracting 1 each time, we must have some
new designation for the resulting numbers, and we agree
to call them negative numbers and to represent the series
thus
As -8,-7,-6,-5,-4,-3,-2,-1
o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc.

We can now express the condition of the business man

referred to above. He has lost not only his $ 9000, which
 Algebra. 3

would stand in the series to the right of o, by successive

subtractions, but these subtractions stillcontinued until
thenumber representing the final condition stood far
down in the series to the left, that is, was— 1000.
From the method of obtaining this idea of negative
numbers it is plain that they are all less than zero.
A the thermometer
practical illustration in point
is

scale below zero readings being represented as negative

;

numbers; thus, — 5 — io°, etc., mean 5 degrees and

,

10 degrees below zero, respectively, etc.

SYMBOLS.

Art. 4. The signs of addition, subtraction, multiplica-

tion, and division (h —
x -*-) are the same as in arith-
metic, and have the same general significance.
Art. 5. The greater necessity for indicating opera-
tions that cannot be completely performed in algebra
makes frequent use of the parenthesis or bracket neces-
sary [(•--)[•••]{•••}]• ^ * s °ft en desirable to treat
a polynomial, for instance, as if it were a monomial, and
one of the important functions of the parenthesis is to
bind together several terms where they are to be treated
like a single term. For instance, if we wanted to show
that the expression x 3 y6 + 2
+ 6xy + 7 was like the
3.V y
2

expression a + 3a + 6a 4- 7 in form, it can be written

3 2

thus, (xy) 3 -f s(xy) + 6(xy) + 7.

2
Or, that x + y + z +
ax + ay + az was like m + am, the first expression can
be written (x + y + z) + a (x + y + z).
Art. 6. The expression 4a — (5a + 2b — c) means that
2

the expressions 5a, 26, and — c are all to be subtracted

from 4a 2 The subtraction is merely deferred by the use
.

of the parenthesis until it is desirable to actually perform

it. As long as the parenthesis embraces an expression,
its parts are inseparable and must be taken together.
 Algebra,

ADDITION OF NEGATIVE QUANTITIES.

Art. 7. The addition of negative quantities adds a
new concept to the theory of addition.
If we are required to find the value of the expression

7 + (—2) we may have recourse to the series of positive

and negative numbers previously referred to thus ; :

+1+1+1+1+1 + 1+1 + 1+1+1+1+1+1 +1+1+1+1+1

—a m t—e .»—1-.»— 2-1 o s+:i+-i+.-»+o+i+*,
1
—1-1-1-1—1-1—1-1-1- 1 i-i-i-i 1-1-1-1

be observed that the numbers increase by unity

It will

to the right as indicated by the upper row of i's and

decrease to the left, as indicated by the lower row.
Now, suppose that it was required to find 7+ ( — 2).
This indicates that we must count two to the left by the
lower row from +7, which gives 5. If it was required
|

to find 7 + (-9) we must count 9 units to the left, which

brings us to — 2, etc., hence we say 7 ( - 2) = 5, and •

7 + ( — 9)= -2; but 7 + ( - 2) = 5 is the same

7 — 2 = 5, which is simple arithmetical subtraction, but for
7 + ( — 9) = — 2 we have no arithmetical equivalent From
an observation of the example and others like it, using the
series, we are enabled to evolve this rule .

To add negative numbers subtract the less number from

the greater, arithmetically, and prefix the sign of the greater
number.

Examples. 5 - 8 = -3,
that is, 5 is subtracted from 8 and the sign of 8 is pre-
fixed.
+ 9- 2 = +7, etc.
 Algebra. 5

This rule may be extended to a series of quantities by

combining the positive quantities into one group and the
negative into another, thus :

7-5+11-3- 104-13 -1 - (7 + 11 + 13) 4- (-5-3- 10

-i)=3i + (-i9)=+3i-i9=+i2, etc.

Subtraction of Negative Numbers.

Art. 8. In the expression a— b = c, b is evidently the

number which added to c will give a, and in general we
understand that the subtrahend added to the remainder
must always give the minuend. Applying this principle to
negative numbers 7 — (—2) =9, for — 2 is the quantity
added to 9 gives 7, according to the rule for addition
already stated. Again, —5 — (— 3) = — 2, for - 3 added
to — 2 gives —5. But 7 + 2 also equals 9 and —5 + 3
also equals — 2 hence we may express the rule
; :

To subtract a negative {or positive) quantity change its

sign and add algebraically.

ADDITION.
Definitions.

Art. 9. Since the use of letters makes it necessary

to merely indicate the operations of addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc., it is necessary to add to the language
of arithmetic certain names for these new relations. For
instance, in the expression%ax 5 is called the coefficient
y

of ax; the expression might have been written a$x, then

a would have been called the coefficient of the expres-
sion ; likewise in x$a, x is the coefficient.*
It is customary, however, when a number is present in
an expression to regard it as the coefficient.

* sometimes necessary to extend this idea of a coefficient

It is
to include any group of letters or numbers or both, in an expression.
For instance, 5^ might be called the coefficient of x, or in ^a 2 bc, ^cPb
might be called the coefficient of c etc. s
6 Algebra.

From this description, formulate a definition for coeffi-

cient.
Art. io. A single expression, involving letters or num-
bers in any amount, whose parts are not connected by-
plus or minus signs is called a monomial.
Art. ii. Two or more monomials joined by plus or
minus signs form a polynomial. Each monomial is called
a. term of the polynomial.
A polynomial of two terms is called a binomial ; one
of three terms, a trinomial, etc.
Art. 12. Monomials are said to be like when they
differ, if at all, only in For
their numerical coefficients.
example, 5a 2 xy, 6a 2 xy, ioj 2 xy etc., are like. 3

Give an example of a monomial, of a binomial, of a

trinomial.

Addition of Monomials.

Art. 13. When monomials are like, each consists of

the same letters, affected in exactly the same way ; the
numerical coefficients simply indicate how many of these
same groups of letters each monomial contains. Plainly
then to add monomials if they are like, add the coefficients
;

with their proper sig?is and attach the sum as coefficient to the
common literal part; if un/ike, connect them by their proper
signs.
It is clearly impossible to collect unlike monomials into
one expression, as it would be arithmetically impossible to
add pounds, inches, and pints. Unlike monomials are es-
sentially different things, and their addition or subtraction
can only be indicated, not actually performed.

Addition of Polynomials.

Art. 14. As polynomials are made up of monomials,

their addition resolves itself into an addition of the mo-
nomials that compose them. To facilitate this, it is desir-
able to arrange the like monomials, which occur in the
 Algebra. y

polynomials to be added, in columns. Then add the like

monomials according to their rule of addition, and to these
sums join all the unlike monomials occurring in all the poly-
nomials, with their proper signs.
For example :

Add 3a 2 x - 2aby + jxy 2 - 6a 2 and a 2 x + $xy 2 + 3J

2
.

Arrange, 3a 2 x — 2aby -f yxy 2 — 6a 2

2 2 2
a x 4- sxy -f 3&

4a x - 2aby + i2xy — 6a + 3b 2
2 2 2

Subtraction of Monomials.

Art. 15. From what has been said under addition it

follows ; to subtract like monomials : Subtract algebraically

their ?iumerical coefficients a?id attach the common literal part
to the remainder.
If the monomials are unlike : Change the sign of the sub-
trahend and join it to the mi?iuend.

To Subtract Polynomials.

Art. 16. Arrange like terms under each other and sub-
tract according to ride for monomials.
For example: From 2x + ijx 3 — 20 take — $x 2 — 15
3
+ 39*-

Arrange, 2x + —20 173;

3

Subtract, - $x 2 + 39X - 15
3

3-r
2
4- 2x — 22# 3 — 5

EXERCISE I.

Addition.

Find sum in each following example:

1. 2a - 3X 2 $x 2 - ja, - 3a + x 2 and a - $x2
, , .

2. m -n2 + $m 2 n- $mn 2 3m 2 - ^ni 2n + 3W 3 - 377m2 w 3 +

2
, ,

n 3 + 3w 2 w, 2 m 3 - \n 3 — $Mn 2 6m 2 n + iomn 2 and - , ,

6m B — jm 2 n + 4mn 2 + 2n 3 »
8 Algebra.

3 - 3y*-4y*+ 2 y 2 > s^- ww + ^ iy

2
-3y 3
>
and sy*-4

4. b- 7 -66 2 4- 14&
3
, 6+ i6^ 3 -9^- 2^ 2 and 4^ 2
, -96 3 +
136+ 10.
5 -
t* ~ by + T4 Z anc* ~ \x + ly - ?2-

6. 13(0 + — 15(26 + c),6(2b +

2 J) c) — y(c + a), and
2{c + — 5 (a + 26).
a)
7. 2y
2
- 2>jz 2 + Sy 3 I)*2 " 4s 3 + 7 v s, 9 v 3 - 5c 3 - Jy**, and
z »
2

-6z 3 - $y 2z 4- 7y 3 .

8. 8a 3 - 11a - 7a 2 2a - 6a 2 + 10, - 5 4- 4a 3 4- 9a, and 13a 2

,

-5- 12a.
9. 5m 2 - 13W - 4-f 5m 3 7W 3 - 7»r ,
:
2;;/ - 14, 6;;/
3
-f8-
3
iow-8;« and 2
,
15-16;;/'- •
15;// -;;/ .

3^: j2 - A7 s + 7s - a- -
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
10. 9s , )' vc •
jxy*Zi 2z' y 3s + SxyZi
and g a — 4Jcyz.
2 -
11. \x \x \y h \x
:
\ \x •

}y t
and iv \x \\

12. .2av
2
- -3<r 4 .o6v 3 ;;/ 4- ;/
3
, .5*7 y
2
4- .25 V
3
;;/ .4a 1 — >3S n
*

.yiy 2
4- .o5;r
3
- a
2
- .04V 3 ;;/, and - .6;/
3
+ .3(/
2

— .15 y
3
;;/ —ay 2
.

13. Simplify, 8;;lv - 5.V

2
+ 3m 2 + 2a*
2
- 8»r ! 13m1 - l&iHX
4- 6a:
2
— 9;;/
2
.

14. Add, 2>i

3
4- 7a;r + - 4a 2 ;/ 3<?
3
, 8c 2 ;/ - l$an* - 5a 3 -
io;/
3
,
3;i
3
-6j;r, and - ( /;r 4- ;/
3
- 4c 3 .

EXERCISE II.

Subtraction.
Subtract :

1. $a 2 y — 2 bx 2 — a: 3 from 2a 2 y + $x 3 — 4bxr.
2. x - $x y 4- 3xy 2 - y 3 from 2a; 3 — 2 x2 y 4- 4A-)r.
3 2

3. m 3 4- 1 from 3;;r 4- 2 w — 6.
3^ — 4a: 2 + 2a: from 2a; 3 — x2
3
4. .

6. a§ — 3a$b$ 4- 6$ from 30$ 4- 6a$b$ - 5 M.

 Algebra. 9

6. s(m + n) + 2(x + y) from 5(0* + tt) — 7(3; + y).

7. a# + &y 4- £ from wjc + ny — d.
8. What must be added to 2x 2 -3^y — y2 to make 3^ +
2^ + y 2
1

9. Perform the indicated operations; $x — $y-[2x- 5

-(3>'-^- 2 )]-
10. 3a -[7a - (a - 2a + 9)].
2 2

11. Subtract 7^ + 33;— 4yx+ 2y from 9.^ — 5x + |)> and

add to the remainder xy — x + \y-
12. Simplify, 3^ 4- 2^ — (gy - Jx) - ( - x - y) .

Multiplication.

Art. 17. In the series of numbers it may be conceived

that anumber may be revolved from the positive side of
zero to the negative side, or vice versa. Thus in the
series,
-9-8-7-6-5-4-3-2-1,0,
+1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8++
+ 6 may be carried over as if revolved on an arm pivoted
at o, to — 6 on the other side, but that is equivalent to
multiplying 6 by - 1 ; or + 3 may be revolved to — 6,
which corresponds to multiplying 3 by — 2, etc. Hence,
multiplying by a negative quantity carries the number
over to the other side of zero.
Suppose — 6 is multiplied by - 1, then by this rule the
product would be + 6, for — 6 would be revolved to + 6
on the other side, or —3 multiplied by — 2 would give us
+6 ; hence, two negative quantities multiplied together pro-
duce a positive quantity.
A general rule may be stated thus :

To multiply any two quantities, multiply the quantities

independent of their signs, then prefix a sign determined
by the rule that like signs give + and unlike signs —
IO Algebra.

Division.

Art. i 8. Division being the reverse of multiplication,

the rules governing its application are derived from the

rules governing multiplication. If it is required to find

1 6 -r-2, necessary only to find the number which
it is

multiplied by 2, gives 16, which is 8. Likewise, 28 + - 4

= — 7, because — 7 is the number by which — 4 must be
multiplied to equal 28.
Again, -32-^ — = 8,
4 for like reason ; also — ab+b =
-a, or -abc -\- * -be =
a, etc. Hence, to divide, find
the quotient of the quantities independent of sign and prefix f

the sign determined by the rule that LIKE SIGNS give +

AND UNLIKE SIGNS, -.

Exponents.

Art. 19. When a quantity is multiplied by itself two

or more times, as a xaXa Xa t
the result is represented by
an abbreviated notation, as a 4 in the above instance. The
4 is called an exponent and indicates the number of times
the quantity (as a) called the base, is repeated, thus: (ab) 5
means that (ab) has been multiplied by itself 5 times,
5 being called and ab the base. In
the exponent, t

general such an expression power of the quan-

is called a
tity, and the power is said to be an even power when the

exponent is an even number, and odd, when it is an odd

number.

Laws of Exponents.

Art. 20. If it is required to find the product a 4 X a 5 ,

it is understood that we have a product of "a" multiplied

by itself 4 times, multiplied by another product of a multi-

plied by itself 5 times, which is plainly the same thing as
a single product of a multiplied by itself 9 times. But
9 = 4 + 5 that is, the exponents are added.
;
 Algebra, II

Hence, in multiplying expressions containing the

SAME QUANTITY AFFECTED BY DIFFERENT EXPONENTS, ADD
THE EXPONENTS OF THAT QUANTITY IN THE SEVERAL EX-
PRESSIONS TO OBTAIN ITS EXPONENT IN THE PRODUCT.

For example,

a2 b
3
c X ab 2 c
4
= a
2+1 b 3 + 2
c
1 + i
= aW\
Let required to find a 8 -s- a 3
it be This expression .

means that a quantity is to be found that multiplied by

a
3
= as
By the law of exponents for multiplication, 34-
.

some number = 8, from which that number required

= 8-3 = 5. But 8 - 3 = the difference of the exponents
involved, hence, to divide two expressions containing the
same quantities, subtract the exponents 0} the quantities in
the divisor from the exponents 0} the same quantities in the
dividend, and the remainders will be the exponents of those
quantities in the quotient.

~2 -1
Thus, a 4 b 3 c 2 d 5 + 2
a bd
3
= a
i
b
3
c
2
d*- 3 = a 2 b 2 c 2 d 2 .

- - -
Again, a n b m c 3 d 4 - a 2 b r cU 2 = a n 2 b m x c 3 d 2 etc. By this 1J
,

law of division a 5 -s-a 5s=a°, but a s + a 5 =i because any

quantity divided by itself is 1 therefore, a°= 1, but a is
;

any quantity whatever; hence any quantity with exponent

o equals 1.

To Multiply a Polynomial by a Monomial.

Art. 21. To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, mul-

tiply each term of the polynomial by the monomial and take
the algebraic sum of the products, thus:

3 x2 y 3 - 2xyz + y2 z 3 - 5x2 y
2x 3 y
6x 5
y* - \x y z + 2x
4 2 3
y
3
z
3
- lozry
 :

12 Algebra.

To multiply one polynomial by another, multiply each

term of one polynomial by each term oj the other, and take
the algebraic sum of the products, observing the laws of signs
and oj exponents, thus

2a
3
xy + aby — T,x 2 y — 4xyz
20X — X+ 3x?yz
4a 4x 2 y 4- 2a 2 bxy — 6ax 3y - 8 ax 2 yz — 2a*3C*y — a bxy + 3.V 3 v

+ \x 2 yz + 6a*x?fa + $abx 2 2z — gx 4 yz - i2x?jrV* \

Again, a2 - ab 4- b
2

a + b
a
3
-a b+ ab
2 2

4- q' b-ab + 2
/;
3

3 3
a + b

These rules are plain, since a polynomial is the alge-

braic sum of a number of terms.

Division of a Polynomial by a Monomial.

Art. 22. To divide a polynomial by a monomial, divide

each term of the polynomial by the monomial, dividing the
numerical factor in each term of the dividend by the numeri-
cal factor in the monomial divisor, subtract ex pone fits of lit-

eral factors, and take the algebraic sum of the quotients.

Thus, 4x 2 yz - 6x 3 y - Sx 2 f + ioxy 3 + 2xy = 2xz-^x 2 ~
4xy+S?'
Division of one Polynomial by Another.

Art. 23. Since the quotient in division is always the

quantity by which the divisor must be multiplied to equal
the dividend, it follows that the divisor and dividend
if

are both arranged with terms having the highest

the
power of the same letter standing first, then the first term
of the quotient will be that quantity by which the first
 Algebra. 13

term of the divisor must be multiplied to equal the first

term of the dividend, and hence it must be one term of
the quotient, because this highest degree term of the
dividend could only be gotten by multiplying the highest
degree term of the divisor by this term of the quotient.
Now if every term of the divisor be multiplied by this
firstterm of the quotient, the product will be at least a
part of the dividend. The remainder, obtained by sub-
tracting this product from the whole dividend, will repre-
sent what is left undivided of the dividend. If this undi-

vided part be treated in the same way, the next remainder

(if there be one) will be another and smaller undivided

part of the quotient. Plainly each step reduces the re-

mainder to a smaller and simpler expression, and eventu-
ally, if the division can be exactly performed, there will
be no remainder. The following illustration, although
not exactly analogous, may help to throw light on the
reason why performed as above. Suppose a
division is

barrel of apples of unequal size

is to be divided into three

parts as equally as possible. The natural procedure

would be to divide the largest apples into three parts,
then the next size into three parts, and so on until the
contents of the barrel is exhausted, that is, there is no
remainder.

Example. Divide 3 nA - 25 n
2
- 13 n — 11 n3 — 2 by
1 + 4 « + 3 ;r.

Rearranging accord- $ 11* - 1 I 7l 3 - 2 $ H - I $ - 2

2
)l
|
3 7l
2
-f 4 ft ~ I

ing to powers:
3 tt
4
+ 4 7l 3 + 1l 2 U2 - 5 H - 2

^. .,.
Dividing
«
first term of
c — is° n 3 — 26 n — 13° n 2

o
dividend by first term - 1 5 7£ — 2Q ir — 5 11
of divisor, multiplying^
and subtracting :

- ^00
£
-
6 n-
>g2
S
8 n
71

—
2

Again, divide — 25 x 3y 2 +12 x 4y +12 x 2 y 3 by 3 x 2y

- 4 xy 2 .
 : :

14 Algebra.

Rearranging according to descending powers of x,

[according to powers of y would serve as well] and
dividing
12 x 4y - 25 x 3y 2 + 12 x 2 y 3 '3 x 2 y - $xy 2
12 x 4 y — 16 rrV 4 x
2 — 3 xy
— 9 apy +12 a' 2 }' 3
— 9 .v 3 v 2 + 12 v 2 y 3

EXERCISE III.

Multiplication.
Multiply
1. a — b 4- 2 by 3 </ + ft.

2. a
2
- ab 4- ft
a
by a + 6.

3. at - vy + 2
y by x
2
+ .vy + y
2

4. 3WW - 2 ;;r 4- ;z
2
— 1 by ;;/
3
— ;/
3
.

5. $a b - J a 4- J
2
<//r by } a -J J.

6. (v + a) (a + 6) by (x + c).

7. a'
2
— 2 v + 1 by X — 1.

8. a
5
- 5 a
3
- 4 (/ + 8 by a 1 + 2 j - 3.

9.-2 <7
3
;;7 4- ;>7
2
— 3 ;>7
3
4- 5 by 3 — 2 at

10. 3 a'
4
- 4 x y -
2 2
2 vy 3 + 5
4
y by 2 a*
2
— A7 4-
3 y
2
.

m n a 2
11. x 4- 2 A'"'y" 4- y by A' 4-
y .

3*- 1 ~3
12. 4- A-"- 4- A- 4- a^- by X - I. 2 n 4

13. - -
/ 2 ^ -f 5 xy v by a* 4- 2 ary - y*. 5

14. #3 — A'^y 4- y3 by a^ + y*\

15. a - a*6* 4- b by a + a*6* 4- b.

3 (w + »)* - 2 (a 4- ft)* by (m 4- »)* 4- (a +

!-
16. J)
-
17. a~2 4- 3 a * £-4 _ 2 £ -1 by a^ — c~*.
18. 15 x 4m - 19 x 3m y m - 30 A'
2m 2n
y 4- 42 xTf n 4- 75 y**
n
by 2 a;"
4
4-
y .
 Algebra. 1

19. Simplify (x* 4- 3 x 3 - 2*4-5) (x

3
- 2 x2 4- 7 x
- 3).

20. Simplify [(a 4- 6) 4- 2 c] [(a 4- 6) - 2 c].

EXERCISE IV.

Division.
Divide
1. x 4 - x2 y 2 4-
4
y by #
2
4- xy 4-
y
2
.

2. x — 3
y
3
by # - y.

3. m 5
4- w by5
m 4- »-

- n ~2 - - 6)"- 1 - n
4. 6 (a b) 9 (a 4- 12 (a 6) by 3
n ~3
(a - 6) .

5. a 2 x* + (2 ac - b
2
) x2y2 4- c
2 4
y by ax
2
4- 6xy 4- cy 2 .

6. 8w 4
- 22 w 3
w 4- 43 m~n- — 38 mn + 24W by 3 4
2 m 2

— 3 ww 4- 4 n
2
.

7. a
3m
+ b
3m
by a m + b
m .

-4 -1 ~2
8. 9 „r
n
4- 19 x 71
4- 5 :v
n
- 30 x 11
4- 4# n + by 1
2
n ~5 ~ n -6 n ~3
x - 7 x 4 - 3 re" 4- .v .

9. 8 a363 - 64 x e y 6 by 2 ab - 2 2
4 x y .

10. #2 4-
y
2
4- z
2
4- 2 jcy 4- 2 xz + 2 yz by x + y + z.

11. 1 - a by
6
i 4- 2 a + 2 a2 4- a3 .

12. ^ - y by x1 - y*.

13. # 4- 3 #* y* — 24 x* y^ — 3 x* yfc — y by x$ 4- 3 #* y* — y*.

14. What number must be multiplied by # 4- 2 y 4- 3z
to give 9 x 2 4- 24 xy 4- 1 2 y
2
4- 30 as 4- 24 yz 4- 9 z
2
?

15. Divide 5 r s
4 4
— 26 rV 4-2 r s
7
— 5 rV — 11 rV
4- 7 r s
2 8
— 1 2 rs
7
by r
4
— 4 r s 4-
3
rV — 3 rs
3
.
 :

CHAPTER II.

FACTORING.

Article 24. A factor of a quantity is a divisor of that

quantity.
A quantity has as many factors as it has distinct
divisors. *
Art. 25. A factor of a factor of a quantity is a factor
of the quantity itself.

Illustration: a
4
- b
4
has the factor <r - b
2
, and
a -2
b
2
has the factor a - b ; hence, </ - /; is factor of
a4 - b
4
, hence
Rule — Find the most evident factors of a quantity and
examine these factors for factors. Every Step simplifies the
process.
Art. 26. There are several general types of quantities
with respect to factoring. First : The difference of the
squares of two quantities, which is always factorable into
the sum and the difference of the two quantities, thus :

-
a4 b
4
= 2
(a ) - (b ) 2 - (a - tr) (a + 6 )
2 2 2 2 2
;

xy _ a b
2
« (x*yy _ (ab 7) 2 = (x*y - aV) (x*y + ab 2 )
i
;

n) 2 — (rs — c) = (m + 2 n + rs — c) (m 2 + 2 n
2
(m 2 + 2
2

- rs + c), etc.

Trinomials of the type x 2 4- ax + b when b is

Second :

the product of two factors whose algebraic sum is j, (the

* Factors (or quantities in general) are called prime when they have
no factors except themselves and unity.

16
 Factoring. 1

signs of the factors being taken into consideration) , thus :

(# — 3) (x+2) for b= -6= (-3) x (+

-x-6 =
2
x 2) and
a = — i= — 3 + 2, hence

Rule for factoring trinomials of the form #2 + ax + 6 :

Separate the last term into two factors whose

algebraic sum will be equal to the coefficient of
the middle term with proper sign; each of these
factors with its proper sign attached to x, will
form a factor of the trinomial.

Art. 27. If the trinomial is of the form tnx 2 + nx + p,

it may be factored if m and p are each divisible into two
factors, such that the sum of the products of these factors
multiplied diagonally equals n, thus

6 x2 - x - 4 =
s (3 x - 4) {zx + 1) for - 4 = - >?/xs* and
(3X1)+ (- 4 X 2) = - 5.

Article 27 may be reduced to the form of Article 26 by

a simple transformation, thus :

Multiply 6 x2 —
= 36 S x — 4 by 6 .r
2
— 30 x — 24 =
(6 #) — 5 (6 x) — 24. Let 6 x = y, then 36 x 2 — 30 x
2

— 24 = y2 — 5 y - 24 = (y — 8) (y + 3) [by Article 26]

- (6 # - 8) (6 a; + 3)

... 6 *2 _ 5X _ 4= (6*-8)(6*+d = (6* -8) ,

6 2

x
(6
* + 3) = (3 * - 4) (2 * + I).
3

Art. 28. The trinomial that is a perfect square is

evidently a special case of Article 26.

Art. 29. It is often possible to factor an expression by
grouping the terms and removing a factor from similar
 8 : :

1 Algebra.

groups, thus revealing a common factor in each group;

thus
x 3 — y 3 — x 2 +y 2 — x 2 + 2 xy — y = x 3 — y 3 - (x 2 - y 2 ) — (x 2

- y) 2 = (x - y) (x + xy 4- y 2 - x - y - x 4- y) = (x - y) [x2
2

+ xy + y 2 -2 x\, or x 3z 2 - 8 yV - 4.vV- 32 v 3 ;r = z 2 {x*

- 8 y 3 ) - 4 n (x 3 - 8 /) = z 2 (a; 3 - (2 v) 3 ) - (2 n) 2 (x*
2

- ( 2 jY)=W-( 2 ny][x'-{2 yf]=(z-2n) (s + 2 ft)

(a; - 2 y) (.v + 2 .rv -f 4 y ).
2 2

A little ingenuity in arrangement and grouping often

reveals concealed factors, thus :

# +2 tibx — a + 3 (rlr-b may be written (.y 4 + 2 abx 2

4 2 4 4

4- a 6 ) - (a - 2 (r/r 4- 6 ) = (.v 4- cibf - (a 1 - 1 1 =

2 2 4 2 4 2
) (a* 4- ab fr

+ a -b 2 2
) (x 2 -\ ab-tr • !>-).

Art. 30. The difference of the even powers of two

quantities is always divisible by the sum or the difference
of those quantities ;
as,

x -y =
4 4
(x + y) (x - y) (x
2
+ y 2
) ; + wnY - (x-
or (»r y)
2

= [{m 2
4- mn) 4- (x - y)] [(»r 4- mn) - (x - y)\

Art. 31. The difference of the odd powers of two

quantities is always divisible by the difference of the
quantities ;
as,

x3 - y3 = {x - y) {x
2
4- xy 4-
y
2
) or (a 4- 2)
3
- (b - i) 3
= ((/ 4- 2-/; 4- 1) [((7 4-2) 2 4- ((7 4-2) (b- 1) 4- (b- i)
2
], etc.

Art. 32. The sum of the odd powers of two quantities

is always divisible by the sum of the quantities thus ;

a 5 +6 6 =(a + a 2 b -ab +b ) or (2x-y) 3

+ J) (a
4
-a 3
b
2 3 4

+ (32+i) =( 2 ^-y + 3z+i) [(2x-y) 2 -(2 X -y) (32+1)

3

2
+ (3S+I) ]-

Art. ^^. The sum of the even powers of two quantities

is never divisible by either the sum or difference of the
quantities.
 Factoring. 1

Such quantities may be sometimes factored by adding

and subtracting the same quantity thus, ;

x + 4y = x + 4y # + 4;y - ^y x = (x 2 + 2y2 ) -
4 4 4 2 2 4 2 2
(2xy) 2 =
(x 2 + 2y 2 + 2xy) (x 2 + 2y 2 - 2xy) etc.

EXERCISE V.

Factor the following

1
1. x 8 —x 4 y 4 .
1K
15-
2

m
— —4°,
—^5
l
— —
mxr
4-
1

x*
^
-.

2. b - b 3 - no.
e
16. x-* - y~\
6u - 2311 + 20. 5/5 - s - 3.
2
3. 17. 15/ 4-

4. (a 4- 6)
3
4- (a - b)
3
. 18. at - mi
6. xQ 4-
y
6
. 19- 6x 3 — 7ax 2 — 20a 2 x.
8 8 4 4
6. jc + y 4- x y . 20. ^ 4- ax + x + a.
2

7. mb + z
2
- mz - bz. 21. (# 4- i) - 5^ - 29.
2

8. m - 4W-1 76.
2
1 22. (a^y -*2) 2 -^/. 2

9. y
2
- z
2
4- 2z - 1. 23. z
5
+ 7 23 - 5s - 35. 2

10. f 4- y - 72. 24. w 4- w - 7m " 3

3 2
.

U. (2jc-3^) 2 -Ct-23') 2 4 (u-v) - (a + b)

2 2
. 25. .

12. w — 2mn 4- w — x y 4- 3)» — y — 3)'.

2 2 2 2 3 4
. 26.
^2
a , 7,2
° _ r2
X3. I+ + L.. 27. 7 2/
2
4- 41/ -45.
2 afr

14. * 3 - y3 - {(x? - y
2
) 28. a2 - (jb - c)
2
.

- (x - y)
2
.

GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR.

Art. 34. Definition : The greatest common divisor or
greatest common factor (abbreviated G.C.D.. or G.C.F.)
of two or more quantities is the greatest quantity that will
divide them all.

Hence, to find the G.C.D., separate the quantities into

their prime factors (what are prime factors ?), select the
factors that are common to all, repeating each factor
the least number of times it is contained in any one of the
20 Algebra.

quantities. The product of these common factors thus

repeated is the G.C.D.

For example, find the G.C.D. of

16 x2 y3 z 3 m 3 169 y 4 z 6 m, and 39 x 7 v 8 m
,
A
.

16 x2 y3z 3 m 3 = 2.2.2.2. a\a\ v.v.v. z.z.z. m.m.m.

169 /z m — 13.13. y.y-y.y. z.z.z.z.z.z. m.
6

39 a: y w = 3.i3.
7 8 4

*
aw.a.a.a.a.a. v.y.y.v.v. v-v-y. m.m.m.m.

The common factors arc y and m, y being repeated

three times as the least number, and m occurring but once
hence, G.C.D. = y3 /;/.

Again, find the G.C.D. of

x2 4 Sx + 6, a2 -f 7 a + 10, and a 2 + 1 -\v + 20.

a:
2
+ 5A +, 6 - (a I 2) (a + 3)
at 4 JX 4 io*= (a 4 5) (a •

x2 4 I2.V 4 20 = (a :

2) (a :

10)
x 4 2% the only common Factor, therefore, x-\ 2 — G.C.E

G.C.D. Without Factoring.

Art. 35. Let .1 and fl be any two quantities of which,

say, A is the greater, and let B be contained in A Q times %

with a remainder 7^, then,

A = QB 4 7^ or R - ,1 - QZ*.

Since the sum of a fraction and a whole number can

never equal a fraction, any factor common to A and E
must be contained in R otherwise, if we were to divid ;
'

the above equation by such a factor, the quotient on the

right of the equality sign would be a whole number (since
the factor exactly divides A and B)> and on the left it
would be a fraction, which is impossible hence, R con- ;

tains all the factors common to A and B. But it may

 Factoring. 2

also contain other factors. If we divide B by R and say

R is contained in B, M times, with a remainder R', then
B = MR + R'. By the same reasoning R' contains all
the factors common to R and B, and hence all factors
common to A and B.
Suppose finally that a remainder obtained by such
successive division is contained exactly in the previous
remainder, then it represents all the factors common
to A and B, and no others; hence, it is the G.C.D. of A
and B.

Hence the rule Divide the greater quantity by the

:

LESS AND IF THERE IS A REMAINDER DIVIDE THE FIRST

DIVISOR BY THIS REMAINDER, AND THEN THIS REMAINDER
BY THE REMAINDER RESULTING FROM THIS LAST DIVISION,
AND SO ON UNTIL A REMAINDER IS EXACTLY CONTAINED IN
THE PREVIOUS REMAINDER. THIS LAST REMAINDER IS THE
G.C.D.

Example. Find the G.C.D. of

x 4 - 2X 3 + 2X 2 — 2X -f I and
x 3 — $x 2 + 3.V — I
X A — 2X 3 + 2X - 2X + 2
I [v
3
- sx2 + 3X — I

X — $X 3
4
4- 3V — X
2
x + 1

X X X ~~" ~j~ 1-

x 3 - $x 2 + 3.V - 1

2 2X 2 — 4X + 2

or — 2x + 1

Since the G.C.D. contains only common factors, the re-

moval from or introduction of any factor into either one,
if it is not also a factor of the other, does not affect
thecommon factors, and hence does not affect the G.C.D.
Hence, we may take out the factor 2 from above remainder,
without affecting the result.
 :

22 Algebra.

To continue

x 3 — 3A2 4- 3^ — i be— 2x +
2
i

# — i
i

— X2 + 2X — I
Hence, a 2 — 2 a + i = G.C.D.

Again, find the G.C.D. of

# 5 - 3^ 4 - 3-v
3
- 15 - 19.V and
3X4 - 3 a- 3 + a'
5
- 15 -f 9a j - x.

To facilitate the process, both quantities should first

be arranged according to the ascending or descending
powers of one of the quantities involved.
Rearranging the above and dividing:

* 5 -3* 4 ~3>v 3 - 19V - IS Jv ,yv*--3A- + 9A- 2 -A -- 15

3 :
'

a: -f 3A - $x?
5 4
qx 2 x 15 !
1

~ 3 X _ 6.v -f qx2 — 1 8a*4

(Remove factor — 33 which
I

2a
3
— 3 a* +6 does not occur in the divisor.)

Multiply first divisor by 2, since 2 is not a factor of

2a:
3
-3A + 6.
2a
5
-f- 6a;
4
— 6a*
3
+ i8a2 — 2a* — 30 I2A3 — 3* 4- 6

3 a-
3
+ 6a:2 a*
2
+ 3A - 3
- 2 A — 30
4
6a: 3A
3
+
2
6a 4 9a + i8a
- s* + 8
2 I A2— 20A — 3° (Multiply by 2 to
2 make divisible.)

- 6a3 + 42 A 2 40A - 60
— 6 a-3 + 9A — 18
1.2a- - 49A-42 (Divide by 7.)

6a — 2
jx— 6
 Factoring. 23

Multiply (2X 3 — 3# + 6) by 3.

6x? — gx + 18 |6#
2
—7^ — 6
6^ — jx 2 — 6x x 4-
7

7# — 3^ + 18
2

42a; 2 — 18^ 4- 108

423c 2 — 49X — 42
31X + 150
which is plainly not contained in 6X1 — yx — 6 and
hence the original numbers had no G.C.D.
It is unnecessary to carry the process further, as the
next division would leave a remainder containing only a
number. If it were the G.C.D. it could have been seen
I
by inspection at first.

To Find the G.C.D. of More than Two Quantities.

Art. 36. Rule. Find G.C.D. of any two of the quanti-

tiesand then the G.C.D. of this G.C.D. and a third quantity,
then the G.C.D. of this last G.C.D. and a fourth and
so on until all the quantities have been used. The last
G.C.D. will be the G.C.D. of all the original quantities.

EXERCISE VI.

Find the G.C.D.

1. S — a 3 a 2 — 4.
;

x* - y
Q 3 3 3
2. x* + xy
; x* + 2x y + y*. ;

3.
f3 - 37 2+ 2 y - °y + 2s y - 3-
4
;

4. it — 3z* -f 4; u * — I ^^ + 2>&u — 24.

2>

{a + b) — (c + d)
2
6. ax + bx + ex + dx, 2
;

6. x + 5# + 6 x + 'jx + 10 x2 — x — 6.
2
;
2
;

7. a 3 - b 3 (a - b) 3 a 2 - 2ab + b 2
, ; .

z - 4s - 42 - 5.
3 3
8. z -f-22 2 + 22 4- i 2
;

9. ?#
3
— 19m — 30 m + 10m + 31m + 30
3
;
2
24 Algebra.

10. x4 — 4.x— 3
+ 7# + 24 2.T 3 — 15X 2 + 9JC+ 40.
i6a;
2
;

11. 6a:
2
+ x - 2 gx 3 + ^x 2 + 5 2 a; + 16.
;

-*3/ 3 - 9/ 2 + 9/ - 2 3/ - 4/* - 23^ + \U

4 5 2
12. 2 / ;

— 20t + 3.

13. x A - gx 2 - 30X— 25 x* + x 4 - jxJ + S x ; -

14. 2x 2 - jx + 3 3X2 - 7* - 6. ;

15. y4- 2 y 3 -i3y 2 + 38v-24; y - 4/- 7/ + 34?- »4- 4

3^ + 9^y- 6.vr - 6y* 24A' + 6.v 2 v- 12 tfy*— i8y

3 3 3
16. ; .

17. ion 3 + n 2 — gn + 24; 2o;z

4
— 17;*
2
+ 48/1 — 3.

12 (a 4 - 4
10 (a 8 - 9
18. b ) ; h ) ; 8 ( (/
4
/> + ab ). 4

19. - 3X -4.V+ 12 .v - 7 a +
a;
3 2
2 a-
3
,
3 2
1 6a: - 12 ;

— gx + Jx + 6.
2

9.V + 5 3 A" - gx - 18.

3
20. a; + 1 IX + 30 2
2 a* + 2 a* + 54 ;
2
1 ;

21. z + us + 30
2
z - 12c + 41- - 3° - - I2 - 3 ;
3 2
;
4

+ 47z -7 2 z + 3 6
2
-

22. 6a' 2 + a- - 2 3
9A: + 48^ + 52* 16. ;
:

23. 2;z - 5 n - 3 >rp' + 7 ;//> + 3

4
8;/
33
- 4n p 2 3 4 2
p J

- 8»/> 2 - 6/> 3
.

24. a;
4
+ a-/ + y 4
; .v
H
+ .v'y
1
+ v
s
; a*
10
+ x B y* + y 18 .

LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE.

Art. 37. The least common multiple of any number of
quantities (abbreviated L.C.M.) is the least number that
contains them all.

From this definition, the following rule is immediately

inferred :

TO FIND THE LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE OF ANY NUMBER

OF QUANTITIES, SEPARATE THESE QUANTITIES INTO THEIR
PRIME FACTORS, AND SELECT ALL THE SEPARATE FACTORS
THAT OCCUR IN ALL THE QUANTITIES, REPEATING EACH ONE
THE greatest NUMBER OF TIMES IT APPEARS IN ANY ONE OF
THE QUANTITIES. THE PRODUCT OF THESE FACTORS WILL
BE THE L.C.M.
 Factoring. 2$

Example : find the L.C.M. of

7
2>jx y, 6x2 ;y 4 ,
4-X^, 3x*y
4

2jx y = 3-3-3- x-x-x-x-x-x-x*

7
y*
6#2 y =3.2. x.x. y-y-y-y*
4xy5 = 2.2. x* y-y-y-y.y.
3x*y* = 3. x-x-x-x. y.y.y.y.

The separate factors are 3, 2, #, and y.

7
3 occurs 3 times in 2jx y^
2 " " M 5
2 4^y .

a? " 7 " " 27^.

5
y " 5 " " 4^ -

Hence, L.C.M. is 3. 2.
23
x 7y 5 = io8^7y 5 .

To Find L.C.M. Without Factoring.

Art. 38. Since the product of two quantities contains

all the factors of both quantities with the common factors
repeated as many times as they occur in both together,
and since the G.C.D. of these two quantities contains
only the common factors, if the product of the two quanti-
tiesbe divided by their G.C.D. the quotient will contain
all factors of both and their common factors once
the
only; hence, this quotient is their L.C.M. Put this into
rule.
more than two quantities, find the L.C.M.
If there are
of any two of them, then the L.C.M. of this L.C.M. of
two and a third quantity, then the L.C.M. of this last
L.C.M. and a fourth, and so on, until the quantities have
all been used. The last L.C.M. will be the L.C.M. of all
the quantities.
26 Algebra,

EXERCISE VII.

Find the L.C.M. of

1. 1 6 (a;
3
- f) ; 24 (x* - y 4
) ; 36 (a:
3
4-
f).
2. a:
2
4- *jx 4- 12 ; a*
2
4- #— 12 ; a'
2
4- $x — 4.

3. (a 4- b)
2
-c 2
;
(a- b)
2
- c
2
;
(a + c)>\ (a- r)
2
-R
4. a: — $x — 70 a" — 39 a — 70.
2
;
3

4s - Tst 4- 3/- 3.S - 4.V + 3^/ - 2/ 3

2 3 2 2
6. ;
/ .

a — 3a — 4 — a — 2 a 4- 5'/ + 4-
2 2 2
6. ; </ 1 ;

7. 3
2 y +5 - Sy 4- y 42f -f 30 - 72V. 2
;

8. $X -A* 4 3
- 2 A" :
2 A' --S: f\Y
3
4- 1 3 A' 2 -f 3 A' + 2 0.

9. //' — 211
s

: w2 ; 2//
1
— 4«8 - 4// —4.
10. a'
3
- 6a- - 5* 4- 1 2 ; a-
3
- 5
- 8; y* - +x2 + A" + 6.

n - 32"- 52 + 2 4* ;
a
4*
a
a
:
1-

12. /-4/r; /-!-2/n-- I

.(/rv: S/,
:{
:
f -2&/ + *Vy- W
13. a
2
+ a - 2 ; ( /
3
+ 2</
2
4- 2a 4- 1.

14. A'
3
— A'
2
- 9# -}-
9 ; A'
1
— 4 A" :
I 2 A — 9.

15. 4z
n
- 8z
2
4- 5s - 3 ; 2z
A
- $z* + 6z 2
- 3Z 4- 2.

16. a-
2
-f $X + 6 ; A'
2
+ 6x 4- 8 ; a*
2
- $x -'10.

17. Find the least quantity, which when divided by v2 -f y

— 2,T — y — 6< and v'-'
- 4V + 3- leaves in each ease the
remainder, 2^ 2 — 2>y + 1.

18. The G.C.D. of two quantities is A'

2
— xy + r
2
and ,

their L.C.M. is a*
5
4- x*y + a*
3
/ 4- a*
2
v
3
4- a*V 4- A7 4 + y5 .

One of the quantities is x3 4-

J
3
. Find the other one.

19. Four pendulums beat, respectively, every second,

every ij seconds, every 1^ seconds, every 1^ seconds. They
are started together after what time will they all beat ;

together again, and how many beats will each make in

the interval ?
 Factoring. 2J

FRACTIONS.
Art. 39. The rules which apply to operations with
fractions in arithmetic, apply equally to algebraic fractions,
if the slight modifications of the four fundamental opera-
tions, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
applied to algebraic quantities, are observed.
must be remembered that the use of letters in algebra
It
often makes it impossible to condense expressions, as in
the use of numbers exclusively. Hence the operations
are more frequently indicated than actually performed.
Although, for example, if really means 1 + § the ,

structure is not so apparent as in the exactly similar alge-

braic expression, a + ~~ •

Both are mixed numbers and both are reduced to frac-

tions in exactly the same way ; viz.

if = -1X 5 -r 2 _ ?
5

a -\ — = aXc-hb
,
b
c c
ac +
c
b.

Art. Reduction to lowest terms, reduction to

40.
common denominator, addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion, and division, are accomplished in ways exactly analo-
gous to the similar arithmetical operations, the algebraic
concept of sign, and the use of letters, introducing a
purely superficial difference.
A general rule may be formulated thus
Perform the required operation as indicated in arithmetic ,

observing the laws of algebraic addition, subtraction, multi-

plication, and division.

It is to be observed that in reducing an algebraic frac-

tion to its lowest terms, every term of both numerator and
denominator must be divisible by the factor removed, as,

a2 x + aby ax + by a2 x + aby ax + aby

ac 2 — a 3d c
2
— a 2d ac 2 — aB d c
2
— a zd
 :

28 Algebra.

Signs.

Art. 41. Since changing all the signs of both numer-

ator and denominator is equivalent to multiplying (or
dividing) by — 1, the value of the fraction is not changed
thereby. But if the signs of either numerator or denomi-
nator (but not of both) be changed, or if the signs of any
parts (not all) of either or both be changed, the value of
the fraction is changed. Thus :

- xy*
x~y _ xy2 — x ? y x?y -
— abc+ mn a be — ;;/;/ a be -f ;;/;/

x2 y
is not equal
M to ~~r~
a be mti

Also when a fraction has a minus sign in front of it, the

sign of each term of the numerator must be changed,
when the denominator is removed or when the numerator
is combined with any other expression (as in adding or

subtracting). The effect being the same as removing a

parenthesis. Thus

x + ab —
1
ax + b ex + d <r r\v - ed
c a ae

EXERCISE VIII.

Reduce to lowest terms :

x + 4
(2b - 2
a 2
) x + 2
b4
1. 3
x* + 2 ax + a'
2
x- -
- bA

.a
2 - a - 12 b
2
- (e - d)
2
^2
z
2 3 *° 2
c
+ 3) (6 + d)

y
4
+ y2 - 2 •
x2 +
6 1 T, . V+ 6
3.
y* + 5f +^ 10 x" + 13 X— 3
 Factoring. 29

Reduce to mixed numbers :

I2U — ku — 2
6 z
3
- + 2 3 z
2
2 - 3
;-*-
6.
3WH2 8.
- 1 z

m 3 — w3 — 1
9.
m — n
Simplify the following

2
- +
m — 6
10.
m 3 m +6 m 2
4- 2 w
- 1 2 2 x
11. - +
(a — i) 2 x — 1 x2 -f- 1

'
f - 2 ^ - 3 rxr
2
- 9 #2 -f- 4 # 4-
3

X — 2 (# — 2)^ (# — 2)
d

a:r 4- b c
14
# 2
4- 1 2^—3
15. —^— + — ^ -^ ^~
#- # — 1 3 3r — 4^+3
m — 4
n4 m 4- n \ ^ hn 4- n 2 2
_.
m 4- n\
16,
m — 2
n 2
m — #w/ \ w — n
2
mn — n 2
/
a + b ,
b -{- c a — c
17,
{b - c) (c - a) (c - a) (a - 6) (a - 6) (b - c)

2 #+ L
y y
l
18.
y 2 x+ y
x x 4-
y
x 4-
y x
5
/x* __ y \ fa__ y\
19 5
'
r A

\y x 5) \y x)
1
20. 1 +
00 + JL
x
 CHAPTER III.

EQUATIONS.

Article 42. An equation is a statement of equality

between two equal expressions, thus :

ax 2 + bx + c = d, or 3.V 4- 2y + z = 24, etc.

Art. 43. An equation usually consists of letters and

figures, although it may contain either exclusively ; as,

$x + y = 11, or ax + b = c, or 5 + 2 = 7.

The last is called an arithmetical equation, the others

algebraic equations.
Of the quantities involved in an algebraic equation, part
are usually known, that is, their values arc known, and part
are unknown. It is customary to represent the latter by
the last letters of the alphabet ; the former by the first
letters of the alphabet or by figures.
Thus: x, y, z, etc., are the symbols for unknown value,
and a, b, c, d, etc., 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., for the known.
Art. 44. Equations involving only letters are called
literal equations. Those involving unknowns and figures,
numerical equations.
Art. 45. Solving an equation is the finding of the
value or values of the unknown quantities that make it

true, or, technically, satisfy it. That is, the finding of the
values which when substituted for the unknowns to which
they belong, make the two sides of the equation the same.
The equation then becomes an identity.
ArTc 460 An equation is usually satisfied only for a
30
 Equations. 3

limited number of values of the unknown quantities. Thus :

$x 4 6 = 12 is satisfied only when x ^2, for then, and

then only, we have 3 (2) -f 6 = 6 + 6 = 12, an identity,

or, ax 4- £ = c is satisfisd only by x = - ,

for then
a

we have a -^-^ '-

+ b = c or c-lf+p=c> '
a
x — $x +
2
6 = o is satisfied only when x = 2 or 3
for (2)
2
- 5 (2) 4- 6 = 4 - 10 4- 6 = o, or (
3)
2
- 5
(3) + 6 = 9 - x
5 + 6 = °-
When an equation is of such a nature that any value
whatever of the value unknown satisfies it, it is called an
identity and is written thus :

ax + b = 2x 4-
3

Uses of Literal Equations.

Art. 47. A literal equation is of special service, be-

cause the value (or values) of the unknown obtained from
it is general for all cases of the same kind. For instance,
it is mean of any two quantities (that
required to find the
is the quantitymidway between them).
Let x = the mean and let a and b represent any two

quantities ; then a -x = x — b, or 2 x=a + b ; x = —- .

Such a result is called a formula, because it is true for all

quantities, and may be stated as a general rule. For

instance, in the above case, the result may be expressed
thus
The mean of any two quantities is half their sum.

Uses of Letters in General.

Art. 48. The use of letters enlarges the value of results

and gives algebra a notable advantage over arithmetic.
Suppose it is required to prove that half the sum of two
32 Algebra.

numbers plus half their difference equals the greater

number.
If we use a and b as the numbers, a being greater, we
,
have
a +
2
b ,

1
a —
2
b
= —=
2a
2
a ;
,

which
•
,
gives a general
•.

result, as a and b may stand for any numbers.

Art. 49. The is valuable again because
use of letters
all the operations performed must be indicated and the
anatomy of the result is evident, whereas the ability to
combine simple figures covers up the traces of the opera-
tions where they alone are employed. Thus, if (x + a) is
multiplied by (x + 6), we get v -f (a + b) x + ab, which 1
'

reveals the well-known rule for factoring trinomials. What

is it?

While if {x + 2) is multiplied by (x - 5) we gel .v-

— 3V — 10 wherein there is no evidence of the relation
between - 3 and - 10, and the coefficients, 2 and - 5.

Degree of an Equation.

Art. 50. The degree of an equation is the largest sum

of the exponents of the unknown quantities in any one
-f xy = o
J
term; for example, .v'-'y 2X ,^v is of
• the I

third degree, for the first term contains v and y making

J 1

sum of exponents 3, and no other term is higher. But

a 2x + aby + ex is of the second degree, for the exponents
2

of (7, 6, and c do not count, as they are regarded as known

quantities.
Equations of the first degree like ax 4~ b = r, or 5.V

+ $y = 7, etc., are called linear equations; those of the

second degree like ax~ + bx 4- c — o, or 3.V 2 + 2xy = y 2 y

are called quadratics ; those of third degree, cubics ;

of
fourth degree, bi-quadratics, etc.
Art. 51. An equation may plainly contain any num-
ber of unknown In order to find the value
quantities.
or values of the unknowns, the number of independent
 Equations. 33

equations must equal the number of unknown quantities

involved, because each unknown requires a separate con-
dition to distinguish it from the others.

Art. 52. When two or more equations involving two

or more unknown quantities, are all satisfied for the same
values of those unknowns, the equations are called simul-
taneous equations.
They are said to be independent when no one of them
can be derived from any other. They must represent
entirely distinct conditions.

Thus : 3* + 2 J - 8
6x + \y = 16 are simultaneous but not inde-
pendent.
Which of the following are independent ?

Are they all simultaneous ?

1. j
i 77? =
+ ny
15* 4- 92. 2. ( 6y-5v=i8.
t 5* zy - 2. 2X
( I2JC - 97 =
5* + 6v = 17- 4.
SP + 31 = 68
j =
( IOV + I2y 34- { -P + sq = 6 9
f
X = 12. 7-
4 2 3 3

y
= 27. 1- Z2
. = 64.

Clearing of Fractions.

Art. 53. Since the equality of two quantities is not

affected by multiplying both by the same or equal quantities,
the fractions may be removed from an equation by multi-
plying by the L.C.M. of the denominators involved.
Thus :

f^2 -hf^ + f = -J-

may be
cleared of fractions by mul-
tiplying both sides by L.C.M. of the denominators,
70, the
and the result, 105 x2 + 20 x -h 42 = 35, is free of
fractions.
 :

34 Algebra.

The L.C.M. of all the denominators is called the Least

Common Denominator, abbreviated to L.C.D.
Note. Of course any multiple of the denominators will
remove fractions, but the L.C.D. gives simplest result.

Transposition.

Art. 54. Rule. Any term may be transferred fro:v£

ONE TERM OF AN EQUATION TO THE OTHER IF ITS SIGN BE
CHANGED.
Let x + b = c be any equation if —J be added to both ;

terms the equality is not affected, then % + )/ — ft = c — b

or x = c — b which justifies the rule.
y
Again, let the
equation be x — b = c, and add + b to both sides, X — I
+ if = c + b or x «= c + b, which again verifies the rule.

To Solve a Linear Equation of One Unknown.

Art. 55. Since to solve an equation is to find the value

of the unknown that satisfies it, the requisite steps are to
the end of simplifying the equation to the utmost. Hence :

Clear the equation of fractions, ef necessary;

transpose all the terms containing the unknown to
ONE SIDE OF THE EQUATION (PREFERABLY TO THE LEFT
SIDE), AND ALL OTHER TERMS TO THE OTHER SIDE, COL-
LECTING THEM; COMBINE Tin: TERMS CONTAINING THE
KNOWN BY COLLECTING WHERE POSSIBLE AND BY EXPRESS-
ING THE RESULT AS THE PRODUCT OF TWO FACTORS, ONE OF
WHICH IS THE UNKNOWN ITSELF; DIVIDE THROUGH BY TnE
OTHER FACTOR, AND THE RESULT IS THE VALUE OF THE
UNKNOWN, OR THE SOLUTION OF THE EQUATION.

5 x ~ 6
-
_ $-£ = £j=_3 =
Example. (L.C.D. 20).
5 4 IO
Clearing of fractions : 20 x — 24— 15 x = 2 x— 18.
Transposing: 20 x — 15 X— 2 x = 24—18.
Collecting 3 x = 6 or 3 (x) = 6.

Dividing by 3 : x = 2.
 Equations. 35

Again :*H!£ - I3 ~ 2
f =3 (L.CD.=* - 9 <z*). 2

rf -
.

:
# + 3 a 9 a

Clearing : x2 — 5 a + 6a 2 - (13 a
2 — 2 x2 ) = 3 x2 — 27 a 2 .

Removing parentheses * :

#2 - 5 ax + 6 a 2 — 13 a 2 -f- 2 #2 = 3 #2 — 27 a 2 .

Transposing
x2 + 2 x2 — 3 x2 — 5 ax= — 6 a2 + 13 a
2 — 27 a 2 .

Collecting:
— 5 ax= — 20 a 2
, or (— 5 a) x = — 20 a2 ; x = 4 a.

Hence the rule : When a parenthesis, before which is a

minus sign, is removed, or the denominator of a fraction,
before which is the minus sign, is removed, the signs of
all terms included in the parenthesis or in the numerator
must change.

Simultaneous Linear Equations.

Art. 56. Such equations must be solved by rinding a

single equation, involving but one unknown quantity, which
includes all the conditions. Just as combining any two
expressions (by multiplication, addition, or otherwise) in-
troduces into the result all the factors and other charac-
teristicscontained by both, so the combination of two or
more equations gives an equation which contains the
qualities and conditions of all. Upon this fact is based
the rule for solving simultaneous equations.

* Since a minus sign always means a subtraction, actual or indi-

cated, the minus sign before the parenthesis in the above example
indicates that the quantities within are to be subtracted, and since
removing the parenthesis partially performs the operation, according
to the law of negative numbers, the signs of the quantities inclosed
must all be changed. The same thing applies to the numerators of
fractions, when the denominators are removed by clearing.
2,6 Algebra.

Example. 4^+9^=79 (Are these independent?) (1)

7 x-iyy=4o (2)

Multiply (1) by 7 and (2) by 4; then (1) by 17 and (2)

by 9.

28/+ 63 y = 553 68 .v 4- 153^= 1343

2fx — 68 y = 160 63 x— itfj y = 360
Subtract, J
3 i y 393 Add 131 a*= 1703
Divide by 131, y = 3 x — 13

The equation 131 y = 393, while it contains only the

unknown y by the above t
principle contains all the con-
ditions of both original equations hence, the value 3 of y,
;

found from it, will agree with the value of x 13), similarly (

found, and will satisfy with it both equations.

Verification :

4 (13) + 9 (3) = 79 or 52 4- 27 = 79, that is 79 = 79.

7 (
x 3) - J
7 (3) - 4o or 91 - 51 = 40, that is 40 - 40.

Art. 57. The process of combining simultaneous

equations, so as to reduce the number of unknown quanti-
ties in the result, is called elimination.
There are several devices employed to effect elimination,
one of which is illustrated in the example solved above.
This method may be thus described :

Multiply each equation if necessary by a factor

(preferably the least one), that will make the co-
efficients OF ONE OF THE UNKNOWNS THE SAME IN BOTH.
If the terms containing these unknowns have the
same sign, subtract one equation from the other; if
they have opposite signs, add.

If there are more than two equations, say three, combine

the equations in pairs (say 1st and 2d, and 2d and 3d),
thus acquiring two simultaneous equations containing only
two unknowns. The combination of these two will elimi-
 Eqicattons. 37

nate one of the two remaining unknowns, leaving but one.

Then divide by the coefficient of this remaining unknown,
and the result will be its value for the set of simultaneous
equations.
Example.

\x + \y = 12- \z or \x+\y+\z=\i (1)

Jy + i*-'8+-J*ar-|*+£y + |s-8 (2)

£#+£2=10 hx +i 2 =io (3)

\x + \y + ^*= 6
Subtract J of (2) from ^ of (1) - T\ x ^ y + £ 2 = f
-1-

*.
3 6 A
1 1
"3S" Z
=¥ 1
(4)
Multiply (4) by 12 add (3) to (4) -y- X-
1
3 z
— 40
jr X-1-: z = 10
•2 5
X = 5°
x = 12
Substituting x= 1 2 in (3) 6 +Jz= 1 o, 3 = 1

Substituting #= 12, z = 12 in (1) 6 +^ y+ 2 = 12, y= 12

Elimination by Substitution.
Art. 58.
Example. 1 = —— (1)
u 2 —if
1 .2
(2)
M - I ^4-3
From (1) 6 —3 z/ = m.
3 ?/=6—u
6 —u
z? =
-

Substituting value of
—
= 6 ft in • / X . 1 2
77 (2) ; = . . . . (3)
3 it - 1 6-z *
^ %5
 — ^

38 Algebra.

Simplifying (3) —
u—
- =
1
-
6 — 7/4-9
or -i- =
11 — 1 15 —
.

3
Clearing of fractions,

15 — 71 = 6 u — 6,

whence —ju= — 21, // = 3.

From (3) if ?* = 3, u — —^3 = I#

Solve one of the equations tor one or the

Rule.
UNKNOWNS T\ TERMS OF THE OTHER AND KNOWN TERMS)
SUBSTITUTE THIS VALUE FOR THE SAME UNKNOWN IN" THE
OTHER EQUA1 [ON; CLEAR OF IK v
COLLECT AND DIVIDE THROUGH BY THE CO! H UN t OF THE I I

UNKNOWN INVOLVED. Till. RESULT IS A ROOT OF THE

ORIGINAL EQUATIONS. Tins ROOT SUBSTITUT] D EN ETHER I

ORIGINAL EQUATION GIVES THE VALUE or THE OTHER

UNKNOWN,
Elimination by Indeterminate Coefficients.

Art. 59.
Example: $x -f $y = 19 (1)
5 .v - 4v = 7 - • ( 2
)

Since either equation maybe multiplied by any factor

whatever, we will multiply (2) by, say, w, and add.
3x+$y= 19 (1)
— 4 ;/v = jm
5;;/.v ; . . . . . .
(2)
3# + $mx + sy ~ Amy - 19 + l m
or x (3 + 5;;/) + y (5 -4»0 = x 9 + V* • • (3)

Equation (3) plainly contains both (1) and (2) and the
conditions that belong to both, hence, whatever is true of
N
(3 , is true of both (1) and (2).
Since m may have any value, let it be — $, so that
 Equations. 39

the coefficient of x shall be zero, which is plainly equiv-

alent to eliminating x from (1) and (2), as previously
explained. Then
Substituting m =— f in (3)

x (3 - 3) ~ y (5 + — J
19- —
21

5
74
or 37.
y =
5 5
v = 2.

Again, let m= f in (3), then:

x\33 + lij +^(5 - 5) = 19 +ii

37^v_ in'
or
4 4
* = 3-

Rule. Multiply either equation by any literal fac-

tor as m; add (or subtract) this result to the other
EQUATION, AND IN THE RESULTING COMPOUND EQUATION
GIVE m SUCCESSIVE VALUES THAT WILL CAUSE THE COEFFI-
CIENTS OF THE UNKNOWNS TO SUCCESSIVELY VANISH THE J

VALUE OF THE REMAINING UNKNOWN WILL BE THE VALUE

THAT SATISFIES THE SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS.

More than Two Unknown Quantities.

Art. 60.
(jx + $y — 2z = 16 . . . . B (1)
2x + sy + sz = 39 (2)
Sx - y + 52; = 31 (3)
Multiply 2 by (a) and 3 by (b) and add to (1)

jx + 2>y ~ 2Z = *6
2ax + say + $ax = 39a
$bx — by + $bz = 31b

(7 + 2a + $b)x + (3 + 5a - b)y + (3a 4- 56 - 2)2 = 16

4-39a + 3i6 (4)
40 Algebra.

We must evidently determine the values of a and b that

will simultaneously reduce two of the terms of (4) to zero,
say the x and y terms. That means that we must solve
the two equations.

7 4 2a 4 56 = o for a and b » . . (5)

and 3 4 5a — t = o (6)

Transpose and multiply (6) by 5

2a 4 s*- -7
25a- 5*= -15.

Add 2 7(1 = — 22

22
a -
-'7

Whence substituting

(/=
22
27
•

in
/
(5),
\
7- =
44
27
b 5/;
7
=0.

Whence

27 27

Substituting this value of a and 6 in (4)

V 27 27 / V 27 2 7/

V 9 27 / 27 27
26C
^- z = —
H2C
*, z = s etc.
27 27

Art. 61. State the rule for elimination of any number

of unknown quantities.
 Equations. 4

General Rule. Combine the equations two and two,

ELIMINATING ONE OF THE UNKNOWN QUANTITIES; THEN
COMBINE THE RESULTING EQUATIONS TWO AND TWO, ELIMI-
NATING ANOTHER UNKNOWN, AND CONTINUE UNTIL THERE
REMAINS BUT ONE EQUATION CONTAINING ONE UNKNOWN,
THE VALUE OF THIS LAST UNKNOWN WILL BE ONE OF THE
VALUES SOUGHT. SUBSTITUTION WILL GIVE THE OTHERS.

EXERCISE IX.

1. (y + 4) (y- 2) = (y + 3) (.3y+4)~(2y+i) (y-6).

2. (x + 2)
2
+ 3^= (x — zf + 5 (16
- x).

3
x ~ 2
= x ~ S
2X- 5 2X - 2

25 IO
z-i 32-4
x - 3 12— 2X
6.
x2 — 9 #2
- 36 x2 — 81

c #3 —
x 6
2
6. =x.
X2 + 2&X + 6
2

7. (y+-^_) - O-r-^L.) _ fl .

y — a -y — a

8.
72-9 =
92 + 4 62-5
z-3 36 24

9. 2^ ^+
_ $x '
J
/
_ x
= Z + I.
II 2

10.
a^ + x 2
) , ac+ g*.
bx b

11.
6? + 7
+ u- 13 = 2y + 4 b

9 6y + 3 3
42 Algebra,

12 2X + I 2X — l <)X 4- 17

2# — l6 2A + 12 X — 2X — 48
2

13. 3 12 •'-* -a,

.OI — .02X .OI + .02.T .Ol(4.V 2 — i)

14. ! _j
3 = IO ,

I+-JL.
I — .V

15. 3 (sy - 3) = 6
.

2 (4J + 3) 5

16. *-3 + 2£^_I _ ,.

2X + I 4X — 3

17o s2 -j = 20 - 1
2 3

18. 5
2 z + 2 z
2
- 4

irt ax — b bx + c = 1

19o </fo-.
c a

20. ^-±-I--J_= 2v fi
-
.

3 y + 2

21. 1 - i*±l = _1_ _ J.

22. J + -1- = li _ 5,v

y + 2 8 4^ + 8

23.
X — J _ 2X — 15
#4-7 2^-6 2 (.v 4- 7)

24. (3a — #) (a - b) 4- 2a.v = 46 (a 4- x).

 Equations. 43

EXERCISE X.

Equations containing more than one unknown.

! (5 X = 2 y + 78
(3 y = x + 104.

3j: w 4- v
4 + 2 = + u = 15
4

^y
— 8 = 41. + v = 6.
5

2 — 3;
y 2 x — 59
x - = 20 + "

2^ — x
4. J
y - 3 73 ~ 3 y
^~l8 = 3°
.

(X y x 2 # — y
+ 14 - 18
5. J 7. J
x y y ?y +
+ 16 =
lb a c

5 / + 4 ^ - 49i 3 X + 16 y = 5
8.
2 / + 7 5 = 63. - 5 # + 28 y = 19.

7 + x 2 x --
y
= 3y - 5
9. J
5? ~ 7 ,
4* - 3
= -
18 s x.
2

iy + iz - 7
10.
2x .+ sy = 43-

—3 + ,
—
5
= 2. + = ~ 4
U V 2X - 3 y y - 2
11.
10
= 1.
12. ^
—^—
2 # - 3 y
+ -- -
y-2
3
-f
44 Algebra.

6 + a: — y —
= _ 7 ay = 2 a& fo
13. x — y 4 14.
2 6^+ 2(72 = 3 b2 — a2 .

2 # + 3r - I.

'
3? y - 3 *
= 8
2 2
I

15.
A" + fy __7_
|; - V y
4 a: 3°-

r2 # 4-
3 y — 42 = 8 2 v - 3 v = 4
16. 3 a; — 4^4-22=3 17 -
(
4 A' - 3 2 = 2

[4 a; - 2 y - 3 2 = 5. 1 4 V 4- 2 2 = - 3.

r 4 v
1.4 a- 4-. 32 v = 376 5 4- y 1 2 4- a;
18. 19 -

.28x 4- 96 y= 29.36. 2 A"

5"
+ y = 7 -

'1 1 1

y
A* V 2
r x —y+ z = 10
2 4
20. ' —
3 a* 8 v 4- 102 = 50 21 . ,
3
- - - +— = II
X V 2
[Sx + 2 y- 3 2=40-
i _ 3 _
A* y z

EXERCISE XI.

Problems — Simple Equations.

1. The sum of two numbers is 18, and the quotient of

the less divided by the greater is £. What are the
numbers ?

2. A
steamer can run 20 miles an hour in still water.
If it can run 72 miles with the current in the same time
that it can run 48 miles against the current, what is the
rate of the current ?
 Equations. 45

3. A cistern has three pipes. The first pipe can fill it

in half the time required by the second and the second

takes two-thirds as long as the third. If the three pipes
be open together the cistern will be filled in six hours. In
what time can each pipe fill it ?
4. The diameter of a driving wheel on a shaft is six

inches greater than that of the driven wheel. While the

driving wheel makes 64 revolutions, the driven wheel
makes 122. What is the circumference of each?
5. The perimeter of a triangle is 82 in. The shortest
side is respectively 6 in. and 19 in. less than the other two
sides. What is the length of each ?

6. A ball is w ith a certain velocity if

shot into the air r
;

its initial velocity had been 380 ft. per second greater,

it would have risen \ higher in 5 seconds. What w as its r

initial velocity and how high did it rise ?

7. Jupiter is approximately 370,000,000 miles farther

from the sun than the earth. If it takes light, traveling

about 186,000 miles per second, 998 seconds longer to
reach the earth from Jupiter when he is on the other side
of the sun from the earth, what are the distances of the
earth and Jupiter from the sun ?
8. The distance between two points in a straight line

is 21 miles. A train traveling on the circumference of a

circle of which this distance is the diameter takes 13
minutes longer to arrive at the second point than another
train, which traveled in a straight line. If the two trains
had exchanged tracks it would have taken the second
train 31 minutes longer to reach the second point. Find
the rate of each.
9. If 1 be added
numerator of a fraction, the
to the
be equal to \ but if 1 be added to
resulting fraction will ;

the denominator, the result will be \. What is the

fraction ?

10. A number has two digits, the tens' digit being twice
the units' digit. If the digits be interchanged the resulting
46 Algebra.

number is 18 less than the original. What is the

number ?
11. The sum of the lengths of two conductors is 3050
centimeters. The resistivity (that is, the resistance per
centimeter) of one is .0016 ohms and of the other .00972
ohms. If each is increased 500 centimeters in length, the
sum of their resistances is 29.66 ohms. Find their
lengths.
12. A boat must return to its landing in 5 hours. I Tow-

far may it steam down stream at the rate of 15 miles per

hour and return at the rate of 10 miles per hour?
13. A and B can do a piece of work in 20 clays, A and

C in 30 days, and B and C in 40 days. How long would

it take each alone ?

14. A man invested .>26io in 5 r and G r bonds, pay-

,' ',

ing 95 for the former and 105 for the latter. His income
from both together Was >i44- Howmuch did he invest
in each ?

15. A train 300 ft. long passes a train 360 ft. long in
56J seconds when both run in the same direction but if ;

they run in opposite directions they pass in 6} seconds.

What are the rates of each in miles per hour ?
16. A mass of tin and lead, weighing 240 lbs., loses
28 lbs. weighed in water, if 74 lbs. of tin lose 10 lbs.,

and 115 lbs. of lead lose 10 lbs. in water, how many lbs.

of each in the mass ?

17. Find the time between 2 and 3 o'clock when the

hands watch are together.
of a
18. The rear wheels and fore wheels of a carriage are
respectively 16 and 14 ft. in circumference. How far has
the carriage traveled when the fore wheels have made 5 1
more revolutions than the rear wheels ?
 CHAPTER IV.

GRAPHICS.

Article 62. A point is said to have position, but

statement means nothing unless determined
its position is

with respect to some fixed point or lines.Given a fixed

point, or better intersecting straight lines, and the position
of any point can be definitely determined by its distances
and directions from them. For instance, the position of
any building in a city whose streets are symmetrically laid
out may be accurately stated by indicating its distances
from two principal intersecting streets.
Further, the relative positions of several points and their

A 3 B B'

1
X'
C

c D

-<

Fig. x.

distances apart may be easily obtained if their dis-

tances from two intersecting straight lines are known.
For instance, the position of the point A is accurately de-
47
48 Algebra.

fined if we say its distance from the line XX ' is 2 units

upward and its distance from YY' 3 units to the
is left.

The distance AB to YY' is called the abscissa of A and

the distance AC is called its ordinate for convenience.
The abscissa and ordinate together are known as the co-
ordinate of the point.
Art. 63. To avoid the cumbrous expressions, " to the
right, " "to the left," etc., it is agreed that distance mea-
sured to the right of YY' shall be called plus, to the left,

negative and that distance measured upward from XX'

;

shall be called positive, and downward, negative.

Art. 64. The reference lines XX' and YY' usually
intersect at right They clearly
angles for simplicity.
divide space into four numbered 1, 2, 3, 4.
quadrants
around to the left from A" to .V again. Thus XOY is
quadrant t, YOX' is 2, X'OY* is 3. Y'OX is 4. The ab-
scissas are universally designated by X and the ordinate's
byy.
The point A in the last illustration is X - — 3. v = 2 or
more briefly (— 3, 2), x always being written fust.
Art. 65. The values of x and y remaining 3 and 2
respectively, a point in the first quadrant would be
(3, 2), in the second, (- 3, 2), in the third (-3,-2),
and in the fourth (3,-2), represented in the figure as 2?',

A, CandZ), respectively.
Art. 66. Since a line may be regarded as made up of
points, if the position of every point in the line with respect
to the axes XX' and YY 9
is known, the position of the
entire line is known.
Art. 67. Whenever the relation between the abscissa
and ordinate of every point on a line is the same, the ex-
pression of this relation in the form of an equation is said
to give the equation of the line. For example, if the ordi-
nate is always 4 times the abscissa for every point on a
line, y = 4.x is called the equation of the line.
Again, if 3 times the abscissa is equal to 5 times
 Graphics. 49

the ordinate plus 2, for every point on a line, then

3X — Sy + 2 is the line's equation.
Art. Clearly since an equation represents the
68.
relation between the abscissa x and the ordinate y for
every point on a line, if either coordinate is known for
any point on the line, the other one may be found by sub-
stituting the known one in the equation and solving it for
the unknown.
For example, let 2v = yx — 1 be the equation for a
line, and a point is known to have the abscissa x = 2.
To find its ordinate substitute x= 2 in the equation
2y = 7 (2)
- 1 = 14 — 1 =?=
13 ; y — 6h Therefore the
ordinate corresponding to the abscissa x = 2 is 6\. '

Art. 69. Further, if the equation is given, the whole

line may be reproduced by locating its points. If x for
example be given a series of values from o to 10 inclusive,
by substituting these values in the equation, the corres-
ponding values of y are found, and 11 points are thus
located on the desired line. If more points are needed
the range of values for x may be indefinitely extended,
and if these points are joined we have the line. For
example, let the equation of a line be x 2 -f y 2 = 9, to re-
produce the curve represented. For convenience in cal-
culating solve for y ;

y = ± ^9 - x2 .

Then give x a series of values to locate points on this

line.

Hx=oy=±^g — o=±3.
If x =i y= ±^^~i= + v/ 8= ±2.83.

Jix=2 y= ±^9— 4= ± ^5 = ±2.24.

If x = 3 y= ± Vg — 9 = ± V = o.

If x = 4 y = ± ^9 — 16 = ± v — 7 = an imaginary.
5o Algebra,

The last value for y shows that the point whose abscissa
is 4 is not on the curve at all and since any larger values
;

of x would continue to give imaginary values for y, the

curve does not extend beyond x — 3.
Since we have given x only positive values so far, all
our points so determined lie to the right of the YY' axis.
To make the examination complete, let x take a seri<
negative values, thus ;

lix= -1 ± V9 - 1 = ± x '8- ± 2.85.

If*= -2 v

H A- - 3 V ± x/ 9~9 = ^o^ -

The similarity of these results shows that the curve is

symmetrical with respect to the axes, that is, it is alike on

both sid.es of the axes.

If now these points are located with respect to the axes

XX' and YY' and are joined the result is an approxima-
tion to the curve: it is only an approximation because the
points are few and not close enough together.

Fig. 2.

The result is shown in Fig. 2, using ^ in. as a unit for

scale. The points are (o, + 3)1 (°>
~ 3)> [being A and A*
 G rap Jtics. 51

in the figure] (1,^8), (i f - *f%) [being B and B'] (2,^),

(2, - V^) [being C and C], (3, o) [G], (- 1, v^8), (_ If

- v^8) [Z? and £>'], (- 2, v^) (_ 2 ,

- V^) [£ and £']
and (- 3, o) [£].
Clearly if more points are needed to trace the curve
accurately through them (as is the case here), it is neces-
sary to take more values of % between — 3 and 4- 3, for
example

x-- O y= ± V 9== ± 3.
±^9-
x-- .2 y= j- V9 — .04= ± ^8.96 = ±2.99.
x==. 4 j= ± v 9 ..16= ±
. N S.84= ±2.97.

# .6
=
± V 9--36=± X 8.64= ±2.94.
x =.8 y= ±v 9 - 64= ±^ 3 6=±2.8 9 8_. .

/
#= 1 1 - ± v 8 = ±2.83, etc.

Making a similar table for the corresponding negative

values of a*, the result is three times as many points on
the curve as before, and as they are closer together the
curve is much more readily drawn through them, and it

will be much more accurate.

Take another example 9 x1 : -f 16 v 2 =i 44.

Solving for y ; y= ±| v 16- v 2

.

Then =0
if a'
;y=±f v i6=±3-
x= ±.2 y= ±1 ^16 -.04 = ± V 15.96= £2.99 + .

y = ±f\ i6-.i6 =± ^15.84 = ±2.98 +

/
x= ± 4 . .

x=±.6 y= ±f v"i6-. 3 6 = ±^ 15.64 = ±2.96 + .

/
*- ±-8 y= ±j^ i6-.6 4 = ± v I5 3 6= ±2.94. .

#= ± 1 y - -t|\ 16- i = ±| i7= ±2.9, etc.

v/
52 Algebra.

Fig. 3.

The result is indicated in Fig. 3, same scale as before.

Art. 70. Clearly a curve can be traced thus repre-
senting almost any form of equation.
Suppose the equation a*3 - 7 a 2 4- 7 a* 4- 15 = jrisgiven.
The location of a number
by giving x a seri<
of points
values and calculating corresponding values of y from the
equation, will enable us to draw through them the curve
represented by the equation. In most cases there will be
certain values of a* which will make the value of y zero,
such values of a* will be roots of the equation a*3 — 7 x2 -h
yx+ 15 = o, that is these values of x identically satisfy
this equation.
But if y is zero for a point, the point must be on the
X axis, for by definition the value of y is the distance from
the x axis to the point, hence the curve must cross the
x axis at these points where y is zero. If then none of
the values given to a* make y exactly zero, but do make y
change from a positive value for one value of a*, to a
negative value for the next, or vice versa, must pass
it

through zero to change from one sign to the other, and

hence the curve must cross the x axis.
As an illustration, take the equation
a:
3
— 5 a2 + x + X1 — y.
 Graphics. 53

As before, make a table of values of x and y, and locate

the points as follows

If x = y= 1 K*- 3 y - -4
li x = .s y= 10.375 If* - 35 y -- 3-^75
If x = 1 v= 8 If * = 4 ^ = —1
K #= 1.5 y- 4.625 If x = 4-5 > = 5-375
li x = 2 y = 1 If # = —1 y = 4
If jc = 2.5 v = 2.125 If * = 1.5 y = 5 125 .

The curve connecting these points crosses the x axis at

three points; one between and 2.5, one between 4 and 2

4.5, and one between — 1 and — 1.5. Hence the three

roots of the equation x3 — 5 # 2 + n; + 11 = are between
2 and 2.5 between 4 and 4.5, and between — 1 and
;

- i-5-

If the values of x in the above table had been taken

closer together, the points of crossing would have been
more accurately known.

EXERCISE XII.

Graphs.
Construct the graph of :

1. 2 x — 5 = y. 8. x2 = 4y.
2-
i (x - 3 )=y. 9.
f = tVv.
3 -
3* - sy = 7- 10. * + r = 25.
4. 5 — 2 x — 2 y. 11. v3 - 3 r + 1 = y.

s- 1(4 + 5*) =\y- 12. %x 2 + %f = 6.

6. gx + 16 y
2 2
= 144. 13. f = 4(4 - xy.
7. x - \f =
2
4. 14. x- = 9 (9 - y)-
15. State the equation for the line § of whose abscissas
minus 1 equals f of its ordinates.
16. State the equation for the line, the sum of the
squares of the abscissas and ordinates of its points being
equal to 16.
 ;

CHAPTER V.

THE BINOMIAL THEOREM.

Article 71, Let us consider the product (a -f- b)

(a + b) (a 4- b) or (a + 6;
3
= a3 + 3 </
2
6 + 306* + ft
3
.

A very casual examination will show that the first term

of this product, which is the cube of (a 4- b), is the first

letter raised to the power 3, and that the exponent of this
first letter decreases by one in each successive term to the

right until disappears in the last term

it also that the ;

second letterappears first in the second term and increases

by one in each term to the right until it reaches 3 in the
last term.
Also the coefficient of the first term is 1, and of the
second term is the same as the exponent of the binomial,
that is, 3. The coefficient of the third term may be gotten
by multiplying the coefficient of the preceding term (the
second) by the exponent of the first letter and dividing

the product by the number of this term ; thus, * _ 3,

2

The coefficient of the fourth term (which in this case is

the last) may be gotten in the same way from the third

thus, 2^£_i = J.

Now let us see if these rules hold for the fourth power
of (a + b),

(a + b) (a + b) (a 4- b) (a + b) = (a 4- 6)
4

- a4 + 4 a 3b + 6 a2 b2 + 4.ab + b\ ?>

54
 The Binomial Theorem. 55

Clearly the rules for exponents apply

for the exponents ;

of abegin with 4 and decrease by one to the right, and

the exponents of b begin with one in the second term
and increase by one, to 4 in the last term.
Also the coefficient of the second term is 4, the exponent
of the binomial the coefficient of the third term is gotten
;

from the second by the rule already indicated, namely,

For the fourth term also,

6x2 = and for the last
4 ;

term, 4
- -X-I - 1.

And so an examination of higher powers will in every

case verify these rules, which are called empirical rules,
because they are derived by inspection and verified by
trial, although they have a good mathematical foundation.

These rules constitute what is called the Binomial Theorem.

Example. Develope the expression (x + y) 7 by the
binomial theorem,

(x + y)
7
= x7 + 7 x?^ y + -^ x
1
2
7 ~2
f + HJL5
3

4 S 6

7 X 1
= x7 + 7
x y* + y
7
or (x + y)
7
x*y + 21 x 5 y2
7
6 7
+ 35 x * y 3 + 35 °^ y* + 2 x °° 2 y~ + 7 ^y +^ »

It is to be also observed that the number of terms is

always one greater than the power to which the binomial
is raised for example, in the above problem there are
;

8 terms = 7 + 1, etc. Also the coefficients of the terms

 :

56 Algebra.

equally distant from the first and last terms are the same,

as may be readily seen by writing the series of coefficients

in the last problem as follows

I
I , I I
I
!

x > 7> 2I > 35> 35> 2I > 7i *•

A simple examination of the product of (<z — b) (j - b)

(a - b), (a - b) (a - /;) (a - 6) (a - />) etc., will show

that the terms arc alternately plus and minus, the first
term always being plus, and that the developement in
other respects is exactly like that for (<i -r />)•

Art. 72. These rules may be applied to trinomials by

grouping two of the terms together, thus, [(,/ 4- b) + r]*
- (a + 6)*+4 (a + 6) a c + 6 (a h c*+&)
1
^-c
4
,
,

then (a +
and (a 4- 6)
/>j
3 1
may be developed separately
by the theorem and the results substituted. Likewise
(a + b + c + dy could be grouped thus, [(a + b) + (c+d)f t

and so on by like process for any polynomial

Art. 73. It is to be observed that these rules for the
expansion of a binomial do not require that the terms
of the binomial should be single letters for example. ;

(2x + 3V)
4
can be expanded in exactly the same way
as (a + b)\ by treating the 2X as a and $y as Z>; thus
(2 X + 3>')
4
- (**)' + 4 (2A-) 3 ( 3 y) +6 (2A-)'J (3y) 2 + 4 (**)
3 4
(3>0 + (3v)
This last expression can then be simplified by perform-
ing the indicated operations as follows :

=
(2*)* (2)< (.v<) = 16 *« ( 3 v)
2
= (3)
2
(/) - 9 f
{2xf = = 8.v3 = 3
=
3 3
(2)3 (*») (3.V) (3) (v ) 27 f
(2 X y = = +v = =
2 4
(2)= (*») ( 3 v) (3)' (y
1

) 81 y<

Making these substitutions, the first expression becomes

(2x + 3y)
4
= i6.v 4 + 96 a^y + 216 x 2 y + 216 2
a;y 3 + Si y 4 .
 The Binomial Theorem. 57

Clearly in the binomial {a + b), a or b can be made to

represent any expressions whatever, and hence any polyno-
mial, however complex, may be expanded by the theorem.
The binomial theorem may be employed to abbreviate
the process of squaring numbers, especially those of two
digits, as 47, say, The process is as follows:

(47
2 = (40 + y)
2
= (40)
2
+ 2 x 40 x 7 + 7
2
by the theorem.

1600
This may be collected thus, 560. Since the first digit
is of necessity in ten's place 49 its square will be

2209
always so many hundreds, and hence there will be always
two zeros with the square of the first digit twice the ;

product of the two digits will always have one zero with
it as the second term of the development. The addition
can be simplified then by neglecting the zeros and keeping
the figures in their proper position in the sum by writing
each succeeding term so that one figure projects to the
right, thus,

( 47 )
2
=16 =42
56 =2x7x4
=49 7
2

2209 = (47)2

EXERCISE XIII.

Expand by the Binomial Theorem.

1. (a + by. 5. (3c- 5 dy.

(2 - x)
7
2. (2 * + 3 y)\ 6. .

3. (x - 2Z)
3
. 7. (y-1) 6 .

4. + *.(*y-z)>.
(f fj-
58 Algebra.

9,
(3-O b
. 19. (y
2
4 y - i) s
.

10. (i - x2 ) 6
. 20. (2 4 .v 4 x2 )*.
11. (x 4 f) 5
. 21. (^x 4 i)
5
..

12.
O - | n)\ 22. Cry - 2)*.
(x 3 — y z) 3 - i) 6
2
13. r 23. (/? .

5
14. (r~* 4 $-*) 24. (a -.v) 7 .

15. (2#* 4 y"?)

6
. 25. (i + .v — y — *)'
16. (3
VX- - 2 n y)«. 26. (3V - i)
5
.

5
17. (a 1 4 5)
27. (1 + 8 <*)«.

18. fc+iY 28. fc+^Y.

INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION

Art. 74. The process of multiplying any quantity by
itself any number of times is called raising it to the
power indicated by the number of times it is used as a
factor. For example a X a X a = <r is the third power ]

or cube of a. Power in algebra differs from power in

arithmetic chiefly in the matter of sign. From the rule
for signs in even powers of
multiplication, evidently all

either positive or negative quantities will be positive,

while odd powers of negative quantities are negative.
Raising to powers is called Involution.
Art. 75. To raise a monomial to any power, raise the
numerical part arithmetically to the required power, and
multiply the exponents of the literal factors by the power,
as directed in the rule for exponents.

Example.
(Sanc 3 ) 3 =(s) 3 a 2 >< 3
b
1 >< 3
e
s >< 3
=j2S^b 3 c^(-3x- y2 zy 1

Art. 76. To raise a polynomial to any power, apply

the binomial theorem as indicated in Article 72.
 The Binomial Theorem. 59

EXTRACTION OF ROOTS.
Art. 77. The root of a quantity is one of its equal
factors. Evidently the finding of any root is the exact
reverse of raising it to a power.

Hence, to extract a root of a monomial, extract arith-

metically the required root of the numerical factor, and
divide the exponents of the literal factors by the index of the
root.

Roots are indicated as in arithmetic by the radical sign,

V """
and the figure indicating the root called its index,
above the radical sign to the left. Thus, ^65 a 2 b indi-
2
cates the fifth root of 65 a b. This is often expressed
2
as a fractional power, thus (65 a b) . Extraction of
roots is known as Evolution.

To Extract the Square Root of a Polynomial.

Art. 78. Since by making use of parentheses, and thus

grouping terms, any quantity may be put into the form
of a binomial, its square may be regarded as the square
of a binomial, and the simple binomial form (a + b) 2
= a 2 + 2 ab + b 2 may serve as a model. In this expres-
sion, a and b are to stand for any two quantities, mono-
mial or polynomial. For example,

(2x2 + 3 c y + m 3 + n) 2 = [(2 x 2 + 3 c y) + (m 3 + n)]

2

= (2 x2 + 3 c y) + 2 (2X + 2>cy) (m
2 2 3
+ 11) + (m 3 -f- n) 2
.

The expression+ b) 2 = 2 + 2a b + b 2 may be put in

(a - (7

the form (a + b) = a 2 + b (2a + b).

2
Since as we have
shown any quantity may be expressed in this general form,
the square root of the first term of such quantity is the
firstterm of its complete square root, for 2
= a in V
the form (a 4- b) = a + 2 a b + b = a + b (2a + b).
2 2 2 2

If now a be subtracted from the square of the binomial,

2
60 Algebra.

the remainder 2 ab + b
2
= b (2 a + b) will contain the
rest of the root. Since the
term of this remainder first

is made up of 2 a and b, if we divide it by twice the first

term of the root already found (a), the quotient will be b>
the second term of the root.
The form of the remainder, b (2 a + b), shows that to
make the process complete, b must be added to 2 a, and
the sum.multiplied by b.
If this when subtracted still does not exhaust the origi-
nal quantity, the same process repeated using the two
terms of the root already found, a + b, as a single term,
will add another term to the root. This would show that
the original expression was in the form (</ -f b + c) 2
instead of (a + b)
2
, thus,

[(a + b) + c]
2
= (a 4- by + a (a + b) c + c\

Now (a + b) 2 has already been subtracted from the

above expression in the process just described, hence
the remainder consists of an expression of the form

2 ((/ + b)c + c
1
= c [2 (a + b) 4- r],

which is exactly like the first remainder, if a 4- b is regarded

as a single quantity, indicated by the parenthesis.
This process may be repeated until there is no re-
mainder, or one too small to further contain the terms of
the root already found. In the latter case there is no
exact root.
Art. 79. All this may be put into a rule as follows ;

To extract the square root 0} a polynomial, extract the

square root of the -first term, this will be the first term of
the root. Double this first term of the root, and as a trial
divisor, divide the product into the remainder left after drop-
ping the term of the polynomial ; the quotient is the
first
second term of the root. Complete the trial divisor by add-
 The Binomial Tlieorem. 6

ing this second term of the root, and multiply this sum by
the second term of the root. If, after subtracting this pro-
duct, there is still a remainder, double all of the root already
found and divide the first term of this product into the first
term of the remainder to get the third term of the root.
Complete the divisor as before and multiply the completed
divisor by the third term of the root. Continue this process
until there is no remainder. The polynomial should be
arranged according to ascending (or descending) powers of
one letter.

Example. Extract the square root of

25 x 4 4- 20 a?y— 4.yz 2jr 4 y 2 4- z 4 — 10 x 2 z 2

25 x 4
+ 20 x 2y 4- 4 y 2 — 10 x 2 z 2 — 4 yz 2 4- z 4
[5 x2 4- 2 y —z 2
4
25 X
Trial divisor : io.v 2
2 ox 2 y 4- 4 y- — 1 x2 z 2 - 4 yz 2 + z*
+ 2 r
Complete div. 10^+ 2 y
( 1
= 2 0x2 y+ 4 y-
x2 + 2 y) 2 y
2 (5 x +2 y) = iox + 4y (t rial div.) — I OATS- —
2 2 2 4
4 yz 4- z
— z •>
w

10:X + 4T-2 (CC mplete)

2 2

(io.v2 + 4y-* ) (-s ) - — iox z -

2 2
2 2
4.yz
2
+ z
4

This expression was of the form ((7 4-6 4- c)

2
,

for [(5
2
x + 2 y) z ] -
(5 a- + 2 v) + 2 (5 ** 4- 2 y)
2 :
- 2

= a- v-4 yz + 4v 4-z - 10 #V.

a
25 x +
2 2 2 4 2 4 2
(-z ) 4-(-z ) 20

Extraction of Cube Root of Polynomials.

Art. 80. A similar consideration of the cube of the

binomial (a 4- 6), (a 4- 6) = a 3 4- 3
3
a 2 6 4-3 tf6
2
4- 6
3
=a 3
4- 6 (3 a 2
4- 3 a6 4-6 2
), will make the following rule clear:

To extract the cube root of a polynomial, arrange, for

convenience, the polynomial according to the ascending or
descending power of one letter. Extract the cube root 0}
 :

62 Algebra.

the first term ; this will be the first term of the root. Mul-
tiply the square of this first term of the root by 3 (3 a 2 in
the above formula) for a trial divisor ; this product divided
into the first term of the remainder left by dropping the first
term of the polynomial, will give the second term of the
root (3 a b * 3 a = b) t complete the divisor by adding to
2 2

the trial divisor three times the product of the first and
second terms of the root and the square of the second term
2
of the root (3 a 4- 3 ab 4- V) ; multiply this sum by the
second term of the root ([3 a 2 4- 3 ab + lr] X b) and sub-
tract from the remainder of the polynomial, if there is
still a remainder large enough to contain the trial divisor,

repeat the process, taking the two terms of the root already
found together as a single term.

Example. Extract the cube root of

63 .v
4
4-27 a + 2 1 .v
:
- 44 B1 — 54 a
5
- 6 x 4- 1.

Arranging :

27 -V
6
~ 54*" + 6j A'
4
- 44 A3 + 2 IA~ - 6 A* + I '3 A" - 2 A 4- I

2 7 XT
Trial Divisor*
- 54A + 63 A" - 44A 3 4- 2 1 a-2 - 6a 4-
r> 4
I

W(-tt)3-iW ~ 54 + 36 A -8 A"3
A"'"'
4

(- 2x) 2 = 4- 4 A'
2 = (27 - i8a- 4-4^v2 ) (-2 a)
4 3

27
4
- I 8 A 3 4- 4 A"
Complete.
Trial Divisor

(3 A2 - 2 a) 2 3 = 2 7 A'
4
- 36 A'
3
2 7A 4 - 36*" 4- 2 1 a-
2 - 6a 4- 1

4" I2A"
( 3A 2 - 2a) (4-1) (3) = 9 A 2 - 6a
(iV = +1
27 x A - 36 a; 3 4- 2 I A2 - 6 A 4- I 2 7 a -
4
36a-3 4- 2 1 x2 - 6a 4- 1

Complete. = (27 A
4
- 36
A* 3
4- 2131?
- 6a* 4- i) (4- i)
 The Binomial Theorem. 63

Art. 81. Evidently similar rules for higher powers

may be readily stated by referring to the corresponding
developments of (a + 6), but they become rather compli-
cated and are rarely needed.
The fourth power being the square of the square, the
fourth root may be gotten by extracting the square root
twice. Likewise, the sixth root by extracting successively
the square and the cube root, or vice versa, etc.
If it be remembered that numbers may be expressed as
binomials (as 67 = 60 + 7 or 139 = 130 + 9, etc.) the
arithmetical application of these rules will be readily
understood.

EXERCISE XIV.

Extract the following roots :

1. ^a 2
b
2
(a + b)
4
. 5. V64*yV
2. ^2 5 bxy a 20 2
. 6. ^-729 (a+b) 3 c«.

3. ^-32m 1
W 6
. 7. Vx iny 8m z 12
.

4. ^'^L a ^c-\ 8. v/ I 6
(
r + s) (r + 5) 3 .

Extract the square root of the following

9. 13 x 2 y2 — 12 x3y + 4 x 4 — 6 xy 3 + y 4 .

10. 4W 4 - 12 m 2
n +
2
9 n
4
+ 16 mp -2 2
24 n 2p 2 + 16 p 4 t

11. 9 — 24 y — 68 y + 1 12 y + 196 y 2 3 4
.

12. 4 + 9 b 2 — 20 a + 25 a 2 + 30 a& — 12 6.

6 2
x2 y\ J
13.
494
?l + z + 21 _
3
1
16
2?
6
64 Algeb?-a.

14. 2 j.
4 w -
w2 + 6 w — 12 /r 4- 2 .

n-

15. y
6
- 6y 5
z 4- 15 2
2
/ - 2ozV 4- 15 cV-6 :r
5
v 4- z
6

16. x2 4- 4 x3 4- 4 x2 + 4 x 4- 4 4- — •

Extract the cube root of the following :

17. a6 -f 3 </
5
4- 6 </
4
4- 7 a8 -1- 6 a3 + 6a + 1.

18. A-
3
— 6 A 2
V + I 2 AV 2
— S V r!
— 3 X*Z + 3 AC
2
4- I 2 A VC
-

— 12 y-z — 6 vs- — z'\

19. 8 v°'" - 36 /"" 4- 66 v"" - 63 v

3" 4

4- 33 v
2 '"
- 9 /" 4- 1.

vv
20. a 3 - a'v + -
- -

3 27

21. 12 a2 --^- 54a - 59 -^ l 8a* + -Z£.

a* (/ a1
22. 1-6 v + 9 v
2
+ 9 v
3
- 9 v» - 6 / - /'.

23. i + — ^ J
h . 2 a - 7 - 12 a° -f- 8 a-\
a 8 .v'
5

4 -

24. 27 f»
e
»6 4- 54 f»
5
**
5
4- 9 w 4
;/
4
— 28 f»W — 3 ;>z
2
;/
2

4- 6 ;;z;z- 1.
 CHAPTER VI.

SURDS.

Article. 82. understood that the expression x l

It is
means that x is to be taken five times as a factor that is, ;

/y /y /y /y /y —— /y^

It is found convenient to represent in somewhat similar

symbols other operations involving factors. These sym-
bols have been suggested by the simpler operations with
integral exponents, thus
Each of the successive expressions a 6 , a5 a4
, ,
2
a3 a a 1
, , ,

can be derived from the next preceeding by dividing by

a, that is, a = a a 4 = a 5 -^ a, etc, so that each
5 6
-s- a :

division reduces the exponent by unity. If we continue

this process in above series, we get a 6 a 5 a 4 a 3 a 2 a 1 a , , , , , , .

1 2 -3
a"" , a"* , a , a~ 4 , etc.
By the primary laws of division

a1 + a1 = 1 = a by above series.

1
by above series.
a
1

a 1
_ —22 by above
_
a~ series.
a a a"

Hence, we may adopt the symbols

a- 1 for — a~ 2
, for — a" 3
, for — , etc.
a a2 a3
Also a = 1.

Since a
-1 = = — and a~ z = = — , etc.
2
1 a 1 a
65
 : :

66 Algebra.

We may state the rule thus

Any quantity may be moved from denominator to

numerator of a fraction, or vice versa, by changing
the sign of its exponent, or:
a quantity with a negative exponent is the recip-
rocal of the same quantity with the exponent made
positive.

FRACTIONAL EXPONENTS.
Art. S3. Let us consider a series of expressions like

the following
a 16 u\ a4
, t
cr, a1 .

Each one obtained from the proceeding, by dividing its

exponent by 2, is called its square root. If this process

of division is continued, we get,

ie
a ,
<i\ a4 ,
<r, n\ a*, a\ a*, etc.

and by analogy, aS may be called the square root of a ; a*,

the square root of a* or the fourth root of a, etc.

series a27 a9 1 indi-

:!

Likewise, the , , </ . fl , a*, a*, a*, etc.,

cates a like relation with third, ninth, twenty-seventh root,

1

and in general, the symbol (/'• means an ;/th root of a.

RADICAL SIGNS.

Art. 84. There is another symbolism which arises

from the older method of indicating square root by pre-
fixing the Latin word radix, meaning root, to the quantity
involved ; for instance, radix 2 meant, in modern phrase-
ology, the square root of 2, etc.

Eventually radix was abbreviated to r, and finally the

r was extended to cover the quantity whose root was

required ; thus, ^2 •

Hence oHs equivalent to x/ a.

 Surds. 67

To complete this symbolism, a small index is super-

posed upon this radical sign, to indicate other roots, thus :

a\ = Va , a? = \l , and in general a 7t
= ^/a.

Art. 85. Any root thus indicated, except even roots

of negative numbers (discussed later), is called a surd.
Art. 86. Surds are said to be similar, when they
have the same quantity under the radical sign, when in
there simplest form.

av/3> 3^3j 2 ^3> etc., ar e similar.

Art. 87. When an expression is wholly under the

radical sign it is said to be a pure surd; otherwise, a
mixed surd.

y/j i
\Zn v7 !? etc., are pure surds.

3V2, 5^7, 4^3, etc., are mixed surds.

To Simplify Surds.

Art. 88. Example : simplify V27 a 3 b 2 (?.

^27 a 3 b 2
c
5
= ^ (9 a 2 2
b c') {$ac) - 2
3 abc *Syicy
2
since the square root of 9 a 2 b 2 c A is 3 abc .

Again, v 2I 6 = V36 x 6
/
=6^
or ^81 = ^27 X3 = 3 V3. Then,

Rule: Separate the expression under the radical

into two factors one of which is a perfect power, and
the largest factor of this kind. Extract the root
(indicated) of this factor, placing it outside of the
radical sign, leaving the other factor under the
radical. Multiply the root that has been removed
by any factor already outside of the radical sign.
68 Algebra.

Example. Simplify, 3^98

3
V/^r == 3
V 49X2 = 3(7) \Z7= 21^2."

Again, ab^aWx = ab^(a 2 2

b
4
x2 ) (ab) = a 2 b 3x ^ab.

Order of a Surd.

Art. 89. The index of the radical indicates the order

of the surd. For instance, v^ is a surd of 2d order, or a

quadratic surd ; V5 is a surd of 3d order, or a cubic

surd ; ^5 is a surd of 4th order, or a bi-quadratic, etc.

Reduction of Mixed to Entire Surds.

Art. 90. The reduction of mixed surds to entire surds

is the exact reverse of the •simplification of surds.

Example. 2^3" = v/ (2) 2 X3 = x/ 4X3 = ^12

Again, ${1*1 = V(3) 3

X7= ^27x7= ^189, etc.

Rule: Raise the entire expression outside the

RADICAL SIGN, TO THE POWER INDICATED BY THE RADICAL
INDEX, MULTIPLY THE RESULT BY THE QUANTITY ALREADY
UNDER THE SIGN, AND WRITE THE PRODUCT UNDER THE
SIGN.

Addition and Subtraction of Surd?.

Art. 91. Manifestly radicals involving different

quantities cannot be added or subtracted. For instance,
3 v 2 and 2 ^5 cannot be added or subtracted, except by
indication, as 3 V 2 ±
2^5, for the square root of 2 is

very different from the square root of 5. It would be as

possible to add 36 and 2a.
 Surds. 69

But 3V2, 2V2, 5V2, etc., can be as easily added as

3a, 2a, and 5a; thus, 3X^2 4- 2\/2 4- 5\A = io\/2.
Nor can surds of different orders be combined for the
same reason. For instance, 3^2 V2, 4 V2 cannot be
added, because each is entirely distinct, like a, b, c> etc.

Multiplication and Division of Surds.

Art. 92. 3V2 and 2V2 are as distinct entities as a

and b, for the square root of 2 is plainly as different from
the third root of 2 as if it were an entirely unlike quantity
under the radical sign.
If it were required to multiply (a 4- b) 2 by (a 4- 6), it

would be incorrect to multiply (a 4- b) with the exponent

2, by (a 4- b) with exponent 1, thus, (a 4- b) X (a +b)
2

= (a
2
4- because (a 4- b) 2 is of a quite different
2ab 4- 6
2
)
2
,

1
order from (a 4- b) It is then necessary to reduce both .

to the same exponent, thus, (a 4- b) = (a 2 4- 2a4 4- b ) X

2 2 1

(a 4- 6)
1
- [(a
2
4- 2d6 4- b
2
) (a 4- ft)]
1
- (a3 4- 3a 2 b 4- 3^5
2

4- b
3
)\ or (a 4- &)
4
X (a + b)
2
= (a
2
+2ab 4- b
2
)
2
x (a 4- 6).
2

Likewise, if 3^ is to be multiplied by 2 ^2, these surds

must be reduced to the same order.
The least common order to which each of these surds
can be reduced is clearly the 6th ; thus :

2^2 = 2 ^(2)- =2 V4-

Then 3^8 x 2 ^4 = (3 X 2) ^4 x 8 = 6 \/ 32.

Rule: Reduce the surds to the same order. Mul-

tiply THE COEFFICIENTS OF THE SURDS TOGETHER, FOR
THE COEFFICIENT OF THE PRODUCT, AND THE QUANTITIES
UNDER THE RADICAL SIGN FOR THE SURD PART OF THE
PRODUCT.
yo Algebra.

Division of Surds.

Art. 93. Division likewise requires the reduction of

the surds to the same order. Surds of different order
can no more be multiplied or divided by one another than
can bushels be multiplied or divided by feet. Hence,

Rule: Reduce the surds to the same order. Di-

VTDE THE COEFFICIENTS AND THE QUANTITIES UNDER THE
RADICAL SIGN SEPARATELY AND EXPRESS THE QUOTIENT AS
THE PRODUCT OF THESE TWO PARTIAL QUOTIEN

Example. Divide by V ab 2

W
3 \ b 2 ab .

X
ZaVcto - saV(a2b) 4 -3a
2 ab v7
^- 2
l

ab y/(aP)* - 2 ab \ 7¥
ya %
bl
3a
lir
VaV fiai VaW '^ty^"^
xa 3

or ^ /,-'
tyJ^F*.
2

The order to which the surds are reduced should be

the L.C.M. of the indices of the original surds.

Comparison of Surds.

Art. 94. If it is necessary to compare any quantities,

they must be expressed in the same unit. Likewise, if
surds are to be compared, they must be reduced to the
same order* Hence,

Reduce the expressions to complete surds. Re-

duce THESE COMPLETE SURDS TO THE SAME ORDER, AND
THE SURD HAVING THE GREATEST QUANTITY UNDER THE
SIGN IS THE GREATEST.
 Sards. 7

For example, compare 2 -s/3, 3^2, and % V4.

^8 X 3
2^/3 = = V24_
3 V7 = v o X 2 - ^"18
|.^4 - X 4 - V625 = ^156.25.
4
/625

12 is the L.C.M. of the indices.

^78 - H/(i8) 6 = ^34012224

^156.25= ^(156.25)*- ^38,41 1.389385.
Hence, ^18 is the greatest.

Rationalizing Denominators Containing Surds.

Art. 95. It is usually undesirable to have surds in the

denominators of fractions, owing to the difficulty of esti-
mating values in such forms.
The principle derived from factoring, that the product
of the sum and difference of two quantities equals the
difference of their squares, enables us to remove these
surds.
For example : To rationalize the denominator of the
6
fraction —7=
V7-2
Since the multiplication of both terms of a fraction by
the same quantity does not change its value, we can choose
any multiplier we please. If we choose the quantity
v 7 + have the sum of the quantities ^7 and 2,
2, we will
whose difference is the denominator of the fraction, and

since the product of this sum and difference gives the

difference of their squares, the radicals will disappear.
Thus:
6 V 6 ^7+i3 _ 6 %/ 7 "
+ =2 V7 +4
2
x V~ -
v7_ 2 v + 7 2 (V 7 )2_ (2)
2
7
_4
 :

72 Algebra.

Again, to rationalize the denominator of

2 + Vl
v 2 _ v3 + v s
This fraction may be written thus

2 + V l,

(^- v^)+ x
5

Multiply by f ^ I - V^) - v^

2+ (N/
I~ 3 )-
V/ N
_ ^3 _X J
(V 2 -V 3 )+ v 5 (V 2 _x 3) v/J

= 2^7-2 VZ- -
x \ '77
J 2 n
7+ 3

2^2-2^3-2 \ 5 - \ i
5+ \
/
6-3
2 ^ 6

Multiply again by — ;=;

2^6 V6
2^12 — 2^18 — 2 ^30 + 6 — ^90 — 3 x 6
12

_ 4^3 -6^2 -2 ^30 + 6-3^10 -3^6

12

3 2 6 24 4

This last expression may be readily computed.

 Surds. .
73

Art. 96. A quadratic surd in its simplest form cannot

equal the sum of a rational quantity and a surd.

For if it were possible let vx = y + w z%

Squaring both sides x = y 2
4- 2 y ^z + z\

transposing, x — y2 — z = 2y^z;
that is, a surd is equal to a rational quantity, which is

manifestly impossible.

.\ ^x^y + ^z. {=£ means not equal.)

Art. 97. The sum or difference of two dissimilar

quadratic surds, in their simplest form, cannot equal a
rational quantity or be expressed as a single surd.

If it were possible let ^a ± ^ b = c

Squaring, a ± 2^ ab + b = c 2
;

transposing, ± 2 ^ ab = c — 2
a — b ;

but a surd cannot equal a rational quantity,

.'. Va ± V^J ^ Cm

If V^i^- ^7.
Squaring, a ± 2^ ab + & = c;

transposing, a + b — c = ± ^ 2 ab,

which is impossible, .-. ^a ±v ^tV Ct

Art. 98. If the sum of a rational quantity and a surd

equals the sum of a rational quantity and a surd, then the
rational quantities must be equal and the surds equal.

That is, if Vx + m = vy + n, x = y and m = n.

74 Algebra.

For, transposing, ^x — ^y = n — m.
This violates the previous article unless both sides are
equal to zero, that is, unless x = y and n = iff.

Roots of Quadratic Surds.

Art. 99.

Example. Extract the square root of 9 + 4 N

Suppose 9 + 4^5- v/ a- + x v.

Squaring, 9 4- 4 N
5 = * + v + 2 ^ at.

By last article h y — 9 (1)

and 2 x . vv 4^5

or a* -f v = 9 (1)

squaring (2) and dividing by 4

•vv =20 (3)

Equations (1)tell us that the sum of the two

and (3)
numbers x and y and their product 20.
is 9,

Evidently the numbers are 4 and 5 say X = 4 and :

V= 5, as it makes no difference about the order of arrange-

ment of the numbers (v = 4 and x = 5 would serve as
well).

v/
\ 9 + 4 x/ 7= v^v+ x/ 7= v^4- x/
5 = 2 4- VJ.
Verify, (2 4-
v^) = 2
4 + 4x 5 + 5 =9+ 4
V7-

Evidently a surd with a minus sign, as 4 v/ 5 — 9, would

have the form (V# _ v/ v)~\
 Surds. 75

ANOTHER METHOD.
Art. ioo. Since the squares of the sum and of the
difference of two surds differ only in the sign of the surd
terms in these squares

as, (V# + V y)*

'

= x + y + 2 v Xy
(^x — ^ y) 2
= x + y — 2 v Xy y

in the example just solved

if
(^+ V^) 2
= 9 + 4<5,
then (V^ - Vy )2 = 9
__
4 v/J f

or Vjc + V^ = ^9 + 4^7
Vx _ V3, = V9 - 4^7.

Multiply, *-7- (9r -

-

(4
V 7) 2
= V ^= 1

as before ^ + y = 9.

Add, and 2 ^ = 10 *- 5
subtract, 2 j = 8 7 = 4
•• S+ 4 \/^= v^+ V^ v7+ V 4= V 5 + 2,
as before.

EXERCISE XV.
Simplify

1. ^48 a ;
5
6V 8 . 3. V4 a 3
6 - 8 <z
2
6
2
+ 4 <z6
3
-

2. Va 3 __ 2 2
a b + a& 2
. 4. -\/i6a 5
x 9
.

5. ^ (a
2 - 2 ax + # 2
)
3

Express as complete surds

\xr+ 2xy + y z

7. $abc^a- 2 bc- x
. 9. 4^ 3 ^ 7» 5^7
 : : :

76 Algebra,

Perform indicated operations and simplify

10.
io
x
7^48
3
X
il 3^14 13^21
11. |V7 2I + ft
12. 27 -f 2 v 48 + 3 V108.

13. 2^3 + 3^1 _ v/

s j.

14. ^54"+ 3 i'TG + ^432?

Reduce to same order

15. 3^7 v/6and2 ^f.

V 16. 5V1. 2j :
.7 1

17. 9 V 4 ^/ 5 ^ 33) 4) (which is the largest ?)

Rationalize denominators :

18 -
v mI, ^i\ Vr
_8_ I I + Vjj
19.
4 ._ v
2- V 3 2 — V2
2 - N
3 3 1
^
20.
! + v2 + v3 \/6 + v7 - \/J

8 V
— S + x
5
21. ~7= ii ii

V3 + v/ 2

Extract the square root

22. 12 - 35- 24. 8 - 4 n/J.

23. 4 +2 V3. 25. 70 - 30 V^

26. 18+8 VJ.
 Surds, jj

IMAGINARIES.

Art. io i. Since the squares of both positive and

negative quantities *> are positive always, the square root
of a negative quantity is something essentially different
from the quantities heretofore considered.
Such roots of negative quantities are called imagim
aries. They will arise occasionally in the solution of
quadratic equations.

Art. i 02. A pure imaginary is of the form

a V_ b or a VjV_ I#

A complex number is of the form a ± ^- b. Define

each.
Imaginaries are added and subtracted according to the
usual rules for surds.

Multiplication of Imagmaries.

Art. 103. The application of the general laws of

multiplication must be made with some care in the pro-
ducts of imaginaries.
For example: (^ — a) x (^ — a) does not equal
V^2 = fa as the ordinary process would indicate, but
(V — a X (^ — a) = — a, which restricts the value
)

of this product to one value instead of two ( + a and — a).

It is customary and simplest to reduce all imaginary
terms to the form Va ^— 1
(
X// — a), wherein the factor
V— 1 always appears and the general rule, that the
multiplying of a quadratic radical expression by itself re-

moves the radical sign, may be applied without confusion.

* A pure number (or its representative, a letter) independent of

sign is often called a scalar number or merely a scalar.
 v

78 Algebra.

Hence :

V^(- i) - - V^
7
(- v "!^) x (V~T"ft) = (_ v£"vT7) x (x^VT^
- - vW; (- i) = + ^ ab.
/-
(+ VT^) x _ (
\ I7) = + \~[K
7\ / T7 x(- Vj vCTT)
/
(- ^^^) x (- 7//
<
)
= (_ \
J

= ( + VoJ) (
- i ) = - \ Q>.

Art. 104. The product or quotient of two complex

quantities is in general a complex quantity. Verify this
by examples.
Every complex quantity can be expressed in the form

a -f b ^ — 1 evidently.

Art. 105. Two complex quantities both consisting

the same terms, but united by contrary signs, are called
conjugate complex quantities as, ;

a + b \ -- 1 and a — b v - 1,

or — x + y \ - 1 and —x—yV - i.

Art. 106. The product of two conjugate complex

quantities is a real quantity. For example.

(S + 2 x /^) V - 1) = [~y - (2 x -
(5 - 2 i)»]

- 2 S -(- 4) - 25 + 4 - 29,
or (~ m+ V — 1) (—Iff — ft \ - 1)
fl

= [( — m) a — (fl \ 7 - i) ] = m - (- ?r) 2 2

= ;;/
2
+ ;/
2
, etc.

Art. 107. Clearly the sum of two conjugate

complex quantities is real and their difference is a
pure imaginary.
 Surds. 79

Example, (a + V- =
b V - i) + (a - b i)

a+^V-i+a-frV-i =2 a.

Also, (a & V — — (a — b V —
4- i) i)

= a + b V — i -fl + JV- i = 2 6 V — i.

Art. io8. By reference to the similar propositions

under surds, it will be clear that
If two complex quantities are equal, their real parts
must be equal and their imaginary parts equal. Thus

if x + y V — i = m + n V — i, x= m
and y v7 — i = n v' — i or y — n.

If a complex quantity equals zero, both real and imagin-

ary parts are zero. Thus,

if a + b v — i = o,

a = o and & = o.

EXERCISE XVI,
Multiply :

1. 4 + x/"17! by 4 - v7 ^"^.
2. V3 — 2V — by V3 + 2 2 \/ — 2.

3. s + 2 V- 8 by 3 - 5 V - 2.

Divide and rationalize denominators

4. 26 - + V - 4.)
(3

5. (3 + v^TT) - (4 + 3 \/~^T)
6. 63 V^6 - \/~"87.
7. ( a + V- x) -r (a - V - a?.)

8. It(3 -2V-3).
 CHAPTER VII.

INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS.
Article 109. A system of equations containing a less
number of equations than of unknown quantities, is called
indeterminate. For instance, one equation containing two
unknowns is an indeterminate two equations containing
:

three unknowns are indeterminate, etc.

Art. 10. As the name "indeterminate" signifies.
i

such equations have no single solution.

For instance, an equation like 33 + 5V = 16 may be
Satisfied by an infinite number of values of % and y, for we
may give either one any value we please, and by substi-
tuting it in the equation, find the value of the other
unknown that, with it, will satisfy the equation.
Art. mi. We may, however, limit the number of
solutions, by confining the values that the unknowns may
have, to integers, and still further limit them by Specifying
that the values of the unknowns must be positive Ulteg
The latter offers the only aspect of practical interest to
these equations, because we deal in real experience only
with positive quantities and largely with integers.
Art. 112. As an illustration of how tl mictions
affect the number of solutions, consider the equation above,
3 X + S)
,= I ^- Without any restrictions 3 x + 5 y — 16
may by satisfied by any of the following sets of values :

X = y = 3i X = — I
y - 3$
X = I y = 2f .V = - 2 y = 4l
X = 2 V = 2 *- - y-
x = 3
x = 4 y-t
a y v =
*-
-
-
3
4
5
5
y = 5?
y-H
x- 5 y~t x = — 6 y= 6*
x ='6 y--i
and so on indefinitely.
80
 Indeterminate Equations. 81

If we restrict the values to positive quantities, all the

negative values above will be excluded, if we restrict the
values to positive integers, it removes all but one pair of
values from abovec
Art. 113. It is often desirable then to determine the
possible solutions of an indeterminate equation in terms of
positive integers.
It is plainly quite impracticable to make out a complete
list of values, for they are infinite ; but it is possible to
arrive at the result in another way, indicated in the fol-
lowing solution.
Example. Solve in positive integers 3 x + 5y = 16.
Divide by the coefficient of one of the unknowns, prefer-
ably by the smaller, in this case 3.

It gives, x + y + —2 = 5 +-
3 3

Transpose, x + y — 5 = %•= .1 — y
3 3 3

Since x and y must be integers and 5 is an integer,

2v
—
~ must be really an integer, although of fractional
3
form, for one side of an equation cannot be integral and
the other fractional, that is, y must have such a value that
2- w iH reduce to an integer.
3

Say, 2. =m (
a n integer),
3

then 1 — 2v = 2>m or 2y = 1 — ^m

which is still fractional in form.

To avoid this repetition of fractional form, we have
recourse to a simple process, based on the truth that an
 6

82 Algebra.

integer multiplied by an integer will give an integral

product.
T 2V
If *- is multiplied by an integer, that will make
3
the coefficient of y one greater than some multiple of 3,
the repetition of fractional form will be avoided.
Observe that this multiplication does not affect our
result, for we are seeking any integral value not a par-

ticular one, for -2- .

3
To be as simple as possible, the smallest number that
will suffice for our purpose is chosen for a multiplier; in
this case evidently 2, for 2 X 2v — 4 V, and 4 lea\<
remainder 1 when divided by 3.

Then [iSlJJS X 2 - LllM - - v 4- ^=^L . Since

3 V / 3 3
y is an integer we need only consider the a ppiircnt fraction
~ ^ ,
which we will equate to some integer, say n \
then
3
2 ~ y = Uy 2 - y = 3 h, v = 2 - 3 ;/, which is cleared of
3
fractions.

Substituting this value of y In terms of the integer n

(whose actual value we do not yet know) in the original
equation,

3* + 5 (
2 - 3") = l6
3 .v 4- 1 o — 1 5n = 1

3* - 6 + 15;/

x = 2 4- 5;/.

Now we have two condition equations to limit the value

of n.
x = 2 + S n (1)

and y = 2 — 3 n (2)
 Indeterminate Equations. 83

Remembering that x and y must be positive, whole

quantities,we can set limits for n.
In (1), plainly n may be any positive number from 1 to
00, but no negative number, because \in = — i,x = — 3,
which violates our condition. Clearly any other negative
number make x negative.
will
In (2), n can be any negative number from — 1 to — x .

but no positive number, for a like reason.

Therefore n, to satisfy both (1) and (2), can be neither a
positive nor negative number it can then be only o. ;

Hence, if n = o, x = 2 (from (1) ) and y = 2 (from (2) ),

showing that x = 2 and y = 2 is the only solution for
3 X+ 5 y
= J 6, if limited to positive integers.
Take another example.
Solve in positive integers Sx + 5 y = 74-
Divide by 5, x + y + — = 14+ —
5 5

Transpose, x + y — = — — — = -
14 —
5 5 5

3 ~ X
= n
6/6
7 x\
1 ->

(an integer), 3
= 8 —

-
6 x b

.v =
1

5;?,
— x +

.v =
,

3
7

-
— x
5

5;/.
5

Substituting x= 3 — 5 », in 8 v + 5 V = 74.
8 (3 - s») + sy - 74
24 - 40^ + 5^ = 74
5^ = 5° + 4o n
y = 10 + 8 n . . . . , . (1)
x= 3 - s n (2)

From (1), n can be — 1, o, 4- 1, +2, etc., anything

greater than — 2, that is n> — 2.

From (2), n can be o or any negative number, but no

positive number. Hence, from both (1) and (2) n can be
— 1 or o.
 -

84 Algebra.

If n — — i, x= 8, y — 2,

If » = o, # = 3, >' = io c

Thatis, there are two solutions in this case.

Art. 114. It is sometimes desirable to know numbers

with predetermined remainders when divided by given
numbers. Suppose, for instance, it is required to find the
least number which when divided by 3, 5, and 6 leaves
respectively the remainders 1, 3, and 4.
Let x be the required number.

Then - = some integer, because by the conditions

3
of the problem, if j be subtracted from x, 3 will exactly
divide it.

X — «1 = an
Also
5
integer .
w
and
x— 4 — an integer .
. • (3)

say, - —— ;;/ (an integer)

3

x - 3>» + l
(0

Substituting this value of x in (2), 5- i = an

integer, that is,

3 m -
«_ 2
== an integer.
5
Multiply 3 — 2 by 2 (to make coefficient of m one
m
greater than a multiple of 5, as explained in last article).

£x m— 2 w = 6 m — —
4 = w — 4— =
X 2 m H an integer.
 Indeterminate Equations. 85

Since m is an integer by supposition, — must be

an integer, say
m— —
4 =
n (an
/ •

integer).
, v

m— 4 = 5 n.
m= 5n + 4-

Therefore, from (1),

* - 3 (S w + 4) + 1 - 15 n + x
3 • • (4)

1 5^+13-4

Since
662
Substituting this value of

2 ^ + 1
= £5J1±_9 = 5^ +
= an

is integral,
integer.
x in (3)

3 =

must be an integer
2 w + j +
** +
2

say
1

;
J
2

- = s (an integer) \ n = 2 s - \.
2

From (4), x = 15 (2 s - 1) + 13 = 30 s - 2 .
(5) .

From (5), the least value 5 can have, that will give x a
positive value, is 1 (s cannot be o, why ?).

If s is 1 in (5), x = 28, the required number.

Verification, —= 3
9 + remainder 1

—- 5 + " 3

—= D
4 + " 4.

The principle applied

is this that if any number of ;

equations one expressing one condition for the

(each
unknown quantity) be combined, the resulting combination
equation contains all the conditions expressed by the
component equations.
86 Algebra.
£>
*

Thus when the value of x in (i), expressing the condi-

tion that x is divisible by 3 with a remainder 1, is substi-
tuted in (2), the resulting value of x in (4) contains also
the condition expressed by (2), that is, the x in (4) is not
only divisible by 3 with remainder 1, but also divisible
by 5 with remainder 3.
When this value of x from (4) is substituted in (3), the
resulting value of x in (5) contains all three conditions,
hence, by giving s any integral value we please, a value of

x will resultfrom (5) that will fulfill the three require-

ments of the problem. Since we want the least value of
x that fulfills these requirements, we choose the least
value of j, which is 1.

EXERCISE XVII.

Indeterminate Equations.

Solve in positive integers :

1. 2 x + 11 y = 83.
2.
f* + sy = 92.

3. %x + \y = S3-
4. 2x +3y - 25.

5. 12.V + 13V = 175.

6.
( x + 3 y + 52= 44-
13 A' 4-
5 y + 7 s = 68.

7. Divide 89 into two parts, one of which is divisible

by 3 and the other by 8.
8. What is the smallest number which gives a re-
mainder 4, when divided by 5 or 7 ?

9. In how many ways can 300 lbs. be weighed with

only 7 and 9 lbs. weights ?

Divide t7y9t into two

10. parts, having respectively
denominators 13 and 9.
 Indeterminate Equations. 87

11. A wheel with 17 teeth meshes with a wheel having

13 teeth. After how many revolutions of each wheel will
each tooth occupy its original position ?
12. How many times each must a 7-inch rule and
a 13-inch rule be applied to measure 4 feet, using both
at the same time ?
 CHAPTER VIII.

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS.

Article 115. An equation containing the second and

no higher power of a quantity, is said to be a quadratic

equation in that quantity. Write three quadratic equations.

Quadratics in Single Unknown.

Art. 116. When the quantity whose square is involved

is a single variable (like % or y) and no other variable
enters the equation, it is a simple quadratic of one un-
known quantity.
The general form is a z~ -!- bz u c = o, where a, bt and
c are constants.

Kinds of Simple Quadratics.

Art. 117. If b is zero in a z~ '•

bz + c, the resulting
equation, a z
2
+ c = o, is called an incomplete or pure
quadratic; the equation as 1 :-
bz - u c is called a com-
plete or affected quadratic.

Roots of a Quadratic.

Art. 118. If in the equation a z 2

4- bz + c = o, we
substitute for 2, the value

b + Vb 2
- 4
1 (/ c - 6 - v7; 2
- 4^^i
-

or
2 a 2(7

thus

^^-'j + {-^^n+c-o,
'- ft± v7> 2
- 4<'A

we get - c + c = o. Verify,
88
 Quadratic Equations. 89

These two values of z, which when substituted for z

make the two sides of an equation identical (or satisfy
the equation, as it is said), are called roots of z for this
equation. Formulate a general definition for the roots
of an equation.

Solution of an Incomplete Quadratic.

Art. 119. The equation ay 2 + c = o can be put in

the form y 2
= — £_ by transposing c and dividing by a.
a
What advantage for solution arises from this operation ?

Since the solution of the equation is the finding of the

value or values of y that will satisfy it, that is, its

roots, how would you complete the solution ? Formulate

rule.

Solution of Complete Quadratics.

Art. 120. What would above solution suggest as to

first steps in the solution of the equation

a x2 + b x + c = o ?

By Binomial Theorem (x + m) = x 2 +
2
2 m v+ ;;/
2
= n2
say, which is a general form of a quadratic equation in x.
Observe the relation between the third term m 2 and the
coefficient of x. Suppose this expression to be put in
the form of an equation, thus :

x2 + 2 mx = — m + 2
n2 .

How
would you restore the form of a perfect square
to hand member without altering the truth of
left

the equation ? Complete the solution and formulate a

rule.
9o Algebra.

Geometrical Illustration.

Art. i2i.

AB = AC - BC = n - m (see Fig. 4.)

il = CEFA = BGHA + BCDG + GKFH

+ DEKG = x + mx + mx + m
2 2

= x + 2 .v +
2
//* ;/z
2
.

C D E

1/1X w ?/{
'
L

B
X G

< »'X
X 2

Fig. 4.

LITERAL AND NUMERICAL EQUATIONS.

Art. 122. Equations such as we have considered,
involving letters as coefficients, are called literal equa-
tions ; if the coefficients are numbers, they are said to be
numerical equations. Write three numerical quadratic
equations.

Solution.

Art. 123. What are the essential differences between

the use of letters and the use of numbers in solution?
 Qicadratic Equations. 91

Observe carefully the following steps ; by Binomial

Theorem,

(* - 5)
2
- x 2 - IOX + 25 = 49> sa y> •
(a )

transposing,

x2 — io#= 24 or x 2 — iox— 24 = o, . (J)

compare ax 2 + b+ c = o, . (c)

An examination of (a) shows that a simple extraction

of the square root as in case of pure quadratic, will give
the values of x, thus:

x — 5 = ±7, whence x = 12 or — 2.

Plainly then, to solve a quadratic like (6) or (c), we

must put it in (a) form.
What must be added to x 2 — 10 x in (6) to restore
form (x — 5) 2 ? What relation does this added quantity
bear to coefficient of xl

Again, (* + f)
2
= a2 + %x + -| = 1,

x2 + $# = f, transposing.

Complete solution.

Solution by Factoring.

Art. 124. Solve x 2 — 7.x+ 10 = O

X2 — JX 10 [transposing]

x 2
--
J X + ay - — _ 9
10 ~~ 4 [completing square]
X __ 7
2 = ± 3
2

lence X= = 2. 4- 3 =
2 ' 2 5

or X = .7 3 = 2.

But x2 — 7 x 4- 10 may be resolved into the factors (x — 2)

and (# — 5) ; hence (x — 2) (# — 5) = o.
92 Algebra.

By inspection, it is plain that if either 2 or 5 is substi-

tuted for x, the equation is satisfied; for (2 - 2) (2 - 5)

= ( ) x ( - 3) = o (since any finite quantity multiplied
by o equals o), and (5 - 2) (5 - 5) = (3) X (o) = o.
Hence, the roots of the equation are 2 and 5, as found
above. This is known as solution by factoring and is of
advantage when the equation is easily factorable. Factor-
ing may be accomplished in any case as follows take :

same equation, x 2 - JX 4-10 = o to complete the square. ;

-\9 must be added to x - JX write then the equation thus,

2
- ;

2 — 9 -4=0, which does not alter the value,

J x + 4
4
r
a^ x
merely the form of the equation.
The last equation can also be written (.v - I) 2 - (?,) 2 = o,
which the difference of two squares, hence factorable
is

into the product of the sum and difference of the square

roots of these terms, i.e. [x - l + J) (x - J — |) — O, or

(x - 2) (x - 5) = o, as before.
To get a general result, let us take </v- -f bx + C — o.

Whence x 2
H X H o.
</ a

To make complete square of v 2 -\ v, we must ado!

a

(-> - -•a , hence x2 + —X +

\2a / 4<* a 4u~ Q 4a1

L+ ±\> _ / ^lr- 4££\ 2 . a differenCe

or 0> f

two squares hence equals product of two factors.

Vj5 - 40 4ac\ _
t +
2a 2a ,) (. 2(1 2(7
\

- b + V/32 - 4<7C b - ^b — 2
4a c
•\ X = or
2a 2a
 Quadratic Equations. 93

Solution by Substitution.

Art. 125. Since in the above solution letters alone

were involved, they may evidently stand for any numbers
we please.
Let us compare the two equations just used,

x2 — 7^+10 = and ax2 + bx + c = o ;

we may if we = — 7, and c = 10
choose, say that a = 1, b
ax2 + bx -f c = o then becomes x2 — j x + 10 = 0.
The two values of x found above, if a = 1, b = — 7, and
c = 10, will then plainly become the values of x for x
2

— yx 4- 10 = o i.e,. ;

x = — - — becomes L—
x = *—^ — ^—
2a

' -*- 3 = or 2 as before.

5,

Why is ax2 + bx -b c = o called the general form of

the quadratic equation ?

EQUATIONS INVOLVING RADICALS AND REDUCIBLE

TO QUADRATICS.
Art. 126. The process of removing the radical ex-
pressions from an equation by squaring, not infrequently
introduces extraneous roots ; it is therefore necessary to
verify the results carefully in each case, thus :

v^JI 3 + V 4X + z = V lox + 4 ... ( a)

whence squaring,

x + 3 + 2 ^{x + 3) (4# + 1) + 4.x + 1 = 10 # + 4.

2^\x + 3) (4X + 1) = 5# [collecting]

i6# +52x4-12 = 253c2
2
[squaring again]

x2 — ^-^- = —= £(&)> [collecting and dividing by 9]

9 9
whence x = 6 or - f . Complete the solution of (6).
94 Algebra,

Substitute 6 in (a), we get 3 + 5 = 8, hence 6 is a root

of (a).

But if we substitute in (a) we get 5. 4. L= z.

9 3 3 3'
which is false. It is plain, however, that if the second

radical is negative, the value . would satisfy, for

9
I -1 = ±.
3 3 3'

Have we any right to use negative sign with V4.V + 1 ?

Why ? — § is then a root of

vx + 3 — v4 a- 4- 1 = ^10 a* + 4 . . (c) ,

squaring (c)

# + 3 - 2 v' (a -I- 3) (4 x + 1) + 4 a* + 1 = 10 X + 4.

Whence, — 2 v (.v 4- 3) (4.V + 1) = 5.V.

Squaring, 16 x 2 + 52 x + 12 = 25 .v
2
as before. Why?
Hence both (a) and (r) lead to same quadratic whose
roots are 6 and — 5.
Emphasis then must be laid on the examination of all
roots, where we are required to square terms of the equa-
tion.

EQUATIONS OF HIGHER DEGREE SOLUBLE AS

QUADRATICS.

Art. 127. Recalling the definition of a quadratic equa-

tion,it will be observed that the term quantity means not

necessarily a simple letter, nor even a monomial.

We may extend the definition thus Any equation involv- :

ing only such expressions in the variable as may be collected

into two exactly similar groups, whose exponents shall have
the ratio of 2 to 1, maybe solved or at least partially solved
as a quadratic.
 Quadratic Equations. 95

Solution.

Art. 128.
&+ x* — 20 = o.

Let x* = y, and hence expressed in quadratic form

y + y — 20=0
2
Complete solution.
Again, ^ — 2x + 6 v # 2 — 2 # + 5 = 11

may be written, (x2 — 2^ + 5) + 6 (#2 — 2# + 5)* =16, 1

Since the exponents of the similar groups (x2 - 2x+ 5) 1

and (#2 — 2x + 5)* have ratio of 2 to 1,

let (x2 - 2# + 5)* = y.

Then the equation becomes,

y
2
+ 6y = 16,

.whence, y = 2 or — 8 ; i.e., (x 2
- 2 x -f 5)* = 2 or - 8,
whence, x? — 2 x + $ =4 or 64;

x? - 2 # = — 1 or 59,

* -* x, i,.(x + 2^/75) or (1 - 2 v^).

Again, 4#4 — 12 #3 + 5 x 2 + 6x — 15 = 0,

arranged, 4 re —4
+ 9^ — 4.x + 6x = 15,
i2jc 3 2 2

(2 # — 3#) — 2 (2 # — $x) = 15,

2 2 2
or

plainly of quadratic form. Complete solution.

The grouping and arrangement such equations is a of
pure matter of judgment and ingenuity and can be sub-
jected to no general rules.

Solution of Higher Equations by Factoring.

Art. 129. Any equation of the form xn + bxf - -f 1 1

ex?* 2 + . . . = o whose left hand member can be

resolved into factors of degree not higher than the second
may be solved completely by methods already known.
g6 Algebra.

Art.- 130. Solution.

x - 3
6 x2 + 1 1 .v - 6 - may be written
o,

^3 _ 6 y2 + I2 x _ 8 - x + 2 = 0,

or x3 - 6 x2 + 1 2 .v - 8 - (x - 2) = o,
or (* - 2)
3
- (x - 2) = o,

which may be factored thus :

(x - 2) [ (x - 2)- - 1] - o, or (a - 2) [ (x - 2) - 1]

(x ~ 2) + l] - o, or (x - 2) (x - 3) (.v - 1) - o.
[

if x = 2 or 3 or
Plainly, 1, the equation is satisfied.

These values arise from setting the factors successively

equal to o.

Again, (x - 1) (x - 2) (x
2
-'4* - S) - °-

Clearly any value of .v that will reduce any

one factor
provided does not
to zero will satisfy the equation,
it

make another factor infinite. These values will result

from the solution of the three equations

X — I — o

s>- 4 *-5-°. (Why?)

# _ j « o gives v -
i, .v - 2 = o gives * - 2, and
,

v
2 _ 4 v _ I o gives x- +5 and .v = -
hence 1 ,

5
_ Xj + substituted for v in the original equation
j 2j s
identically satisfy it.

CHARACTER OF ROOTS.
Art. 131.Since the solution of an equation with
results, we may derive
literal coefficients gives general
of the equation
useful information from a study of the roots

ax2 + bx + c = o, i.e., x -
- b + v /r - ±ac
2 (7
—
- J - v b~ - 4 jg
and x = -

2 a
 Qtiadratic Equations. 97

If we examine these roots carefully, we see that the

difference in their values arises from the addition of

—— in one case and its subtraction in the other from

2 a

thesame quantity -^— Put this statement into a . rule,

2a
remembering what a and b are in the equation.
If, ^b — 2
J\.ac is o, the roots will both be the
then,
same, hence this is the condition for equal roots, which
has important applications in other branches of mathe-
matics. Put this condition into a rule.

Again, ^b — 2
4<ic determines whether the roots shall
be rational, real, or imaginary.
What condition must b
2
— \ac fulfill in each case ?

Illustration.

5 A'
2
r 6 A' = 8 can be written 5 a*
2
+ 6 x — 8 = o.

Compare, 5 a2 + 6 a- — 8 = o
a x 2 + bx — c = o.

If a = 5, b =6, £=—8, the results of the solution for

ax* — bx + c = o, will be those for 5 a*
2
-f 6 a — 8 = o.

Why ?

Then,
— b — x b2 — -±ac — b — x b2 — -±ac
x = or
2a 2a
becomes,

v -^6 + — v%6
- 6 -1-

10
— .
160
or
— 6
10
^
-1- 160 .

/.^.,
4
— or— 2.
5

Now ft
2 — 4.0c = 196 = 14 2 is a perfect square, hence

the rational roots — and — 2.

5
98 Algebra.

Illustration,,

— %y + 10 « o,
In 7>y2 a = 3, b = — 8, c= 10. Here
6
2
- 4ac = (- 8) 2 - (4 x 3 X 10) = 64 - 120 = - 56.
Hence roots are

+ 2 vC ——
4 i
and
8 - 2 V- 14
—
6

Which condition prevails here ?

Illustration.

6 + -Si = 6/ 2 . Here a = 6, ft - -£ f
<; = -6.
2 2

Hence
£2 _ 4 ^ = f-lY- ( 4 x6x -C) - Hi + 144 = ^21
V 2 / 4 4

Write roots and state condition.

EXERCISE XVIII.

Quadratics.

Verify results in every case.

1. 2 a2 - 27 = 9 v-v 2
+ 3. 3. 5 /
2
-3 = 10/- 3 t~.

2.
y
2 — 5 y— 24 = o. 4. j = i g/
2
(solve for /).

5. -£-
21
= —T (Pendulum
2
formula).

6. s= vt + \af. 7. 5 x2 = 8 x.
8. Solve x2 + 6 # = o by general rule, and then show
how this equation can be solved by shorter method.
9. Prove from a solution of the general equation
ax + 2
bx + c = o, that if c = o one root is o, and hence
derive a rule relative to the absolute term.

y=3
2
10. 2 y -s y+ 2 34-
 Quadratic Equations. 99

11. 3 y
2
-S y=2 y (y- 4 ) + 9 .

12. What must be added to P —

2
5 P to make the
expression a perfect square ?

13. Make 9 a 2x 4 4- 12 a# 2 a perfect square.

3 x + 5 x — 4 = # — 2 # + 3.
2 2
14.

15. 6 + 5 / = 6 / 2
.

= (*~l) -*+2 4>

3
16. *2 +2
X+ 2
17. 12 ^-a-20 c
2
= o.
18.
2 *+5 2 ^+7 3 _.
Q>
3^-2 3*-4 4
19. 8 x — x2 — 12 = o.
20. (
2 y- 3 = 6(y+i)- 5
)
2
-

21. la? - 2_^! +2 = .

2 4
22. 15 y*— 7 j — 2 = 0.
23. x + (w + w) x + w« = o.
2

24. •£ + 2 =— / — . 25. 3 w2 — 4 z* — 10 = o.
a n 2 n

EXERCISE XIX.

Solve following examples by the process that seems

most expeditious to you.

1. 6 x2 —
# + f = o. 7 2. x 2 — 21 x+ 104 = 0.

3. 0-5) + x2 =i6 (# + 3).

2

4. 5 x2 #+4= 0. 5. x2 — 1 3 #=—42
3

6. *±J + (^ +I )(x+2 ) = .

17

7. # + *±? =2 0-2).
x—6
100 Algebra.

8. x2 — (a + b) x= — ab. 9. 3 * _ 7
4 x2 6 a;
2
3
10. x2 + bx -f a =bx ( i — bx) .

11. x (io + jc) = — 21. 12. a;

2
- x.

13 -i -1= 6. 14. A'

2
+ 9 A' =8.5.
2

15. 4.05 A"

2
— 7.2 A~= I476.
16.
6 +5 * 3 *-4 ! S- 7
- * 8
9 -O.
4 (5-**) 5 (5 + *) '
2
S
— A*"' IO5
17. 25 A* = 6 A"
2
+ 21. 18. A* + 22 — 6 A"
2
= O.
19. 2 tf
2
— OJC + 2 to = <//;. 20. 2 A'
2
— 7 A -f 3 = O.

21. 3^ + 3- ^^ +24. 22.

* ,
2 _ J
3
3 A *
+ 3 A" + 6 20
* +5 2
23. +I-3X 24.
I
2 + A' = - •

a: + 2 3 g
2 2
25. /;(</- A') =(/>-i) :v .

Verify results in each case.

26. The number of square inches in the area of a
square exceeds the number of inches in its perimeter by
32. What is the area?
27. A can be paved with 200 square tiles of a
hall
certain size; each tile were one inch longer each way
if

it would take 128 tiles. Find size of tile.

28. A wheel driving a drum makes 15 less revolutions
than the drum in rolling up 440' feet of rope. If they
were each 2 feet more in circumference, the wheel would
make 10 less revolutions. Find circumference of each.
29. A lever, cut from a bar weighing 4.2 pounds per
foot, balances at a point 2.3 feet from one end if 54 pounds
is suspended from that end. Find length of bar.
30. When a lever AB
supported at its C.G. it is foundis

that a weight A W
balance 2.5 pounds at B; but
at will
W at B requires 19 pounds at A to balance it. Find IT.
 Quadratic Equations. 101

EXERCISE XX.
1. y? — x* = 56.
2. ^ + x?= 756.
3. % 4- 16 - 7 v x
'
4- 1 6 = 10 - 4^ 4- 16.

4. y/x + 12 + \fa 4- 12 = 6.

5. a;
6
+ 7.V
3
- 8.

7. xA + 2 xz — 3 *? - 41 + 4 = o.

3°
8. 2 Xs + 3 a-
2 A2 + 3 A
9. 3 * (3 - A") = 1 1 - 4 V *v
2
- 3 * + 5-

10.
K) -<KH
a8 - 3
;

3* _ 13
11. ,

x x- - 3 2

12. / + ST + 4>' = 60.

2 v
3
4-

13. s
2
- 52 + 2 Vz - yz ~ 2 = io- 2

4-.2W — 3Z/ — 47* — 96 = o.

4 3 2
14. z*

Remark. It is evident that the number of equations that can

be solved thus is very limited the general solution of third and ;

fourth degree equations cannot be considered here.

Determine all roots of the following equations

1. x + ^x = 4 a; - 4 x x

2. V^y 4- I7 4. Vy 4. ! _ 4 =0.
3. \'x 4- 1 4- (x 4- i)~^=2.

4. V4X+1 - v'x -r 3 = V*- 2.

102 Algebra.

6. V#_ 2 + ^3 + a; - V ig + jc = o.

6. (i -|- 2a;)* - "^4 + a; + ^3 - a; = o.

7. (zpc — 2)* + 2 V2 — # — ^14 - 4 = A" o.

8. y/{x - 1) (x - 2) + y/(x- 3)(.v- 4J - 2.

9. Vx + 3 - Vjc + 8 = 5 V£
10. ^i + ^ - 20 = o (discuss roots thoroughly).

11. V2 + 5 + v^V + 4 = ^12:

12. ^2a; 4- 9 + ^49 ~ *v = ^x + 16.

MAXIMA AND MINIMA.

Art. 132. It is often desirable to know how large or
how small an expression may be made by altering the
unknown quantity involved in it within rational limits.
It might for instance be required to find the largest
rectangular beam that could be cut from a cylindrical
log of known diameter, or how to divide up a line so
that its parts would inclose the largest area when made
sides of a figure of a certain general form. Say, for
example, it were required to find the largest value the
expression 5 +24 a; - 9 x 2 can have, if x varies within
real limits.
Say the value of this expression is ;;/, where m has
a changing value, of course, as x changes.

Then, 5 + 24 a; - 9 a;
2
= m.

Now since the value of x depends upon the value of m%

because we want to find what x is, when m is the largest
possible, it is plainly desirable to solve the above equa-
tion for x, so we can see in its simplest form just the kind
of dependence that x has upon m.
 Quadratic Eqtcations. 103

Transposing, then changing the sign, and completing

the square:

9 X2 — 2 4* = 5
- m •

X2 _ % _ 5 -m
3
9
16 21
X' . 8
X +
T
3~

9
X '

3 = ± V21 — m
3

whence, x = 4± V21 -- w
3

By an inspection of this value of x, it can be readily

seen that if m has a value greater than 21, the expression
under the radical (21 — m) will be a negative quantity.
For example,

if m =22, then 21 —m -» — 1 and y = 4 ± \/"

an imaginan^ value. As only real values of x can be con-

sidered, clearly any value of m that is greater than 21 is

impossible. 2 1 then is the largest value m can have and

is called the maximum value of m. If m is 21 (its largest
value), then the radical 21 — m = o and x = f. That is,
the value f for x makes the expression 5 -f 24.x — 9 x 2 as
large as can be. w can evidently be anything less than
it

21, and hence the expression 5 -f 24.V — 9.V

2
has no
minimum value. Again, let it be required to divide any
number, say a, into two such parts, that their product shall
be a maximum.
Let x = one part.

Then, a —x= the other

and ax — x 2
is to be a maximum.
104 Algebra,

Let ax — x 2 = w
2
— ax a 2
_ a2 — \m
-f
4 4
a
x — ± v/a 2 - 4-m •

2
2

x = a ± \/a 2
- - 4 m

4 w cannot be greater than a 2 or x ,

will be imaginary,

that is, m cannot be greater than — , and for this niaxi-

4

mum value of m> x = — , hence the product of the parts

is greatest when they are equal.

EXERCISE XXI.

Find maximum or minimum values of following

expressions :

A" — X — 1
1. x2 - 6.V + *3- - X 4-
X* 1

I 1
2. 3 + I2.T - 9.V2
+ X
I
— X 2

3.
x — 6
7.
XT + 3 x + 5
2
x' a;- + 1
4 X
4.
(X + 2)
2
8. 12 4- r - 2ax.

9. * 2 - io# + 35.
10. Find greatest rectangle that can be inscribed in
circle of radius 10 inches.

11. Divide a line 12 inches long into two parts such

that their product shall be a maximum.
12. Find length of the sides of the largest rectangle
having perimeter 16.
 Quadratic Equations, 105

13. If you were three miles from shore in a boat, and

could row four miles per hour and walk five miles per hour,
and wanted to reach a point on the beach five miles down
in the shortest time, where would you land ?
14. Find maximum value of x for real values of r in
equation = xrd 4- x2 — r 2
1 .

15. 2 x2 — $yx — sy2 -f 18 = o, find minimum value of

y, if y is always positive.

EQUATIONS CONTAINING TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN

QUANTITIES OF A DEGREE HIGHER THAN
THE FIRST.

Art. 133. Equations involving more than one un-

known quantity and of certain forms can be readily solved
by special methods, usually reducible to the quadratic
solution.
Such equations may be classified first as homo- ;

geneous equations of the second degree involving two

unknowns, i.e., two simultaneous equations such that the
terms containing the unknowns are all of the second
degree in both equations.

Thus, x 2 + zxy - y
2
= 28 . . . . (a)

3 x + 2
2 xy + 2 y
2
= 72 . . . . (b)

All such equations may be solved by substituting y = mx

or x = ny.
Solution. Then (a) becomes x2 + 2 mx — m x =2S
2 2 2

y = mx) + mx 2 + 2 nrx = 72.

2
(sub. and (b) becomes 3 a; 2
2

_ 28
Whence, from (a) x>
I + 2 m — ;;z-

72
and from (b) X2
3 -r 2 m+ 2 m 2

«,
28
= 72
'.
m^92 _
orr m
n 22m = *
:2-
#

1 + 2 m—m 2
3 + 2 m+ 2 m 2
32 32
106 Algebra,

Whence, m= - or -2,
2 16

and .-. x2 = = 16,

i + i - 1
x— ±4 y —± 2, etc.

In special cases briefer methods may be employed

which depend entirely upon the ingenuity of the solver.
As in same equations ;

add the equations; 4 .v 2 4- 4 xv + v 2 = 100,

whence, extracting the square root, 2 x + y = ± 10,
whence, y= 10 — 2 .v or - 10 — 2 a\

Substitute first value in (a), and a quadratic in x results.

Finish solution.
Art. 134. When one equation is linear (of first degi
the method of substitution is generally most effective, as
indicated at the conclusion of last article.

10, whence
t
s — 10 — —
1 /

t (s + /) = 25

/ (
— + / )
= 25, (substituting in 2d equation)

- t
2
+ 10/ = 50
t
2
- 10/ = - 50.

Whence, t - 5 (1 ± ^- 1)

and 5 = 5 ^ ~ I "^~
3 Z— 2., Verify.
2

The exercise of a little judgment and ingenuity will

often simplify the solution of problems of this kind also.
It may be said as a general remark, that there is a large
 Quadratic Equations. 107

field in algebra for the application of legitimate artifice to

shorten labor of calculation. For instance,

x - 3y + 9 = (a)

xy — y 2 + 4 = ° (P)

Transposing and squaring in (a) x — 6 xy + 9 y = 81

2 2

Multiply (b) by 8 and add Sxy - 8 y2 = - 3 2

x + 2 xy + y 2 = 49
2

Extract square root x + y = ± 7 (f) . .

Subtract (a) from (c) * - 3y= -9

4-y = 16 or 2, etc.

Lose no opportunity to apply such methods, but

remember they are worth while only when quickly
observed.
Art. 135. When the equations are both symmetrical,
they may often be readily solved by substituting

X = U + V.

y = u — v.

Equations are symmetrical when the unknown quantities

may be interchanged without affecting the equation, as,

x 4 + y 4 = 706 (a) and x2 + 3 xy + y2 = 125.

x + y = 2 (b) and x* + x4y + xy 4 + y 5 = 1020.

Making above substitution in (a) and (b),

(u + v)
4
+= 706 (u - v) 4

2 u 4 + 12 u v + 2v = 706.
2 2 4
or

Whence, n 4 + 6n 2v 2 + v 4 = 353 . . . . . . . (a)

and w + v + w — v = 2. Substituting in (b)

Whence, u = 1.

Substituting u = 1 in (a), 1 + 6z^+ v4 = 351.

 y1

io8 Algebra.

Whence, v = ± 4 or ± V — 22.
Whence, x = n + v = i ± 4 or,
i ± v _ 22 ; y =* st — v, etc.

Again, #5 — y5 = 2 I I •
• (a)

A' — J= I . . . . • •
(A)

Divide (a) by (6) ; :v

4
+ x*y 4- .vV -f +y = Ay* 4
2 1

raise (6) to 4th power, .v

4
- 4 x?y + 6 .v-y 2
- 4 aV -f v = 4
1

subtract, 5 x'
A
y - 5 a -
v' + 5 xy :]
=210
#*y — a- r 4- Ay 3
= 42

square (6) and multiply by av,

a-** v — 2 x? v 2 + %£ = x
subtract, x'-y
2
4- xy = 42
complete square,

x 2y2 + xy + i - *f*-

xy + § = ± —
2
, A7 = 6 or - 7 . . . (c)

Multiply (c) by 4 and add to square of (b) ;

a*
2
— 2 .vy+ y2 = 1
4 Ay = 24 or — 28

#2 + 2 xy + y 2 = 25 or — 27

x + y = ±5 or ±3 v _37

# — y = 1 (J)

which indicates how a general solution may be varied in

special cases.
 Quadratic Equations. 109

Art. 136. One equation may be divisible by the other,

as,

Solution.

x 4 + xPy3 + y 4 = 931 .... (a)

x 2 4- xy + y 2 - 49 (f>)

Divide (a) by (6) to get (c) ;

x2 - xy + y2 — 19 fc)
Subtract (c) from (6) to get (d) ;

2 xy - 30; xy = 15 (d)
Add (d) to (b) and subtract (d) from (c) ;

Whence x2 + 2 xy + y 2 = 64, or x + y = ± 8
x2 — 2 xy + y 2 = 4, x —y = ± 2, etc.

Again, x3 - y 3 = 7 xy (a)

x - y = 2 (6)

Divide (a) by (6) ; x2 + xy + y 2 = | xy.

or x 2 — 5-^2 + y> = o (c)

2

2
Divide (c) by (y ).

7=-f$ +, -°H raticin

(f)]-

(fH(f)=-
Whence, - -i = ± 1 - = , 2 or £.
y 4 4 y

Whence, x = 2 y or 4 y. Complete.
 y

no Algebra.

EXERCISE XXII.

Compose examples of each type indicated and solve

them.

'X 2 y2 _ l
9 ( x? +y i=SJci
y x 6 2.

i+i ~6" i

<x y

3.
xy- [6 xy + 6o = o x3 + y3 = i - 3 xy
x+y = 7
x 2 + y2 = xy + $j.

<x 2
+ y = axy
2
x2-3xy + f = 5
x +y = bxy. xt+y =2.
1

7.
x~-y •

=7.

(3 ;Y-
2 ->•-*= I
8,

S+y ,
>v — _ 10
*-y x+y 3
{ a- +y =45-

at +3 .rv + 3 (.y
- y) = 2
10.
x2 + 2 xy — 3 v
J
= o.

11.
x2 + xy + y2 = 63
x + y = ~3-

12.
£a' 2 4-} v 2 >
-6o = o

13.
(a~ + 3*7-54
(A^-f- + 4r =ii 5-
3 —
y ^
3
14.
( a: 127
15.
(A^
2
+ xr + y2 = 84
(a:
2
^ — Ary
2
= 42. a* v + y =6.
 Quadratic Equations. 1 1

16.

I x+y = 10.

f x2 + y 2 - z 2 =221
=
17. 3 xz + 3
\t>XZ+ rs —
T>VZ— 2 xv =18
XV = I i.

-J

( tf+y-z =5.

at — 6 A72 = — 9
}'
4
18.
.xy — y =2.

19. (^ + ^+ 2 r =74
(2 v2 -h 2^7 -f y2 = 73.

20. |*+*y-'5 21. (^- 4 r=9

(xy — y~= 2. (.vv-2v- = 4.

4(.v+r) = 3A-v
22. j
(#-f y-Kv- - v- = 26.

23. [»y(* + j)-30

24 .
[^ + y =
2
65
25
.i*»+. 5 y-2 =0
( ay- 28. J
( .ia'-. 25 V- 3 =0.

EXERCISE XXIII.

Problems.

1. The product of the number 2x3 and 4 a* 6 in the

decimal system is 115 368. What is the digit, x ?

2. The sum of a number and its square root is 42.

Find the number.
3. The area of a rectangle is 120 square feet and its

diagonal is 17 feet. Find length and breadth.

4. A square and a rectangle have together the area

220 square yards. The breadth of the rectangle is 9 yards

and its length equals the side of the square. Find area of
square.
 2

112 Algebra.

5. From the vertex of a right angle two bodies move

on the sides of the angle, one at rate of 1.5 feet and other
2 feet per second. After how long are they 50 feet apart ?
6. If the sides of an equilateral triangle are shortened

8, 7, and 6 inches respectively, a right angled triangle is

formed. Find the side of the equilateral.
7. About the point of intersection of the diagonals of
a square as a center, a circleis described the circumfer- ;

ence passes through the mid-points of the semi-diagonals;

the area between the circumference and the sides of the
square is 971.68 square inches. Find the length of side
of square (jr = 3}).

8. The fore wheel of a carriage turns in a mile 132

times more than the hind wheel. If the circumference of
each were increased 2 feet, the fore wheel would turn only
88 times more. Find the circumferen
9. A cistern can be filled by 2 pipes; one can fill it in

2 hours less than the other; it can be filled by both pipes

running at once in i| hours. Find time for each.
10. A and B are laving a cement walk. At A 9S rate of
work he could finish the job himself in 18 hours; B lays 9
running yards per hour. A finishes his portion in as
many hours as B lays yards per hour. Find amount laid
by each.
11. Two cubical tanks have together 407 cubic feet
contents. The sum of their edges (outside measure)
= 11 feet 1 inch. Tanks are made of ] inch steel. Find
amount of steel necessary for them.
12. A body starts from rest under acceleration of 18
feet per second, find the time required to pass over the
first foot ; the second ; the third.
13.In going 173.25 yards the front wheel of a wagon
makes 165 revolutions more than the rear wheel, but if
the circumference of each wheel were 27 inches more, the
front wheel would, in going same distance, make only 1 1
 Quadratic Equations, 113

revolutions more than rear one. Find circumference of

each.
14. Two points, A and B, start at same time from a fixed
point and move about circumference of a circle in oppo-
site directions, each at a uniform rate, and meet after 6
seconds. The A passes over the entire circumfer-
point
ence in 9 seconds less time than B, Find the time taken
A and B to travel entire circumference.

15. A reservoir has a supply pipe, A, and a discharge

pipe, B. A can fill the reservoir in 8 minutes less time
than B can empty it. both pipes are open, the reservoir
If
is filled in 6 minutes. Required number of minutes it will
take to fill, if A is open and B closed.
16. A body is projected vertically upward with a velo-
city of 80 feet per second. When will it reach a height of
64 feet ?

17. A
lawn 25 feet wide and 40 feet long has a brick
walk around it. The area of the walk is
of uniform width
750 square feet. Find the width.
18. The perimeter of a rectangular field is 184 rods
and the field contains 12 acres. What are its dimensions ?
 :

CHAPTER IX.

LOGARITHMS,

Article 137. The logarithm of a number is the power

to which a given number, called the base, must be raised
that this power may equal the number.
For instance, take 2 as a ba

then, 1 — exponent 1.

2
2
= 4, exponent 2.

2
3
- 8, exponent 3.
24 = 16, etc. exponent 4, etc.

Hence, 1 is the logarithm of 2 to base 2.

2 is the logarithm of 4 t<> base 2.

3 is the logarithm <>f S t<» base 2.

4 is the logarithm of 16 to base 2.

•

Plainly any number, except o or 1, may be selected as

a base. Why not o or 1 ?

Art. 138. It has become customary to use 10 as the

base for logarithms, principally for the reason that 10 is
also the base of our number systems, both integral and
decimal, and hence is best adapted for the base of
logarithms of these numbers.
Take then a series of powers of 10 thus ;

io 1 = 10.
:oo.
>oo.
io 4 = 10.000, etc.
114
 Logarithms. 1 1
5

Then with the base, 10, the

log 10 = 1.

log 100 = 2.

log 1000 = 3.
log 10,000 = 4.

By inference the logarithm of any number between 10

and 100 is between 1 and 2, of numbers between 100 and
1000 is between 2 and 3, etc.
Hence, to represent all numbers, it is necessary to
employ fractional powers, for instance, the logarithm of

29 = 1.4624 -b

of 327 = 2.5145 + etc.

That is, 29 = io x -4 62 4+

and 327 = io 2 -5'45+ etc.

These fractional powers of 10, which we call the

logarithms of the numbers to which they correspond, are
found by computation from a series, which is of no
especial interest here.
The first logarithms for general use were based upon an
incommensurable decimal. 2.7182818 + (usually repre-
sented by e), and known as Naperian logarithms from
their discoverer, Baron Napier.
Art. 139. Since logarithms are exponents (usually
exponents of 10), they obey the laws of exponents;
namely, in multiplying, exponents, and hence logarithms,
are added in dividing, exponents, and hence logarithms,
;

are subtracted, etc. Hence, the following rules :

The logarithm of a product equals the sum of

the logarithms of the factors. the logarithm of a
quotient equals the logarithm of the dividend,
minus that of the divisor. state the rules for
powers and roots, from analogy to exponents.
n6 Algebra.

Art. 140. The use of the base 10 makes it possible

not only to simplify calculation by logarithms, but also to
express them in a much more compact tabulated form.
For example, take the series of powers of 10 again.

log - 1. +
log = 2. +
io d = 1000
log - 3- +
io 1 = 10,000

apparent that any number between 10 and 100

It is
has a 1 +
logarithm
a fraction any number between ;

100 and 1000 has a logarithm 2 + a fraction, etc.

But every number between 10 and 100 is composed
of two digits in its integral part, for instance 23, 29.375,
57-5. etc.
Every number between 100 and 1000 is composed of
three digits, as 237, 676, 253, 987, 234.2, etc.
Hence, the whole part of the logarithm of a number is
always one less in absolute value than the number of
digits in the integral part of the number.
This fact may be shown in tabulated form \

= x whole palt
P° g 23 = 3617
'
;
is tm
Between
vos:
, 67.6 1.8209: whole part is 1.
10 and 100 * 11 '

Hog
.

98.2 = 1.992 1 ; whole part is 1.

Between
lo S 2 35 = 2 -37n ;
whole part is 2.
f
100 and 1000 1!°g 595-35
= *-776 9 5
whole part is 2.
Uog 802 = 2.9042 ; whole part is 2, etc.

Art. 141. The whole part of a logarithm is called its

characteristic, and the decimal part is called its mantissa.
 Logarithms. x 1

Art. 142. Since numbers which have the same figures

(digits) arranged in the same order, differ from one another
only by some multiple of ten, and since the logarithms of
multiples of ten are always whole numbers, it follows that
the decimal part of the logarithm remains the same so
long as the digits are unchanged, no matter where the
decimal point be placed.

Example. 23456, 2345.6, 234.56, 23.456, 2.3456,

.23456, .023456, etc., all have the same mantissa in their
logarithms. This makes it possible to find the logarithms
of all numbers from any table of logarithms, as shown
later.

Logarithms of Decimals.

Art. 143. A pure decimal always indicates a fraction

with a denominator which is a higher power of ten than
the numerator, hence, since a fraction means a division,
by the law of division by logarithms, the logarithm of a
fraction,decimal or otherwise, is negative.
It is customary to keep the decimal part of a logarithm
always positive, and to make the characteristic bear the
negative sign.

For example, .04324 = -

IOOOOO
.'. log .04323 = log 4324 — log IOOOOO

log 4324 = 3- 6 359

log 100000 = 5.0000
log .04324 = - I.364I = - 2. + .6359.

This result is usually written, 2.6359, t0 indicate that

the 2 alone is negative, while the decimal is positive. It

is an advantage of uniformity entirely.

 8 :

1 1 Algebra.

Again, find log .235.

lo g - 2 35 = log-^- = log 235 - log 1000

1000
lo g 2 35 = 2-37"
log 1000 = 3.0000
lo g 2 35 = - 628 9 -"1.37 1 1.
-

By an inspection of these results a general rule for pure

decimals may be stated, thus

Find the decimal

part of the logarithm from the table,
ignoring the decimal point. The characteristic is equal to
a number one greater than the number of zeros follow i ng the
decimal point or is equal to the number representing the
position of the first significant figure {that is the first one
not zero) after the decimal point.

Art. 144. To find the logarithm of a number from a

table of logarithms.
Find the log 23.7625.
Say the table runs to 1000 and gives the log to four
decimal places. Since the decimal part of the log IS
independent of the decimal point, the point may be placed
to best advantage in this case between 7 and 6, because
;

the table gives the logarithms of numbers of three digits.

Mantissa of 237.625 lies, evidently, between that of 237
and 238 in the table. If the change of logarithms between
237 and 238 is uniform, the mantissa of 237.625 should
be the mantissa of 237 plus .625 of the difference between
the mantissas of 237 and 238. Thus:
man 238 = .3766
man 237 = 3747
Difference for 1 = 0019.
Difference for .625 0019 X .625 = .0012 -f
.*. man 237.625 3747 + .0012 = .3759
log 23.7625 = 1-3759-
 Logarithms, 119

The same thing may be represented schematically,

thus
r
man 238 = .3766
. Diff. of .0019 corre-
one unit:=
Diff. of
man 237.625 = .3759]
"
spondingto one unit

Diff. of .625 = '

Diff. of .0012 corre-
sponding to. 625
man 237 •3747

COLOGARITHMS.
Art. 145. To negative logarithms, where a
avoid
smaller quantity be divided by a larger, the logarithm
is to
of the reciprocal of a number is employed, and is called
the cologarithm of the number itself.

For example, find log ^9 ,

o

562

log ?^9_ = og 239 _

i log 562,
562
which would give a negative result.

2 39
— ^- also equals 239 x
562 562

•'• lo g ~
562
= lo g 2 39 + lo g -T"
562
which may be expressed thus

log ^39, = log 239 + colog 562

562

log = log 1 - log 562

562
log 1 = 0.0000
log 562 = 2.7497

e % log = 0-2.7497.
562
120 Algebra,

But o may be expressed as 4 —4 or 5 — 5 or 10 — 10, etc.

For uniformity we say o = 10-10.

•*• log -!— - (10 - 10) - 2.7497

562
= (10 - 2.7497) - 10 = 7.2503 - 10.

Hence, log = colog 562 = 7.2503—10

562

.-. log
3" = log 239 colog 562 =
-f
562
2.3784 + 7.2503 — 10 = 9.6287 — 10 — 1.6287.

The result may be stated thus :

To FIND THE COLOGAMTHM OP A NUMBER, FIND ITS U I

RITHM, SUBTRACT THIS LOGARITHM ROM 10 AND WRITE l

-IO AFTER Tin: REMAINDER.

The statement of the law for division by logarithms may

be amended thus: The logarithm of the quotient 0} two
numbers equals the logarithm of the dividend plus the
cologarithm of the divisor.

To Find a Number From Its Logarithm.

Art. 146. The number is often called the antiloga-

rithm. The process of finding a number from its logarithm
is evidently the reverse of the process for finding the
logarithm of a number.
Find the antilog of 3.8764.
In finding a number from its logarithm the character-
istic is at first ignored, because only mantissas are given

in the tables and the characteristics are readily found by

the simple rules already enunciated.
 Logarithms, 121

An examination of the table shows no such mantissa as

.8764. The two nearest to it are,
.8768 = man 753
and .8762 = man 752.

The difference .0006 corresponds to difference 1 in

numbers.
The mantissa .8764 being between .8768 and .8762
the number corresponding to it must be between 753 and
752, which correspond respectively to the mantissas .8768
and .8762.
If the change in the mantissa corresponds to the change
in the numbers, the difference between the smaller man-
tissa .8762 and .8764 will have the same ratio to the
difference between .8768 and .8762 as the difference
between 752 and the number corresponding to .8764
has to 1, the difference between 752 and 753, i.e.,
.0002 : .0006 : : (x) : 1.

.0002
x = = = 333 +
,
... 1
.

.0006

.*. man .8764 corresponds to 752.333 +

.-. log 3.8764 = 75 2 3-33 +
Since the characteristic of a logarithm is found by taking

one less than the number of figures in the whole part of

the number, the pointing off of the whole places in the
number from the logarithm is the reverse. That is,
there will be onemore place in the whole part of the
number than there are units in the characteristic. For
example, the antilog of 1.2345 has two places in whole
part. The antilog of 3.0642 has four places in whole
part, etc.
If the characteristic is negative, the decimal point is

placed so that the first significant figure in the number

shall occupy a place after the decimal point of the same
 :

122 Algebra.

order as the number of units in the characteristic. For

example
2. 1790 = log .0151
i_. 7803 = log .603
4. 6191 = log .000416, etc.

A solution of a general problem, by logarithms, may

assist in the comprehension of the process.
Find value of

.008541 2 X 8641 X 4.276* X 0084 .

(.oo854) :j
X 182.63* X 82* X 487.27*'
Log above expression equals .{[2 log .008541 + log
of
8641 -f \ log 4.276 + log .00S4 + 3 colog .00854 + \
colog 182.63 -f J colog 82 + \ colog 487.27].

Man .008541 - man 854.1

man 855 = .9320
man 854 - .9315
diff for 1 - .0005
cliff for .1 = .00005 = .0001 (dropping the 5)
man 854.1 - .9316 [.9315 + .0001]
log .008451 - 3.9316 2 log .008541 = 5.8632
;

or 2 log .008541 = 5.8632 — 10 [adding and subtracting

10, which does not change value].

2 log .008541 = 5.8632 — 10

log 8641- 3.9366
J log 4.276 - .2103
log .0084 - 7.9243 - 10

3 colog .00854 - 6.2055 [(10 -7-7945) - io 1

\ colog 182.63 = 9.4346 — 10
\ colog 82 = 9.3621 — 10
\ colog 487.27 = 9.328 — 1 10

Log of original expression = \ (52.2647 — 50)

= \ (2.2647) = .5662
.*. original expression = S-^33 + = antilog of .5662.
 L ogaritkms. 123

It is to be observed that the colog of a decimal, since it

is the log of the reciprocal of the decimal, is really the log

of a whole or mixed number, since the reciprocal of a
decimal must be such a number. Hence the 10 may
be subtracted from the characteristic after the colog is
found without giving a negative quantity as above

log .00854 = 3.9315

3
3 log .00854 = 7.7945
[the two carried over the decimal point is positive, hence
-3X3 + 2= -7].

10.0000 — 10
7~-
79 45
colog .00854 3 = 16.2055 — 10 = 6.2055.

must be remembered that the mantissa is always

It
positive no matter what the characteristic may be. In the
above example, since 1 has been borrowed from the 10
to subtract the .7 from, there are only 9 left from which
to subtract — 7, hence 9 — (- 7) = 9 + 7 = 16.

EXERCISE XXIV.
Logarithms.

Find the logarithms of

1. 235.6. 4, .00235.
2
2. 1.7456. 5. (125.6) .

3. 1023.5. 6, (23.67)!.

Find the antilogarithms of

7. 1.301362. 9. 3.673092.
8. 2.441201. 10. 9.720387-10.
11. 2.800046.
 : :

124 Algebra.

Find the cologarithms of

12. 216.93. 14. .2765.

13. .01672. 15. 9929.7.

Find the value by logarithms of

16 -
237.95 X .0192. 17. 67.25 -5-
3.2719.
18. (2.356)* X (77-777)*.

^62.31 X 92086
19

2
/A°3i95 X 62.9 3 2 x .8 3 6 7 8 3
20>
V 29.312 x (.00261J 4

2i >
4/ 6.6251 X ^. 19672 X 01S72 .

* ^.51672 X II. 137 X .09823

22 (67-025) X (1.0 C))

1 -

(1.06)
12
- 1

23. § V~^ * ^2!

[(f)
8
X (j)
8
X (3 »)
rB
24. _

25. 4/2.72 V— 4.6307

V 2
v/
.3 1
? I24 .6r
 CHAPTER X.

INEQUALITIES.

Article 147. If x — y is positive, x is said to be

greater than y, written thus, x y. >
If x — y is negative, x is less than y and this relation
is represented thus, x < y.
Art. 148. Two inequalities with the inequality sign
turned in the same direction are said to be in the same
sense as x > y, 5 > 4, a > b, etc.
;

Art. 149. Just as we have equations involving un-

known quantities, we have also inequalities involving
unknown quantities. By the solution of equations we get
values of the unknown to satisfy the equations by the ;

solution of inequalities we get the greatest or smallest

value that the unknown may have without violating the
conditions of inequality. These values are called
maximum and minimum respectively.
Art. 150. As equations are subject to certain rules of
transformation in order that solution may be accomplished,
so inequalities obey certain laws, which must be deter-
mined before they can be handled legitimately. They are
as follows

Art. 151. both terms of an inequality are multiplied

If
by a positive quantity, the inequality is unchanged. If
multiplied by a negative quantity, the sign is reversed.

Let a > b, then ma > mb, but — ma < — mb. For if

a > b then a — b = some positive quantity, say c that is, ;

a — b = c, .\ ma — mb = mc, still a positive quantity.

.*. ma > mb.

125
126 Algebra,

But — ma — ( — mb) = — mc> 3. negative quantity, since

a > b, .'.— ma < — w6.
Art. 152. If x > y then #"* > y"1 .

— y = c, a positive quantity.
For x
Or (V - + *m - 2y + x m ~ 3
71 1
xym ~ + y" ) (x - y) >'
2
. . .
l 1

= £ (x m ~ + # w - 2
y 4- etc.) which is plainly positive.
1

But (x m - l
+ d*~ 2y + * m - 3y *y" - + ym ) (* - y) 2
. . .

= x m - ym 3* - y m = positive quantity,
,
.*. d* > y"\ .*.

Art. 153. li a i£b (read a is not equal to t) then

a
2
+ b
2
> 2 ab.

For (a — b)
2
> o (because the square of either a posi-
tive or negative quantity is positive, hence greater than o)
that is, a 2
— 2ab + b
2
> o. Add 2 a b to both sides.

a 2
+ b
2
> 2ab.

That is, the sum of the squares of two unequal quan-

tities is always greater than twice their product.
Example. Find minimum value of % if

2x — 8x + 21 > a- - 2.v + 37
2 2
(collect)
.v — 6.v > 16
2
(add 9 to both sides)
x 2 — 6a: + 9> 25 (extract square root)
» - 3> 5 *>*• •*•

Hence, a; cannot be as small as 8.

Example. Find the area of the largest rectangle having

the perimeter 20 inches.
Let x = one side, then since the perimeter is 20, 10— a;
= other side
.*. 10 # — a;
2
= area.

Say, iox — x = y (the 2

area)
then, x 2 — ioa: + 25 = 25 - y
x- s - ± v/ *5 - y
* - 5 ± ^s
 Inequalities. 127

If y is greater than 25, (25 — y) will be negative and

^25 — y will be imaginary.
Therefore, ^^25 (y is not greater than 25).
Then 25 is the maximum value of y.

When, 10 x — .v = 25 (=
2
y)
x2 — 1ox + 25 = o
x = 5 the maximum value
for a side. 10 — 5 = 5,

hence, at the maximum, the rectangle becomes a square,

5 inches on the side.

RATIO, VARIATION, AND PROPORTION.

Art. 154. The ratio of one quantity to another is the
fraction whose numerator is the first quantity and whose
denominator the second as — = the ratio of a to b. This
b
is often written a : b*
In such a ratio, a is called the antecedent and b the
consequent-
If a and b both change values, but maintain always the
same ratio, a is said to vary as b, written a oc6. Calling
m the constant ratio between a and b, this may be written
a = mb. Clearly one variable quantity may vary as several
others together ; for instance, a may vary as b }
c, d, etc.
This is expressed thus :

a oc b.c.d.

Or a may increase as b decreases (or vice versa); a

is then said to vary inversely as b, written

a oc —1
b

* The line between the numerator and denominator of a frac-

tion is probably an evolution from the ratio sign, ; .
 : .

128 Algebra.

Art. 155. There are certain laws governing ratio

which may be stated as follows
If the antecedent is the greater, the ratio is said to
be of greater inequality.
A ratio of greater inequality is diminished, and a ratio
of less inequality is increased by adding any positive
quantity to both terms.

Take a > b in the ratio — and let m be any positive

quantity.

Add m to both terms, —

b + f)i

a + m ^> = or < a_
.

b + m b

According as

ab + bm > - or < ah + am [clearing of fractions]

bin > = or <am [subtracting a J from both si<
b > = or [dividing by ;;/]

but a > b by hypothesis,

hence, —> - — . That is, — was diminished.

b b + m b

If (7 < b, then— <- , that is, — was increased.

b b + m b

Examples. By Boyle's law of physics if P is the pres-

sure on a volume T, of gas, then Px— . A certain gas
has a volume of 1200 c.c. under a pressure of 1033 &•
to 1 sq. cm. What is the volume when the pressure is

1250 g. ?

Let m be the ratio in the variation P oc —

Then P = - or P V = m.
 Inequalities, 129

By first P = 1033 when V = 1200

condition
then m 1033 x 1200
=

.-. P = io33XI20 ° (substituting m in ©).

In second condition P= 1250; 1250 = —& 2?

24
iq33x;200 = 1033 x 24 _
F = 68

25

EXERCISE XXV.
Variation.

1. If ;yoc# and y = 5 when #=3, find a? when y = 9.

W
2. If / 00 — and / =.45 when E = no and i£ = 244,
R
find £ when / = .48 and R = 254.

3. If the rate of discharge of water from an orifice

varies as the square root of the depth, and 1 t gallons per
minute are discharged when the height is 49 feet, what
is the discharge when the height is 77.44 feet?
4. The distance a body falls, due to gravity, varies as
the square of the time of fall. If a body falls 257.6 feet
in 4 seconds, how long will it be in falling 788.9 feet?
5. The square of the time of revolution of a planet

about the sun varies as the cube of its distance from it.
If the distance of the earth is 93,000,000 miles and of
Saturn 886,000,000 miles, what is Saturn's period about

the sun ?
6. A shell 1 2 tV as
mu ch as it
foot in diameter weighs 9

would ifFind the thickness of the shell, remember-

solid.
ing that the volumes of spheres vary as the cubes of their
radii or diameters.
130 Algebra.

7. The penetration of a bullet varies as its momentum,

or if the mass remains the same, it varies as the velocity.
If a bullet having a velocity of 1S7 meters per second
will 8.92 cm. into a target, what velocity is
penetrate
necessary to penetrate 14.8 cm. ?
8. The light received upon a surface varies inversely
as the square of its distance from a source of light If a
screen is from an incandescent lamp, to what
25 feet
distance must it be removed to receive § as much light?
9. The weight of a body on the .surface of a material

sphere varies directly as the mass of the sphere and

inversely as the square of its radius. If a body on the

earth's surface weighs 24 lbs., taking the earth's radi

3963 miles, what would it weigh on the surface of the
moon, whose radius is 108 1.5 miles and whose mas
t\\ of the earth's mass ?
-J u

10. If the electric resistance of a wire varies directly

as its length and inversely as the square of its diam<

and if a wire 137 cm. long and .038 mm. diameter has a
resistance of 19.3 ohms, what will be the resistano
a wire of the same material 235 cm. long and 1.2 mm.
diameter ?

11. Three metal spheres whose radii are 3, 4, and 5

inches respectively, are melted and cast into one sphere.
What is the radius of this sphere, the volumes of spheres
being known to vary as the cube of their radii ?

PROPORTION.
Art. 156. A statement of equality between two ratios
is called a proportion ; thus,

a : b : : c : d or a : b = c : d or — = — .

b d

The first and fourth terms of a ratio are called its

extremes, second and third terms are called

the its

means. Each ratio is called a couplet.

 Inequalities. 1 3

When a : b : : b : c, b is said to be a mean proportional

to a and £, and c ox a are third proportionals to the
other two.
A continued proportion is a series of equal ratios, as,

a : b : : c : d : : ni : n : : x 1 y, etc.

Laws of Proportion.

Art. 157. Every proportion admits of certain trans-

formations as follows
(a) If four quantities are in proportion, they are also in
proportion, by alternation, that is the first is to the third
as the second is to the fourth. To prove,

If a : b : : c : d then a : c : : b : d.

a c
Proof,
b^d

)f c d c

[Multiplying both sides by — or — = -•

\ c J c d

/. a 1 c : : b : d.

(b) Also the product of the extremes equals the product

of the means.

For — = — /. ad = be (clearing of fractions).

b d

(c) They are also in proportion by inversion, that

is, the second is to the first as the fourth is to the
third.
132 Algebra.

For « - £

then — = — a

a £

[If two quantities are equal their reciprocals are equal.]

.-. b : a : : d : c.

(d) They are also in proportion by composition, that is,

the sum of the first and second is to either the first or

the second as the sum of the third and fourth is to either
the third or fourth.

That is, a + b : a or b : : c 4- d : c or d.

a c
For —— or L = ±
l

b d a c

a b d
then — + ,

i = c— 4-1 or - 4- I = - ,
4- I
b d a c

a 4- b c 4- d
or
a + b
= — d r aa-
[adding]
b d a c

,\ a + b : b : : c +d : d or a + b : a : : c +d : c

(e) Prove that they are also in proportion by division,

that is, a - b : a or b : : c - d : c or d.

(/) two proportions have a couplet

If in each equal, the
remaining couplets are in proportion.
If a : b : : c : d and m : n : : c : d then album : n.

ror — =— and — = —
b d n d

, a m
b n
a : b : : m : n.
 Inequalities. I
33

If couplets from each proportion form a proportion the

remaining couplets are in proportion.
If a b : c d and m
: n
: p :
q and c d :: p q : : : : : :

then a b :: m :n :

For i = C- and 2_£ and £ =t

b d n q d q

a __m
b n

(g) In a continued proportion the sum of all the ante-

cedents is to the sum of all the consequents as any one

antecedent is to its consequent.

That is, if a : b : : c : d : : m : n : : x :
y, etc.

a + c + m+ x + d + w + ^
: 6 : : a : 6 : : c : d, etc.

For let the common ratio be represented by r then

— = r or a = br
b

— = r or c = dr
d
m
— = r or 0i = ?zr

— = r or ,t = yr
y
Add ; a + c + m + x = (b + d + n + y) r

a + c + m +x = ==
a c
— =—, .
or r etc.
& + d + w + ;y 6 d

proved that, if four quantities are in propor-

It is readily
tion,any one power (whole or fractional) of these quantities
forms a proportion.
Also that if the product of two quantities equals the
product of two other quantities, two of them may form
the extremes and two the means of a proportion.
134 Algebra.

For if ad = be

then — = M--
b}^
[dividing through by bd]

a
or — = c—
b d

d.

It is to be observed that a, />, c, d, etc. stand for any

quantities whatever in these proportions. They are by
no means restricted to monomials.

EXERCISE XXVI.
Proportion.

If a : b : : C : d :

1. Show that 2 (/ -f- b \b\\2c-\-d : d.

2. That 5 a + 3 b : 5 a - 3 ft : :
5 c + 3 </ :
5 c - 3 d.

3. Find the mean proportional to 5 and 13$.

4. Find the third proportional to 3/
1

,,
and 5.

5. What quantity must added to each of the

be
quantities 0, 6, r. and d to make them proportional ?

Find the value of unknown in the following proportions :

6. 11J :
4i : :
3f : *

5* "
jR 15*
8. # : #* — 1 : : 1 5 - 7 .v : 8 — 8 #.

9
Lv 3
+ y 3
: a; + y : : 7 : 1

v + v/ 3v -
10. ' —-=^=3.
y -
v3 - y
 Inequalities. 135

11. Two cars running in opposite directions pass each

other in 2 seconds ; running in the same direction, the
faster passes the slower in 30 seconds. What is the ratio
of their rates ?

12. What number must be added to each of the numbers

3, 7, and13, that the second may become a mean pro-
portional to the other two.
13. Show that there is no number that, added to each

of three consecutive numbers, will make the second a

mean to the other two.

Spheres are to each other as the cubes of like

14.
dimensions. What will be the diameter of a ball formed
from two balls whose diameters are respectively 7 inches
and 9 inches ?

15. bar is supported at two points, and a weight is

If a
suspended between these points, the parts of the weight
borne by the supports are inversely proportional to the
distances of the weight from the supports. If a bar 18 feet
long, supported at its ends, carries a weight of 234 lbs.
4 feet from the end, A, find weight sustained at each end.
16. The cubes of the planets' distances from the sun
are to each other as the squares of their periods of revolu-
tion. Calling the earth's period 1 year, and that of
Jupiter 12 years, what is Jupiter's distance from the sun
if the earth's distance is 93,000,000 miles ?
 CHAPTER XI.

PROGRESSIONS.

Article 158. A series is a number of successive quan-

tities, each one derived from its predecessor by some fixed
law. The successive quantities are called terms. If the

series ends, it is called finite ; if it extends indefinitely, it

is called infinite.
Art. 159. There are plainly an unlimited number of
forms of series. Arithmetical, geometrical, and tiarmonical
are the only kinds that possess any general importance.

Arithmetical Series or Progression.

Art. 160. If each term of a series is derived from

the preceding term by adding (algebraically) a constant
quantity, it is known as an arithmetical series or arith-
metical progression. Such as 1, 3, 5, 7, etc. (adding
2) ; x+ y, x, x - v, x - 2v, etc. (adding - v).
The general form of this series is, <i. a <L a id
a + 3d, etc., d being the common difference.
Art. 161. To find an expression for any term of an
A. P. (arithmetical progression) in terms of the first
term, the common difference, and the number of terms, it

is only necessary to inspect the general form indicated

above, marking the number of each term.
(Number of term)

1st 2d 3d 4th 5th

a, a + </, (7 + 2 d, a + 3^, a + 4J, etc.

It will be observed that any term is equal to a (first

term) plus d (difference) taken as many times less one as

136
 Progressions. 137

the number of this term in the series thus the fourth ;

term = a + (4 - 1) d = a + 3d
Calling any desired term /, its number n, first term a,
and difference d, clearly ;

/ = a + (n — 1) d (x)

Art. 162. To find the sum of any number of terms :

With the same notation, in addition calling the sum s and f

remembering that if, starting with the last term, the

common difference be subtracted successively, the series is
the same (but in reverse order) as if we started with the
first term and added the difference, then ;

s = a+ (a + d) + (a + 2d) . . . (/ - d) + /,

5- = / + (/ - d) + (/ - 2d) . . . (a + d) + a

Add, 2s= (a + /) + (a + I) 4- (a + /) 4- (a + /) . . .

(a+ /) + (a + l).

If there are n terms in the series, evidently there will be

n (a + /)'s, that is, 2 5 = (fl + /) + (a + V) + (a + /)

+ repeated n times ; or, 2 s = n (a + /)

* - - (« + 60
2

(#) and (v) are the fundamental relations between parts

of an arithmetical progression. From them and their
combinations, if any three of the quantities a, d, n, s, and
I are given, the other two are readily found. For
example
In an arithmetical progression, given

d = 7, n = 12, s = 594.

Substituting in (x), I = a + (12 — 1)7 =0 + 77

or I - a = jj (1)
138 Algebra.

Substituting in (y), 594 = — (a 4- I) - 6 (a 4- l)

2

or a 4- / = 99 (2)

Adding (1) and (2), 2/ = 176, / = 88

Subtracting (1) from (2)
2d = 22, J = II.

Arithmetical Mean.

Art. 163. The arithmetical mean between two quan-

titieshas a wide field of application in practical mathe- *

matics. It is the quantity which, placed between two

other quantities, forms with them an arithmetical progres-

sion.
If a and / are any two quantities, and ;;/ stands for their
arithmetical mean: by definition, a, m. I is an arithmeti-
cal progression ;

hence m— a -» / — m (since there is a constant difference)

or 2m = a 4- /

;;/ = </ 4- /

Art. 164. It is sometimes necessary to insert several

arithmetical means between two and here for- quantities,
mulae (a*) and For example
(y) assist. :

Insert 4 arithmetical means between 3 and 18.

If m m v m A stand for the means, the series will be,
v /;/._>, ,

3, mv 2 T ;;/ 4 18, hence a = 3, = 6, / = 18, to find d.

m m
, , ;/

Substituting in (#), 18 = 3 4- (6 — 1) d
whence, $d = 15 ; d = 3

means
'*•
3> I
6> 9, 12, 15,] 18 is the series.
 Progressions. 1 39

Art. 165. It is convenient to represent unknown quan-

tities, when they are in arithmetical progression, by the
following series, the first one when the number of
unknowns is odd ; the second when it is even etc. ;

x — 2y, x — y, x, x + y, x + 2y, etc.

# — 3?> x — y, x + y, x + $y, etc -

As an illustration :

The sum of three numbers in arithmetical progression

is 55, and the sum of their squares is 461. Find the
numbers.
Let x — y, x, and x + y represent the numbers,
then (x - y) + x + (x +y) = 33 . . . (1)
{x — y) 2 + x2 + (x + y) 2 = 461 ... (2)

From (1) the wisdom of the above notation is evident,

for it reduces to, 3 x = 53, x = 11
(11 - y) 4- (n) + (n + y) = 461
2 2 2
hence, from (2),

y = 7-

EXERCISE XXVII.
Arithmetical Series.

1. Find the 8th term of the series 3, 8, 13. . . .

2. Find the 10th term of 2^, if, 1^. . . .

3. Find the 9th term of 3, 2 J, if. . . .

Find the sum of

4. 1+3 + 5 + 7. ..to 15 terms.
5. —3+1 + 5... to 10 terms.

6* i£+ 1 + f. to 20 terms.
. . .

7. x + (3 x — 2 y) + (5 x - 4 y) ... to 8 terms.

Q x — 1 x — ^3
+ ... to 12 terms.
, ,
,

8. 1

x x
9. Insert 6 means between 9 and 177.
 :

140 Algebra.

10. Given a = 3J, / = 64, n = 82. Find d and s.

11. Given / = 105, n = i6 s = 840. Find a and ; d.

Find parts not given in the following

12. d - 5, /= 77, 5 - 623.

13. * = 143J, a = |, * = 20.
14. n = = 5, d = 2
20, c
15. 200, / = 88, s = 2160.
a =
16. d =
4, n = 14, ^ = cSi2.

17. How many terms of the scries — 5, — 2, + ... 1

must be taken to sum 63 ?

18. The first term of an arithmetical progression is 5.

the third term is 17. Find the sum of 8 terms.
•
19. How many terms of the series 2. $, 8 . . . must be
taken, that the sum of the first half may be to the sum of
the second half as 8:2^ ?

20. Starting from a mark, 30 stones are placed at

intervals of two feet If, starting at the mark, the stones

are collected one by one and carried back each time to
the mark, how far will the collector walk?
21. The three sides of a right angled triangle, wl
area is 54 square rods, are in arithmetical progression.
Find the sides.

22. If a falling body descends 16.1 feet the first second,

48.3 feet the second second, 80.5 feet the third second,
how far will it fall in one minute ?

23. A man was given his choice of wages, either $1.00

per day, or 3 cents the first day, 6 cents the second,
9 cents the third, his wage increasing 3 cents each day.
He chose the former. Did he win or lose (in 30 days) and
how much ?
24. What value of a will make the arithmetical mean
between a* and at equal to 6 ?
 Progressions, 1 4

Geometrical Progression.

Art. 166. " A geometrical progression is a series of

quantities so related to one another that each bears a
constant ratio to the preceding. Thus: 2, 4, 8, 16, etc.,
or in general, a, ar, ar 2 ar 3
, , . . . etc.

Value of Any Term.

Art. 167. Let a represent the first term, /, the last

term, r, the ratio, n, the number of terms, and s, the sum
of the series.
Then a G.P. (geometrical progression) is represented in
general by
(Number of term) 1st 2d 3d 4th 5th

a, ar, ar 2 ,ar 3 ar 4, , etc.,

the numbers indicating the number of the term.

be observed that any term is the product of the
It will
first term, a, by r, raised to a power, which is one Less than

the number of the term in the series. Hence, if n repre-

sent the number of any term, /, in the series, this term
will be
- arn ~ l / . . . . . . (1)

which is one of the fundamental relation equations for

geometrical progressions.

Sum of Any Number of Terms.

Art. 168. According to the notation above, evidently,

~2 A-1
f ajr
2
+ ojr
3
+ ar 4
4- ... arn + ar (or /)

multiplying by r I I / ^^
rs = air + ajr
2
+ cjr
3
+ ajr
4
. /I p*-* + 1
ar or "
(Ir)
 * v

142 Algebra.

Subtracting, s - rs = a - ar*, (or a — rl)

or s (r — 1) = a (r
n
- 1), (or rl — #)
a— (/-" — 1 ) rl - a ,
S = y
or 3 . (2)
x

r — 1 r — 1

Art. 169. By these formula or by combinations of

:hem, as in the case of arithmetical progressions, any
two of the quantities, a, d, n, /, and s, may be found when
the other three are given.
Example. Given a«= 5, n — 3, s — 2S5.

From (1) / = 5 r
From (2) 285 - -^ r -
')

or - r" ~ l
- r* + r+i
57
r — 1

or r + r = 56
r
2
+ r 4- \ = •-'

r + i= ±
r= 7 or — S
whence, from (1), /= 5 (7)
2
or 5 ( -S) 2 = 245 or 320.
The series is, then, either 5, 35 , 245 or 5, - 40, 320.

Geometrical Mean.

Art. 170. A geometrical mean between two quantities

is a quantitywhich bears to the first quantity the same
ratio that the second quantity bears to it that is, it forms ;

with the two quantities a geometrical progression.

If x stand for the geometrical mean between a and b,
then by definition :

—= — or xr = ab x= \^ab.
a x
That is, a geometrical mean between two quantities is

equal to the square root of their product.

 Progressions, 143

For example, the geometrical mean between 16 and 25

/ 2
is v 16 x 25 =20; between a +26+—b and a is
a

\/ a (a +2J+-] = ^a 2
+ 2 ab + b
2
= a + b, etc.
a J ,

Art. 171. If several geometrical means are inserted

between two quantities, each of these means is a mean
between the two means on either side of it. Hence, to
insert any number of means between two quantities, it is
necessary to construct the series, hence to find r.
Example. Insert 5 geometrical means between 2 and
1458, calling the means Gv G 2
,G 3 , G 4
and G 5 the series is
, ,

2, G v G Gv G G
2, 4, 5, 145 8 and n = 7-

By (1) 1458 = 2r
6

e
or r =j2g
r = -V729 =3

Hence, the series, 2, 6, 18, 54, 161, 486, 1458.

Rule: Taking the two quantities as a and 1 and n

equal to two more than the number of means, use
formula (1).

Infinite Series.

Art. 172. If the number of terms is unlimited, the

geometrical progression is called an infinite series, other-
wise it is finite.

aft* _ T)
Formula (2), S = -*
s may be put in the form,
r — 1

arn a a af 1

r — 1

If r is a fraction and n is large enough, the value of rn

may become insignificant, since each increasing power of
144 Algebra.

fraction is less than the preceding one, for by definition

a power of a quantity is the product of a quantity by itself

a certain number of times, and if the quantity is a fraction,

the product is each time multiplied by a fraction, which
must decrease its value.
n
If then n is infinite r = o,

= o hence, s = .
(3)
1 — r

which is the formula for the sum of an infinite geometrical

progression.
EXAMPLE. l
;
ind the sum of the infinite geometrical
progression 1, £, J, £. . . .

Here, a - 1, r = i, ;/ = 00

a 1 i

i-r 1 - \ 4

Art. 173 A common application of the formula for

infinite geometrical progression, is the expression of a
recurring decimal in terms of a simple fraction.
Example. Evaluate .124545. . . .

This is equivalent to the series

.12 + .0045 ~*~

.000045 -f . . .

or ffy + ln \,'; M ,
'

,„,„,';,„., + . .
;
to infinity,

as the figures 45 are repeated indefinitely in succeeding

decimal orders.
Starting with -,
( ,Y; )0 the rest of the expression is plainly
an infinite geometrical progression in which r = T^ and
a = ioVoo-
4 B 1
5
To o (TTT _ 1 mooTT
T — Y T — lOU 1
VUG*
1 r I

Then .124545 . . . = Tyo + Fffo = lUi = u\V

The recurring digits in such a decimal are usually indi-
cated by a dot placed over them.
Thus, in the example above, .124545 . . . = .1245.
 Progressions. 145

Harmonical Progression.

Art. 174. A harmonical progression (H. P.) is a series

of numbers whose reciprocals, in the same order, form
an arithmetical progression.
Thus, ^, } \, \ is an harmonical progression, since 3,
}

5, 7, 9 is an arithmetical progression.
Again, f, 4, — f, —\\ is an harmonical progression,
since f, ^, — |, — 1| is an arithmetical progression.
Hence, to solve an harmonical progression invert its
terms and apply the formulas for an arithmetical pro-
gression, then reinvert.

EXERCISE XXVIII.

Geometrical Progression.

1. Find the 10th term of 3, 6, 12. . . .

2. Find the 9th term of 6], 2 TV, |f. . . .

3. Find the 7th term of 32, — 16, 8. . . .

4. Find the 6th term of if, -4

2§ , /. . . .

Find the sum of

5 -
5 + (-3) + i l • • •
t0 9 terms -

6 - J + (
-I) + A • • • to IO terms.

7 -
2 + i + I • • • t0 infinity.

8 -
^¥ + tV + i + • • •
t0 8 terms,

Find parts not given in following

9. a = 36, I = 21 w = 5.
10. I - 1296, r = 6, 5 = 1555.

11. r - 2, n = 7, 5 = 635.
12. a = -§, w = 7, r = — .-J.

13. a = 1, / = 8i, r = 3.
146 Algebra.

14. Insert 3 geometrical means between 17 and 4352.

15. Insert 6 geometrical means between 5 and— 640.
16. The fifthterm of a geometrical progression is 48
and r = 2. Find first term.
Four numbers are in geometrical progression.
17. The
sum first and fourth is 195, and the sum
of the of the
second and third is 60. Find the numbers.
18. The sum of the first 8 terms of a geometrical pro-
gression is 17 times the sum of the first 4 terms. Find
the series.
19. Find the value of the recurring decimal
3.17272. . . .

20. Find the value of the recurring decimal

•I53IS3- - • -

21. A
blacksmith proposes to shoe a hor.se for Si. 60 or
to take for his work, 1 cent for the fust 4 nails, 2 cents
for the next four, 4 cents for the next four, and so on. It

he used 8 nails to each of the four shoes, which proposition

was the better for him ?

22. A " letter chain' 1

is started thus, for a memorial
fund : three letters are sent out with a request for 10 cents,
and each receiver is asked to send out three letters con-
taining thesame requests. This process is repeated 30
times. How much will be realized for the fund ?
23. If $100 be placed in a savings bank, where the

amount increases 4 per cent each year, how much will be

to the depositor's credit at the end of 20 years if no money
is withdrawn ?
 CHAPTER XII.

INTEREST AND ANNUITIES.

Interest.

Article 175.
Definition. Interest is the earnings of money when
loaned or invested.

Definition. The principal is the sum thus put to use.

Definition. The ratio of the earnings for one year to

the principal is called the rate 0} interest, or simply the
rate.

Definition. The amount is the sum of principal and

interest.

Definition. When the interest itself earns interest at

stated intervals, it is said to be compounded. Such interest
is, hence, called compound interest.

Simple Interest.

Art. 176.P = principal; r = rate; n = time.

Let
A = amountI = interest.
; Then by arithmetic, / = Pm
and^l=P + / P + Pm P (1 + rn).
= =

Compound Interest.

Art. 177. By definition, if the interest is payable

annually,

A = P(i + r) = PR [letting 1 + = R] end of 1st year. ;-

;

A 2 = PRr 4- PR = PR (1 + r) = PR 2 end of 2d year. ;

A\ = PR 2 r + PR 2 = PR (1 4- r) = PR 3 end of 3d year.
2
;

147
148 Algebra.

A comparison of the exponent of R with tne number of

years will enable us to express the amount for any number
of years, say n y
thus ;

An = PR*.

The subscripts for A indicate the number of years for

which the amount (^4) stands.
Art. 178. Frequently the interest is compounded
semi-annually or quarterly, as in savings accounts. Then
again by definition, if the interest is semi-annual,

A± - \Pf + P-P (1 + -\ for 1st half year.

A t -ip(i +J)r + P (i + 0~p(i hlJ,for 2d

half year.

r
4,-.*p(i + -Jr + P(> K0*. />(, I
^; for

3d half year.

Then by analogy for ;/ wars or 2 ;/ half years

1 + -

If the interest is quarterly, exactly similar process gives

the formula

Annuities.

Art. 179. An annuity is a fixed amount of money to

be paid or set aside annually or at stated regular intervals.
If these amounts are allowed to accumulate at com-
pound interest, the annuities constitute a sinking fund,
which is usually a provision for eventually liquidating an
indebtedness of some institution.
 Interest and Annuities. 149

Art. 180. Let S be the annuity ; R, the amount of one

dollar for one year at the rate, r number of years,
; n, the
and A, the final amount of the sinking fund, at any num-
ber of years. Then by definition,
A =
x
end of 1 year
S, at the
A2 = S + SR, at the end of 2 years.
A3 = S + SR + SR 2 at the end of 3 years.
,

A4 = S + SR + SR 2 + SR 3 at the end of 4 years.,

And by easy analogy,

An = S +
.".A n R = $R + SX2 -

(multiplying (1) by R)

Subtract (1) from (2), A n R - A n = SR V - S

or A n (R - 1) = S(7? n - 1)
•••*•- S ( Rn ~ *)
ie - 1

Art. 181.It is usually necessary in the establishment

of a sinking fund to estimate the amount required as
annuity, or the number of years with a given annuity, to
meet the obligation assumed.

Let P = the amount of debt.

R = the amount of $1 at rate r, for 1 year.
n = time.

Then if the debt and its accumulated interest are to be

balanced by the annuity and its accumulations,

PR n (the debt and compound interest for n years)

9 (R
J_v
n — 1)L
= (the annuity 5, and its accumulation at the
R— 1

same rate). Solving this equation for S,

«
n
PR—* (R
- 1)'-
o =
R - 1
n w
,
(a),
150 Algebra.

By the use of logarithms n may be found from (a) if S

is given or vice versa.

Example. What annuity will satisfy a debt of $4600

in ten years, money being worth 5 per cent?

(a) becomes, 5 - 46°° W"

)»-i
(i.o 5
^- *3° (*°5)
(i.o 5 ) 10 -i
10

log (1.05) 10 = .021189 x 10 = .211890

log 230 == 2.361728
log 230 (1.05) 10 - 2.573618
(1.05)
10
= anti log .211890 = 1.6289
(1.05)
10
- 1 = 1.62S9 - = 1 .6289
2 -573 6l 8
log
° S = G 230(1.
log u v o;)
J
,n
+ colog
D .62897
- |
( .2OI4IO
^•775°3 6
•'•
5 - $595-7 z -

EXERCISE XXIX.

Interest and Annuities.

1. Find what $i would amount to at 6 per cent,

compounded annually in 20 years.
2. What sum will in S years at 5 per cent com-
pounded annually, amount to Si 32 7.67 ?

3. A certain principal will in 7 years at a certain rate,

simple interest, amount to $1136, and in 10 years to
$1280. Find principal and rate.
4. In what time will $960 at 6 per cent, annually com-

pounded, amount to $1 190.48 ?

5. Find the difference between the amount of $1200
when compounded annually at 6 per cent and when com-
pounded quarterly at same rate, in ten years.
 Interest and Annuities. 151

6. Find the present worth of $7500, due in 6 years, if

money is worth 5 per cent compounded annually. That
is, find the principal that will amount to $7500 in 6 years,
at 5 per cent compound interest.

7. A church borrows $1000, and renews its note every

six months at an increase of 10 per cent. How long will

it take the note to reach $4594.97 ?

8. How long will it take asum of money to double

itself at 5-i- per cent compound interest, compounded
annually ?

9. An institution borrows $10,000. What amount

must it set aside yearly to pay the debt in 15 years, money
being worth 5 per cent ?

What annual premium must an insurance company

10.
charge that it may pay a policy holder $ 1000 at the end
of 15 years, and still make $200, if money is worth 5 per
cent ?
PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

iS3
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
PART I.

THE RELATION BETWEEN ANGLE AND LINE.

Article i. Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics

which is concerned with the estimation of lengths, areas,
and volumes, by using the relation between angle and line
as well as that between line and line.
Geometry affords no general relation between angles
and lines it offers no method of comparison between an
;

angle expressed in degrees and a line expressed in feet

or inches trigonometry, however, enables us to make
;

such comparisons.
Suppose, for instance, we wished to measure the dis-

PE^

tance from a point A an inaccessible object P; further,

to
imagine a wood W B would be the first
so situated that
point to the right of A from which an unobstructed view
of P could be obtained. Now, we might lay off a known
length AB (called a base line) and with a transit, measure
the angles BAP and ABP we could then calculate the
;

i55
i
56
Plane Trigonometry.

angle APB Now by geometry we could obtain no in-

a

formation from these data regarding the length of AP,

but trigonometry enables us to involve the known angles
and side AB in calculation, so that AP can be determined
in linear units.
Art. 2. The necessity of being able to combine in
calculations, angles expressed in degrees, minutes, and
seconds, with lines expressed in linear units, led to the
invention of six new expressions called junctions of anj
In general, one quantity is said to be a junction oj another
when U depends upon it for its value ; now the six trigono-
metrical functions are usually expressed as ratios between
the sides of a right triangle, in which the angle concerned
occurs, and although they are entirely linear, depend
directly upon the angle for their values.
Being linear, they readily combine with the sides, and
depending as they do upon the angle for their value, the
latter becomes a useful element in calculation.

Trigonometric Ratios.

Art. 3. We will now take an angle KM II (see Fig. 2)

Fig. 2.

having the special size 32 15'; upon one of the sides MH

take a point P PN
perpendicular to MK. We
and draw
thus obtain a right-angled triangle with the right PNM,
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 157

angle at N. To find the ratio of NP to MP we may

proceed as follows : taking any unit of length, say ^=
inch, we find by careful measurement, NP = 56.5, MP
106 hence the ratio = JL_J> = 0.5330.
MP
;

106

Constructing in like manner any other perpendicular

N'P' and taking the millimeter, suppose, as our linear
N'P' =
unit, we find N'P' = 30.7$ andlfP' = 57.7 ; hence

O.5326.

We know from geometry that

NP = —X'P' now our
8 ;
;
MP MP'
actual measurements agree very approximately, and the
mean of the results gives 0.5328. It is possible mathe-
matically to calculate the ratio of the side opposite to the
hypotenuse for a given angle to any degree of accuracy ;

for the special case of 32 15' we find

length of opposite side

= 0.5336,
length of hypotenuse

a quantity to which our rough measurements approximate,

and which is independent of the unit of linear measure-

ment. This quantity is called the sine of 32 15'.

Now taking the angle SMK
which is 21 50' and draw-

ing any two perpendiculars NT and N'T', we obtain in

terms of ^ inches, NT = 27.5, and MN = 74.0, giving
i
5 8 Plane Trigonometry.

NT _2 7 .
5 _
= 0.3716 again in millimeters, N'T'=> 19.75,
MN 74.0
;

N'T' _i97S
and MN' = 5 3 25 giving mi = 0.3710. The
MN
.
,
9
53.25
mean of these results is 0.3713, and the accurate value cal-
n. , . . side opposite TT
,
culated to five places
,
is "- = 0.37191. Hence
hypotenuse
we say = 0.37191. It is easy to see
the sine of 21 50'
that the sine, although constant in value for any given
angle, dependent directly upon its size hence we say
is ;

the sine of an angle is a junction of it.

Art. 4. The six trigonometric functions are as fol-
lows: —
a right triangle being constructed with MNR
Z_M as one acute angle.
The sine of .1/ is the ratio of the opposite side to the

hypotenuse, or
RN
y*
MN
The cosine of M is the ratio of the adjacent side to the

^
hypotenuse, or
MN
.

The tangent of N is the ratio of the opposite side to

the adjacent side, or •

J
MR
The cotangent of M is the ratio of the adjacent side to

^
the opposite side, or
RN
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 159

The secant of M the ratio of

is the hypotenuse to the
,. .
adjacent side,
.,
or
MN .

MR
The cosecant of M is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the

opposite
F side, or .

RN
In the right triangle MNR the capital letters repre-
sent angles and the corresponding small letters represent
the opposite sides, R being the right angle.

Write sine M of ... sin M<

cosine M of . . . cos M.
tangent of M . . . tan M.
cotangent of M . . . cot if.
secant of M . . . sec M.
cosecant of M . . . esc M.
Then
sin M =~ r
(a), cot M-—
m
(d).

cosif=- (b). secilf = - (e).

r n
tanjf =— (c). esc if = —(/).

Art. 5. It will be observed by comparing (a) with

(/), (b) with (e), and (c) with (d), that esc If = ,

sec M =
cos M , and cot N = tan M ; hence if the three

functions, sine, cosine, and tangent, are known, the others

may be easily found by taking the reciprocals of these.
The functions most commonly used are the sine, cosine,
tangent, and cotangent.
Art. 6. By producing
the two sides including the
angle M }
and drawing perpendiculars from various points
i6o Plane Trigonometry

of NM produced, NR produced, to it is evident, by simi-

lar triangles, remains the same, the
that so long as M
ratios do not change, although both terms of any ratio

alter in value; thus, Produce MN to O and MR to P\

draw perpendiculars to MP from MO. Then sin M =
-^in
AfiV
triangle Jf NR j
sine J/ - —
ML
in MKL %
and

OP .VA' A OP
meJf-^ .

mJfOP,but j; y
-
A"

|/y/
.

^bysimi-
lar triangles.
On the other hand, if M changes, the ratios change.
For, let .1/ increase, and suppose the hypotenuse to re-
main the same, then the side opposite increases, and
hence the ratio of opposite side to hypotenuse increases,
etc.
When the angle .1/ is zero, since the side decre;i M
with the angle, and ultimately vanishes, the sine of zero

degrees takes the form — = — = o. In the case of the

r r

tangent we have — = o. Thus we find sin o° = o, tan o°

;/

= o. We further note that, with a decreasing angle, the

hypotenuse r becomes more and more nearly equal to ;/
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 161

and when the angle M is finally zero, r = w, and hence

the cosine and secant each become — = i. In the case
n
of the cotangent and cosecant, since it is the side m that
now decreases as the angle becomes less, when M van-
ishes we have for these functions the ratios each — and — ,

o o
of which equals infinity. We thus obtain the values sin o°
= o, cos o° = i, tan o° = o, cot o° = cc sec o° = i, ,

cosec o°= oo By a similar process

. of reasoning we find
sin 90 = i, cos 90 = o, ran 90 = oc , cot 90 = o, sec
90 = 00, cosec 90 = 1.
A comparison of the results, which are of considerable
importance and should be carefully noted, shows that the
values of the sine and cosine of an angle from zero to 90°
cannot be greater than unity, while the values of the other
functions vary between zero to infinity.
Art. 7. Since 6o° and 45 are angles of equilateral
or isosceles triangles, geometry enables us to find their
functions very easily, and also those of 30 which is half ,

the angle of an equilateral triangle.

To Find the Functions of 45 .

Art. 8. Let xyz be any

isosceles right triangle, y being
the right angle. Then /_x = /_z
= 45and as the sides xy and
,

yz can be of any length, we

will put

xy = yz = a.
2
Now xz*
n
= xy + 2 ,

yz .

r
xz a 2
+ a 1
= 2 o

and XZ = flV2.
l62 Plane Trigonometry.

TKus we get;

sin 4s° — flV2

a

a
7=- - -r
V2
l

l
2

cos 45° - —J- - ~r

J V2 V2 2

a
tan 45 -----
a
1

1
*

cot 45 -----
a
a
1

1
1

a \ 2 \ 2
sec 45 - H \/J
a 1

cosec45° =
a V2 = \ 2
= x/T.

It will be noticed that

V~2
sin 45 - cos 45 = '
O.707I -f

tan 45 = cot 45 = 1

sec 45 — cos 45 =• V2 = 1.4142 -f

To Find the Functions of 6o° and 30 .

Art. 9. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle. Draw

the perpendicular BD from B to AC; then Z.BAD

- 6o° and Z.ABD = 30 also Z.ADB = 90 , .
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 163

Now AD = \ AB ; let x be the length of AB, then

AD = -5
2
2 2 2
and since DB + AD = AB
we get Z/B + ( — ) = x2 .

£>£ 2 = x2 -- = ^x 2

and BD = ^- x.

^3 x
Hence = = — 6o°= —= — 2_
sin 6o°
x 2
cot
^33 -

cos 6o°= i-^ = J sec 6o° = 2

— 2.3C —
tan 6o° - — = VJ cos 6o°= -1= = ^-3-
* V3 3

If we now note that DB is the side adjacent to the

angle ABD = 30 and AD the side opposite to it, we
further obtain

sin 30°= ^x = - 2
cot 30 = \/ 3

cos 30 = 2
= VT^~ sec 30°= 2^ =2

# 2 3

tin "n° 2 ^ _ T

^3 x V3 3
 1

1
64 Plane Trigonometry,

Comparing the above two sets of values, we find,

sin 6o° = cos 30 = —2

«- = 0.8660

cos 6o° = sin 30 = — = 0.5000

2

tan 6o° = cot 30 = V3 = 1.732

cot 6o° = tan 30 = —

\'7
«- - °-5774
3
sec 6o° = cos 30 = 2 = 2.0000

cos 60 = sec 30 = ° — 1. 1547

3

A simple reference to the figure has shown that the func-

tions of 6o° are the co-functions of 30°, and conversely;
this would clearly be true for any right triangle and any
acute angles.
Since the latter are complementary, the significance of
the prefix " Co " is revealed. It is simply an abbreviation

for complementary. That is, a function of any angle is the

corresponding co-function of its com plcmoitary angle, and
conversely.
Since angles of 45 °, 30 ,
and 6o° are of frequent occur-

Fig. 6a. Fig. 7a.

rence, the functions of these angles are important. It

will be found easy to recall the numerical results of Arti-
cles 8 and 9 if we assign special values to the sides of the
triangles in Figs. 6 and 7 this we are at liberty to do,
;
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 165

as the values of the functions are independent of the unit

of length chosen. In Article 8, putting a = 1 we have
xz = V2 ; again, in Article 9, if x «=- 2, AD = i, and Z2D
= V3. We thus get Figs. 6a and 7a, from which it is
easy to obtain the numerical value of any function of 45 °,
30 or 6o° when required for instance, a glance at Fig.
, ;

ja shows that sin 60 = — 2_ |

s in 30 = — , etc.
2 2

The functions of angles in general cannot be found

thus simply by geometry, but are estimated from series,
into which the six functions have been developed by
methods of higher mathematical analysis. These values
and their logarithms are set down in tables, which record
them to single minutes, and sometimes to smaller parts of
a degree. By a method called interpolation, explained in
connection with these tables, the functions of any angle,
or the logarithms of these functions, may be found.
Art. 10. As already explained, the six functions can
be grouped into three pairs of reciprocals (see § 5)
thus in the triangle ABC,
esc A sin ^l=i}
sec A cos A = 1 r( l )
tan A cot A = 1 )

The question now How

can we find further rela-
arises,
tionships among We have a right-angled
the functions ?

triangle to work upon, and have already used the comple-

mentary property of the acute angles to discover that the
functions of the one are the co-functions of the other.
Now what further property of the right triangle remains
to be investigated ? Can we obtain new relations among
the functions from the equation a 2 4- b 2 = c 2 ? Clearly we
can by division that is, if we take each term separately
;

and divide by it we shall obtain three new equations in-

volving the squares of the functions.
1 66 Plane Trigo?iometry.

Taking
a2 + b
2
= c
2
a2 + b
2
= c
2
a
2
+ b
2
= c
2

2 2
Dividing by c Dividing by b Dividing by a 2
a2 b
2
c* c
2
,

2+1 =
2 2 9
b b a2 a"

;-Hr)
sin 2 ,4 +
!

cos 2 A = i
=-
tan 2
®*-® A+ i = sec J .1 i
-(-K-y
+ A = cot 2 CS
We thus obtain
2
(2) sin
2
A + cos 2 .l = i; sin ^1 = Vi - cos .1 ; cos A
= Vi — sin" A
(3) sec
2
A= 1 4- tan a .1 ;
sec A — y/i + tan .1 ; tan .1

= V'sec 2 .4 - 1

(4) cosecM = 1 + cnt-.l : COSec .1 = \ 1 4- cot 2 .i ; cot .1

= \ CS? .1-1
It will be noticed that since sin A — — and cos A = — .*.

c c

-™A
S
_£. L_* = tan .1.
cos .1 c b b

We thus find two important relations .

tan .1
t
= sin
-
.1
and
, -j
cot A =
cos ,4
.

cos A sin A

EXERCISE I.

Functions as Ratios.

With the usual notation, large letters representing the

angles of a right triangle, and the corresponding small
letters the sides opposite, find the functions of B, A being
the right angle, when,
1. a = 17, b = 8, c = 15.
2. a = 15, b = 9, c = 12.

3. a = 12, b = 10, c = 7— .

2
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 167

4 - = 35-7> ^ = 3 I -5> * - l6 8 - -

5 - a - 5.55, 6 - 4-44, f = 3-33-

6. a = 17.85, 6 - 8.4, c = 15.75.
7. a = 25.8, 6 = 15.48.
8. b = 158. 1, c = 74-4-
9. a = 61, b = 11.
10. a = 1. c - f.
11. <: = 2 J.

12. c + 6 - if a.
13. a- c = hb.

Find the other sides of the right triangle, if,

14. sin 5 = 4
T T and a = 22.
15. cos 5 = § and c — 6
16. tan = £i and a = 61.
23

17. sec C = I and & = 9.6.

18. Two straight roads make an
angle of 40 a man ;

walks down one road \\ miles, and then crosses over to

the second road in a straight line, meeting it at right
angles. How far from the starting point will he be in a
direct line, if sin 40 ° = .6428 ?

19. The grade of a railroad track is about io%, that is,

itmakes an angle of 6° with the horizontal. What weight
can a locomotive pull up the grade, if it can haul 500 tons
on the level? sin 6° = .105.

Find the other functions, if,

20. sin x = f.
21. sin 50 = .766.
22. tan 45 = 1.
23. sin 90°= 1.
24. cot 6o° = £ V3.

25. sec 30 = —2=- •

^3
 .

1 68 Plane Trigonometry.

Find the angle A given , ;

26. sin A = cos 2 .1.

Solution. To compare the two sides of this equation,

it isnecessary to express both in the same function, and
since sinA = cos (90 — A) [or cos 2 A = sin (90 — 2 . 1
J,

cos (90 — A) = cos 2 A [or sin .1 = sin (90 - 2 A)].

If the same function of two angles are equal, the an
themselves must be equal, supposing them both in the
same quadrant.

•% 90 —A — 2 A, whence A = 30

27. tan £ - cot (45 - | B .

28. sin 3 8 = cos (2 .v - 270).

29. sec (2 x - 30°) = esc (180 - a).

30. cos - = sin (60+ -]

4 \ 4/

Identities

Art. 11. It will be remembered that an identity differs

from an equation in that the two terms are equal for all
values of the unknown quantity, hence the two terms are
exactly the same in value, but differ merely in form. In
other words, the same relation is expressed in two different
ways. For example, the words "air" and "atmos-
phere " are two different ways of expressing the same idea.

Likewise, tan x = •

cos x
It is often required for convenience or for simplicity to
change the form of a trigonometric expression, and the
fundamental relations already found, namely, sin 2 a:+ O
sin x
= 1, tan x = ; tan x . cot x = 1, sin a; . esc x = 1.
cos x
cos x . sec x- I, make it readily possible to do this.
 The Relation Between Angle and Line. 169

Example. Prove that esc 2 A (1 - sin 2 A) = cot 2 A.

Since 1 — sin 2 A = cos 2 A and esc A = —

sin A
.-. csc 2 A (1 - sin 2 A) = ——
cos
sin 2
—A =
A
cot 2 A.

As
a general rule, it is advisable to reduce all the terms
of an identity to their simplest terms and to perform the
indicated operations in order to show the equality.

EXERCISE II.

Identities.

Prove the following identities :

1. tan x sin x + cos x = sec x.

2. sin A esc A tan A = tan A.
3. sec 2 m esc 2 m sin m 4
4- 1 — sec 2 m.
4. 3 sin x—
+ 3 cot jc cos # sin # = 1.
2
2

c
5. ——
1 # cos x = 1
2 sin
(sec x - esc xy
:
2 v

cos 2 # sin 2 x
6. sin 4 x — cos 4 x + 2 cos 2 # = 1.
- cos 2 y
7. ^— = 1 + ,
.

siny.
1 — sin y
a
8.
cos
sin
A
A
tan 2
—A = cot A.
. A

Sill X
9. cos 2 x (sec x -f 1) H = 2 cos x.
sec #4-1
-^ cos n cot —
?z sin n tan w =
10. 1 + sin n cos n
esc w — sec n

Trigonometric Equations.
Art. 12.

Example. Sec x + tan x = V3" . (1) Find x.

In order to solve this equation, since it involves the

two unknowns, sec x and tan x, it is clearly necessary to
i yo Plane Trigonometry,

have another independent equation involving the same

unknowns. We can always find at least one equation
between any two functions among the relations already
established between the functions. In this case we have,

tan 2 x + I — sec 2 v,
or sec 2 x — tan 2 .v = 1 (2)

Dividing (2) by (1); sec % - tan % = —= 1

(3)
N 3

Adding (1) to (3) ;

X '
tan x - \ 3

2 sec a- \ 3 - J v7^ + \ 3 - j \ 3

/. SCC .V j \ 3
whence .v - 30 .

Another method which can be frequently used, is to

express all the trigonometric quantities involved in the
equation in terms of the same function of the unknown
angle; this method often results in a quadratic equation
which can be solved in the usual manner.

Suppose we have 2 \ 1 sin- A •

sec .1=3
then 2 cos .1 = 3
cos .1

2 cos 2 ,1 + 1=3 cos A

2 cos 2 A — 3 cos A + I =» o
(2 cos .1 — 1) (cos .1 — 1) = o
2 cos A — 1 = o also, cos A — I =» o
.*. cos . 1 = i and cos .! = 1

The angle whose cosine is ^ is 6o° ; the latter result

where the cosine is 1 gives an angle o°. Hence we have
two answers, namely, 6o° and o°.
 The Relation Betwee?i Angle and Line. 171

EXERCISE III.

Trigonometric Equations.

Find the angle in the following equations

1. esc x = § tan x.
2. tan A + cot A = 2.
3. sec 2 # + esc 2 x = 4.
4. sin y + esc y = — f
5. 3 sin .4 = 2 cos 2 .1.

6. sin
2
x = 2 — 3 cos2 #•

7. cot X + sin a' = -

—
4 sin
r
#
•

8. sin 2 x 4- sin 2 a; tan 2 x = 1.

 PART II.

SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES.

The Right-Angled Triangle.

Art. 13. The process by which the unknown numeri-

cal values of the parts of a triangle arc computed from
theknown parts is called solving the triangle.
By the use of the six trigonometric functions, any right
r triangle may be completely solved when
two of its parts, one of which is a side,
are known.
Given a right triangle MNR, right-
angled at .V. Also ZM •

3
20" and n - 21.67 feet. j. Required Z.R
lg '
'
and the sides ;• and ;;/.

I. To find A\

V Zir-f-Z/v = 9 o°. .-. Z/v = 9o°-Za/=54° 23' 40".

II. To find r, having given M and ;/.

Here it is necessary to use a formula which includes

M, ;/, and r ; since n is the hypotenuse and r the side
adjacent to M \ the cosine of M is suggested.

Now cos .1/ = — whence

;/
, r = cos Mx ;/.

.*. log r = log n + log cos M = log 21.674 -f log cos

35° 35' 20"
log 21.674 = 1.33594
log cos 35 36' 20" = 9.9101 1 — 10
log r = 11.24605 — 10
= 1.24605
r = 17.622 feet.
 Solution of Triangles. 173

III. To find m.
It is clear that M, n, and m must occur in the formula
selected ; since n is the hypotenuse and m is the side
opposite M, the sine of M is suggested.

sin M = —, whence
u
m = n sin M.

.'. log m = log n -f log sin M= log 21.674 -f log sin

35° 36' 20"
log 21.674 = 1.33594
log s in 35° 3 6 ' 2q// - 9-7 6 5°7 - IQ
Add, log m = 1. 1 010
.-. m = 12.619 ^ ee ^-

Given a right triangle .4£C, right-angled at B. Also

Z^4 = 63 12' 25" and a = 112.34 feet. Required AC
and the sides b and £.

I.To find ZC
AC - 90 - (63 12' 25-) - 26 47' 35*

II. To find b.

It is necessary to choose a function

containing the given parts, A and a, and
the required part, Since 6 is the hypot-
b.

enuse and a is the side opposite to A, the

sine is suggested hence, ;

Fig. 9.

sin A = — whence , 6 = and

b sin .4

log b = log a + colog sin A = log 112.34 + colog. sin

6 3 ° 12' 25"
log 112.34 = 2.05053
colog sin 63 — i2
r
— 25" = 0.04932
log b = 2.09985
b = 125.85 feet.
174 Plane Trigonometry.

III. To find c<

Here A and a are concerned, which suggests the tangent

or cotangent. We may use either tan .1 = —or cot A =-.

c a
Since c is required, the latter is preferable ,

whence, c = a cot A.

log c = log a + log cot A = log 112.34 4- log cot

63 ° 12' 25",

log 112.34 = 2.05053

log cot 63 i:' 25" = 9.70328 - 10

c = 56.730 feet.

The Isosceles Triangle.

Art. 14. Since a perpendicular from the vertex of an

isosceles triangle bisects the base, the solution of an
celes triangle easily resolves itself into
that of a right triangle. Let MNP be
an isosceles triangle in which MX =
PN. Drop the perpendicular XR ;
then
in the right triangle MNR, Z.MNR
= i ZA\ and MR
- ) MP\ hence if
any two of the unequal parts, one of which
is a side, be given, the unknown parts may be found.

For example, suppose we have = a* = = MX XP

62.23
1
" and = AX
102 34' 12", to find = n and MP
Z_M = Z.P.
Since Z.MXR = jZAf, Z.MXR = 51 17' 06".

I. To find Z J/.
M = 90 - (51 - 17' ~ 06") = 3 Z° - 42'- 54".
 Solution of Triangles. 175

II. To find MR.

MR = \ MP = \ n\ here x,\N and \ n are involved,
,
hence
.

sin
.

2x2
—1

•'•
N
,r

l°g
- n or
= \ —
(i
1
—n = x
w ) = log x + log
-A
—
sin
2
7
.

sin \ N
log 62.231 = 1. 79401
log sin 51 17' =06 9.89224 — 10
lo g (h *) = 1.68625
\n = 4S.557
n = 97.114.

Solution of Regular Polygons .

Art. 15. may be divided into

Since a regular polygon
isosceles triangles from its center to its several
by lines
vertices, its solution depends directly upon that of the
isosceles triangle, and, therefore, ultimately upon the
solution of a right triangle. For example :

Let ABCDE be a regular pen-

tagon from its center O draw
;

OA, OB, OC, OD, and OE, to

the vertices, thus dividing it

into five isosceles triangles. A

solution of one of these triangles
will lead to a solution of all,

and hence to a solution of the

Fig. 11.
polygon.
By geometry the sum of the angles at the center of the
pentagon = 360 and since the five angles there formed
,

are all equal, each one, say AOB, is equal to } of 360 =

7 In general, if the number of sides of a polygon be
.

n, then each central angle will be , or one half of each

i8o c
central angle will be
n
I j6 Plane Trigonometry.

Drop a perpendicular OF from O to AB, then

ZAOF--±^-^ = 36°.

In general, calling the apothem of a polygon /<, and

one side of the polygon as AB, %\ then if the number of
sides is represented by //, and the radius 0.1 by r, we have

sin
180
n
= —
*J
r
x
, whence
,
r = — \ X
180
sin
n
[8o°
and __ x = r s j n
2

\X
a
Again,
•

tan
1S0
n
- -»
—
h
,
,
whence // =
1S0
tan
t

M
1S0 180
. .
,
// — x COt
1 .
- - and —a* -
, t .

// tan ,

2 n 2 n

In the pentagon ABCDE let . 1 B 9.7232 inches = x.

lSo
So -°
Then Zi- .lO/i - Z ,!(>/• - 36 .

5
I. To find r.

Here 36 , .V a* and t\ are involved in the right triangle

AOF. Since r is the hypotenuse and £ a" the side oppo-
site the angle 36 , we have,

sin 36°= i-^ , whence r = -A-^— .

r sin 36
.\ log r = log \ x + colog sin 36 = log 4.8616
+
colog sin 36
log 4.8616 = 0.68678
colog sin 36 = 0.23078
logr = 0.91756
.-, r = 8.271 inches.
 Solution of Triangles. 177

To find the perimeter

We had sin 36 = & r

.'. \ x = sin 36 r
log sin 36 = 9.76922
log r = 9 I 75 6
log \ x =- 0.68678
log 10 = 1. 00000
1.68678

.\ perimeter = 48.618 inches.

Since the perimeter = $ x = 10 (^ x) = p (suppose)

.-. log p = log 10 + log \ x.
To find h :

36 ,
1 x and h are involved ; now tan 36 = 2_x 01
h
cot 36°= —x h
, whence It = \ x cot 36 ;
.-. log h = log hx
i
+ log cot 36 = log 4.8616 + log cot 36 .

log 4.8616 = 0.68678

log cot 36 = 0.13874
log//, = .82552
= 6.6915.
//

Areas.

Art. 16. To find the area of a

triangle.
In the triangle ABC, call the base
b, and the altitude h ; then by geom-
etry,

area ABC = ^b X h. (1)

This formula applies when base and altitude are given.

Again, in the right triangle ABD, sin Z.A = — (small

178 Plane Trigonometry,

letters represent the sides opposite the angles indicated

by large letters), whence h = c s'm A. Substituting this
value of h in (1), we get

area ABC = A be sin A. (2a)

This formula applies when two sides and the included

angle are given. It is evident, by drawing perpendiculars

successively from the other vertices .1 and C\ we obtain,

area ABC \ ac sin B (26)

and area ABC \ ob sin (
'. (2c)

Again, m ABD, cot .1 — h

, and in BDC,cotC - — h

.'. cot a
.1 \
cot. C =
,< AD -- DC = b—
// h

whence // = . Substituting; this value of

cot .1 cot C
h in (1), we get,

h'
area ABC - - }j
- . (xa)
cot A + cot C

By drawing the altitude from A and C successively, it

easily follows that,

area ABC = ^— (36)

cot B + cot C
and area ABC = a . (ic)
cot .1 + cot B

This formula applies when two angles and the included

side are given.
 Solution of Triangles. l
79

The above formulae (3 a) , (3 b) and (3 c) will be found

later to reduce to the forms

area ABC = —b

2 sin
2
sin ^4 sin
:

(A + C)
C = a
2
2
sin
:

sin
—5 ;

(B
sin

+ C)
C

c
2
sin yl sin B
2 sin (4 + B)

Example. Find the area of the triangle ABC, if

Z.B = 32 i6 Z_C = 25 39' and a = 23.27 inches.

r
;

<r
Here area ABC =
cot B + cot C
2
jr (
2 3- 2 7)

+ cot (2 5 °3 9
cot( 3 2° 16') /
)
i6 = 1.5839
r
cot 32
cot 25 39 = 2.0825
r

cot B + cot C = 3.6664

log area ABC = colog 2 + 2 log 23.27 + colog 3.6664

= 9.69897 — 10
colog 2

2 = 2.73360
log 23.27
colog 3.6664 = 9-4357 6 - IO
log area = 21.86833 — 20
= 1.86833
area = 73.847 sq. in.

It is evident, provided we have the necessary known

parts, that the area of an isosceles triangle may always be
found from formula 1, since the altitude and base may be
calculated, if not given (see Art. 16).

Area of the Regular Polygon.

Art. 17. Since the regular polygon may always be

divided into as many isosceles triangles as it has sides,
by drawing radii to its vertices, its area is readily found
i8o Plane Trigonometry.

from previous formulae. Calling the perimeter, p one ;

side, c and its apothem, h

;
then by geometry, area of ;

polygon = \ph, and p — nc, where n is the number of

sides ; also the angle of each isosceles triangle at the

center equals ^ or the half angle = .

n n
With these data p and // can
be calculated from the given
parts.
Example. To find the area
of a regular hexagon, ABCFGH t

given p - 74.1 i(>". Draw the

perpendicular DE in the triangle
BDC {D being the center).

Z.BDE o
3°. and 1
c = ^—
74. 16
6
1

—= 12.353.

In the triangle BDE t

COt BDE - —
DP
BE
: .\ D£ A7C cot

BDE. NowDJE - // and BJ5 - .1 c. .\ // - | c cot BZMZ

= ^c cot 30 log . // = log I
c -f log cut 30 = log 6.1 76 -f

log cot 30 .

log 6.176 = 0.79071

log cot 30 = 0.238 56
lug // = 1.02927
// = 10.697

Area = hhp, whence log area = colog 2 4- log 10.697

+ log 74.1 16,

COlog 2 = 9.69897 — IO
log 10.697 = 1.02927
log 74.116 = 1.86992
log area = 2.59816
area = 396.43 sq. in.
 Solution of Triangles. 1 8

It is also possible to find the parts of a regular polygon

having a given area, since the central angles can always
be obtained if the number of sides is known.
Example. Find the perimeter of a regular decagon
whose area is 336.72 sq. ft.

Since area = \ hp and p = 10 c

i hp = 33 6 -7 2 or 5 he = 33 6 -7 2 (0
1
c
Calling the central angles each C, then tan \ C= ---. •

.*. h = —-—— 1
c
Substituting this value of h in (1),
tan \C
area = A = 5 c
—*1
c
. .*. # c
2
= 336.72 tan I C, hence
C
c
2
= 134.688 tan 1
tan \

C= 134.688 tan 18 f since 1 C=

—
= 18 j; whence 2 log c = log 134.688 + log tan 18 .

log 134.688 - 2.12933

log tan 18 = 9.51178 - 10
2 log c = 1. 641 1

log c = .82056
c = 6.6154

To find h.

h = I c cot \ C = i (6.6154) cot 18

log h = colog 2 + log 6.6154 4- log cot 18

colog 2 = 9.69897 — 10
log 6.6154 = 0.82056
log cot 18 = 0.48822
log h = 11.00775 — 10
log A = 1.00775
h = 10.18
 :

1 82 Plane Trigonometry.

EXERCISE IV.

Right Triangle.

Solve the right triangle (right-angled at C), given

1. a - 2.3756, b = 6.1023.
2. A = 29 13' 23", 6= 27.132.
3- B = 57 19' 3**1 * = 112.67.
4. fc = .02567, a = .06211.
6. a - 3-6378. 4 - *9° 23
r
45"

6. The shadow of a steeple 102 ft. high is 116 ft. long.

Find the elevation of the sun above the horizon.
7. The guy-ropes of a derrick are 76 ft. long, and
make an angle of 43 25' with the ground. What is the
height of the derrick, and how far from its foot are the
guy-ropes anchored ?

8. The elevation of a tower is 18 12' 16" at a dis-

tance of 500 ft. What is the height ?

9. From a point A t
immediately opposite a stake B,
on the opposite bank of a river, a distance of 83.25 yards
is measured to Cat right angles to AB and the angle t

ACB is found to be 62 19' 8". What is the breadth

of the river ?

10. the top of a lighthouse 98 ft. high, how far

From
is it most remote visible point at sea, regarding the
to the
earth as a sphere 7918 miles in diameter?
11. What is the angle of an inclined plane which rises
1 ft. in 55 ft., measured horizontally?

12. What must be the slope of a roof for a garret

42 ft. wide, that the ridge may be 16 ft. above the garret
floor ?

In a circle of 6.275 in. radius, what angle at the

13.
center will be subtended by a chord 10 inches long?
 Solution of Triangles. 183

14. The angle between two lines is 44 32' 10". At

what distance from the point of intersection will lie the
center of a circle of 6235.2 ft. in diameter, tangent to
both lines ?

15. The diameters of two wheels, one on a shaft, the

other on a machine, are 28 inches and 21 inches respec-
tively, and their centers are 20 ft. apart. What length of
belt is necessary for them ?

16. Find the perimeter of an equilateral triangle cir-

cumscribed about a circle whose radius is 13 inches.
17. In the 15th example, what change would be neces-
sary in gear wheel and belt to double the speed of the
machine ?
18. What is the length of i° on the circle of latitude
through Pittsburg, latitude 40 27', if the radius of the
oarth (regarded as a sphere) is 3959 miles ?

19. From the top of a hill the angles of depression of

two stakes, set in straight line with the hill, 1200 yards
apart, are observed to be 18 and 8° respectively. What
is the height of the hill ?

20. Two roads are non-parallel. From a certain point

on one of them the angles between the perpendicular to
the other road and lines joining the point with two suc-
cessive milestones on the other, are respectively 6° 30'
and 12 15'. What is the distance between the roads
from the point, on a perpendicular, to the second road ?
21. Calling 5 the area of a right triangle,
A =- 31 20' 27", c = 211.89. FindS.
22. c = 12. 117, a = 9.208. Find 5.
23. 5 = 134.263, B = 33 12'. Find other parts of
triangle.
24. S = 32.73, c = 35.86. Find other parts of tri-

angle.
25 a = \ZJ, b = V'3 . Find other parts of triangle.
 :

184 Pla?ie Trigonometry,

26. How many square feet

in the section of a sewer (see
figure) whose dimensions are
as follows:

AB = BC = FC = CD =
DE= 6';EL - All = 3,15;
K GL = GK = Gil - 3' ?

Fig. 13a.

27. A railway is 10' from the curb on two streets inter-

secting at an angle of 120 ; its curve at the corner is

4/from that corner at the nearest point. The radii at the

ends of the curve are _L to the curb. What is the radius
of the curve ?

EXERCISE V.

Regular Polygons.
Call the perimeter,/; apothem, h side, c\ radius, r; ;

number of sides, n. Solve completely the regular poly-

gons following
1. n = 8, c = 2.7284.
2. n « 11, // = 9.2706.
3. c = 16.208, Find //.h = 24.941.
4. S= 224.92, Find /. h - S.562.
5. S=
196.22, 6.768. Find r. // -

6. The areas of a hexagon and an octagon are both

302.64 sq. ft. Find the difference between their pen-
meters.
7. How many hexagonal tiles, 3 in. on a side, will it

take to pave a hallway containing 225 sq. ft. ?

8. The corners of a board 2 ft. square are cut away,

leaving a regular octagon. What is the area of the octagon ?

9. A pentagonal fort is to have a diagonal of 500 ft.
What will be the length of wall necessary to inclose it ?
10. How many cu. ft. in the walls of a chimney in the
form of an octagonal prism, if the apothem of a section is
i', the thickness of the wall 4", and the height 40' ?
 PART III.

FURTHER RELATIONS BETWEEN ANGLE AND LINE.

Article 18. In Part I we have already discussed cer-

tain relations between the trigonometric functions. We
will now extend our investigations in this direction. It is
customary to give the name goniometry to this branch of
trigonometric analysis.
In Trigonometry the same rules govern the direction of
which are already familiar to the student, through
lines,
the graphical representation of equations in Algebra.
There are, however, some further conventions which we
will now explain.
Definition : A directed line is one having a definite direc-
tion by which it is distinguished.
A line AB
understood as directed, and therefore
is

measured from towards B, while by BA we mean a line

A
taken in the contrary direction, hence AB = — BA.
We refer all points in the plane to two lines at right
angles : the first, CA, is horizontal and is called the
Abscissa or X-axis ; the second, DB, is vertical and called
the ordinate or F-axis ; these cut at a point O, known as
the Origin.

Lines measured in the direction OA are positive.

" " " " OB " positive.
" " " " OC " negative.
" " " " OD " negative.

An angle is conceived as generated by a line revolving

from its initial position OA, which coincides with the X-
185
i86 Plane Trigonometry.

axis (Fig. 14), and extends along it towards the right.

The revolution may take place either counter-clockwise or

clockwise : in the former case the angle (AOA', Fig. 14)
is said to be positive, in the latter (AOA", Fig. 14), nega-

c-*

tive. The revolving line when fixed, bounds or terminates

the angle, and therefore is often alluded to as the terminal
line.

The size of an angle is estimated from the horizontal

diameter to the right of O, either counter-clockwise
clockwise to the terminal line, and can therefore be of
any number of degrees up to pins or minus 360 in one ,

revolution, or may be made to contain as many positive

or negative degrees as desired by repeated rotation of
the revolving line.
When a line such as OA' occupies any position between
the X and Y axes we consider it as directed from O

towards A', and that lengths measured from the origin O

toward the extremity A r are positive, while those taken in
the opposite direction, as from O towards B', relatively to
OA', are negative. This is true for all positions of a
line between the A" and Y axes, and hence we note in
Fig. 14 that while OA" is positive, OC
being in the oppo-
',

site relative direction, is negative.

 Further Relations Between Angle and Line, 1 87

Heretofore only the functions of angles less than 90°

have been considered. The question now arises whether
the idea of the trigonometric functions can receive gen-
eral extension.
We have seen that by means of a revolving line an

Fig. 15.

angle of any size can be obtained. Let us consider the

functions of the angle XOA each of the figures 15, 16,
in

17, and 18. In every case the angle XOA is traced by

A^o

Fig. 17. Fig. 18.

the revolving line from the initial position, as shown by

the curved arrow, to a terminal position OA. We notice
that for angles greater than 90 we no longer, as hereto-
fore, have a side opposite instead, however, we have a
;

perpendicular drawn from the X-axis to the terminal line,

so that in each case considered we have a right-angled
formed by three directed lines
triangle BC y
OB, and OC a

Taking careful note of the directions of these lines, we

obtain the following:
 Plane Trigonometiy.

Angle XOA
between

Angle XOA
between

Sin XOA -

Cos.YO/1 =

Tan XOA -
0J5 ( -) 05 OB ( +)
Since the reciprocal of a trigonometric function has the
same sign as the function, we can easily obtain the
cotangents, secants, and cosecants, with their proper S

prefixed,from an inspection of the above table.

It should be noted that to each positive angle XOA
corresponds one negative angle of size 360 — X0A the y

trigonometric functions of which are exactly the same as

those of the positive angle.
Art. 19. Now as the function values do not depend
upon the unit chosen, we might select some convenient
length 0C> on the revolving line, as our unit.

We thus get, sin XOA = — = — = BC (Fig. 15).

OC 1

Again, cos XOA = %£

OC
= ^ = OB
1
(Fig. i S ).

In the remaining positions of OC we will always

have ± BC and ± OB representing the sines and cosines.
This suggests that we should draw a circle of unit
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 189

radius, with O as center, and endeavor, by suitable

geometrical construction, to express the remaining func-
tions as lengths, and not, as previously, by a ratio ; such

Fig. 19.

a procedure would tend toward simplicity. Extending

we will define the functions as certain
this conception,
lines determined by the angle involved in a circle of unit
radius, known as a unit circle.
Let DNMG be such a circle. With O as center, draw a
horizontal and a vertical diameter. These two diameters
divide the circle into four parts called quadrants, numbered
I, II, III, IV.
Suppose the radius stops in the position OC, then, since
OD was the initial position, and OC is now the terminal
line, the angle described is DOC. From C drop a per-
pendicular upon the horizontal diameter OD, call it BC,
and consider it as being directed from B towards C, or in a
positive direction.
At D draw a tangent DE let it cut the unit radius OC
;

produced in H. Also draw a tangent at N, and let NK

OC produced cut it at F. Then in the triangle OBC y

representing /_ BOC by x,

sin ^I±i =
, = +
5C =+5C
OC + ( ) 1

cos* = ^4±l=
OC + ) (
+ ^=
1
+ OS.
 1 9° Plane Trigonometry.

Again, in the right triangle OIID,

+y7ii
OZ?( + ) i

Now the two remaining functions, the cotangent and

cosecant, will both be positive, since they
are the recipro-
cals of the tangent and sine respectively.
In the triai
NOF, which is right-angled at A", we have - ZXFO ,
[

l A
hence, cot x -
A
7 '-
= NF
i

and cosec x - —
NO
- - O
i
-
hi)

We notice that all the signs of the functions in the first

quadrant are positive, and further, that the three
directed
lines BC, Oil I) II, give us by their
directions the si_
of the sine, cosine, and tangent, from which
tl the
remaining three functions, being the reciprocals of
the
can be determined.
If the angle is in the second, third, or
fourth quadrant,
a similar construction to the above will in
each case
enable us to express a function as a line of definite
length
and direction. Before, however, we endeavor to obtain
these results, it will be necessary to define in general
terms, and for any angle, the trigonometric functions
referred to a unit circle.

Definitions.

Art. 20. The

sine of an angle in a unit circle is the
perpendicular to the horizontal diameter extending
from
it to the extremity of the moving radius.
The
cosine of an angle in a unit circle is the
distance
from the center of the circle to the foot of the sine
along
the horizontal diameter.
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 191

The tangent of an angle in a unit circle is that part of

the tangent to the circle at the right-hand extremity of the
horizontal diameter, between the point of tangency and
the point where the tangent intersects the moving radius
produced forward or backward to meet it.

The cotangent of an angle in a unit circle is that part

of the tangent drawn upper end of the
to the circle at the
between the point of tangency
vertical diameter included
and the point where the tangent meets the moving radius
produced forward or backward to meet it.
The secant of an angle in a unit circle is the distance
measured along the moving radius from the center to its
intersection with the tangent.
The cosecant of an angle in a unit circle is the distance
measured along the moving radius from the center to its
intersection with the cotangent.
Art. 21. Keeping the above definitions carefully in
view, the student will have no difficulty in obtaining the
lines representing the functions of an angle in any
quadrant, together with their signs, as given in the table
below. (See Fig. 20.)

Quad. I. Quad. II.

sin DOC = + BC DOC = +

sin B'C
cos DOC = + OB cos DOC = - OB f

tan DOC - + DH tan DOC - - DH'

cot DOC - + NF cot DOC = - NF'
sec DOC = + OH sec DOC = - OH'
cosec DOC = + OF cosec DOC = + OF'
Quad. III. Quad. IV.
sin DOC = - B"C" DOC" = - B"'C"
sin
cos DOC = - OB" cos DOC" = + OB"'
tan DOC = + DH tan DOC" = - DH'
cot DOC" = + NF cot DOC" = - NF'
sec DOC" = - OH sec DOC" = + OH'
cosec DOC" = - OF cosec DOC" = -' OF'
'
192 Plane Trigonometry.

Since the sine has the same sign in the quadrants that
are side by side or on a horizontal line the cosine has
;

the same sign in the quadrants lying on a vertical line,

and the tangents have the same sign in the quadrants
lying on diagonal lines, the result maybe plotted thus :

1 +
-v /+

+
— Sine/
/ +
—

*' \-
1

Fig. ix.

Then if the sign of the cosine of any angle, for example,

is in question, it is only necessary to observe whether the

angle is in a quadrant on a vertical line with the first

quadrant or not, etc.
 Farther Relations Between Angle and Line. 193

It should be noted that these results are in accord as

to sign with those in Art. 18 had we drawn our tangent ;

lines at M or G this would not have been the case hence ;

our reason for selecting D and as points of tangency. N

The student should carefully note this fact.
An analysis of the quadrants indicates that the varia-
tions tabulated below take place among the functions
while the angle is increasing from o° to 360 .

Angle In-
creases — 90 oo° — i8o J
180 — 270 270 — 360
from

increases decreases decreases increases

Sine
from to-fi from -}-i too from to — 1 from —1 to

decreases decreases increases increases

Cosine
from -J- 1 to from to — 1 from — 1 to from o to + i

increases increases increases increases

Tangent
from to + 00 from — 00 to from to -f-
00 from — 00 to

decreases decreases decreases decreases

Cotangent
from -f- 00 to from to — 00 from -j- 00 to from to — 00

increases increases decreases decreases

Secant
from-f-i to-J- °° from — 00 to — 1 from — i to — from + 00 to + 1

decreases increases increases decreases

Cosecant
from + °o to -}- 1 from -J- 1 to+°o from — 00 to — 1 from — 1 to — 00

To Express the Functions of any Angle in Terms of the

Functions of an Angle in the First Quadrant.

Art. 22. The values of the trigonometric functions

are compiled in tables, which tables will be found to con-
between o°
tain only angles in the first quadrant, or those
and 90 the reason for this lies in the fact that it has
;

been found easy to reduce the functions of an angle in any

194 Plane Trigonometry.

quadrant, to those of an acute angle this is of much ;

practical importance, and will now claim our attention.

To express the function of any angle in terms of the
functions of an angle in the first quadrant
Let AOC = x be an angle in the first quadrant (Fig.

Fig. 22.

22), and COA' an angle in the second quadrant, such that

its supplement A'Oi " x, then 180 - x = COA'.
Assuming a unit circle, and making the construction
shown in Fig. 22, then.
sin x * DA cot* /'(/

COS .V OD v OE
tan* CE cosec * = OG
Noting that ZCOA' - 180 - .v, we have.
sin (180 - x) - D'A' cot (180 - x) - /•'(/"

cos (180 - x) - OD' sec (180 - .v) - ()/•.'

tan (180 - .v) - C£' cosec (1 So - x) - (

Now in the right triangles DOA and D'OA' we have

0.1 -
0.1' (being radii), and the angle 7)0.1 is equal to
the angle D'OA' (by construction), therefore these tri-

angles are equal; and taking notice of their directed lines,

 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 19;

we see that D'A' = DA, and OD' = - OD (since their

directions are opposite). Again, in the equal triangles
COE and COE' we have CE' = - CE, and OE' - OE ;

lastly, in the triangles FOG and FOG' which are also equal,
FG' = - FG, and OG' = OG.
Now by reference to the above values of the functions,
we obtain :

sin (180 — x) = + sinx cot (180 — x) = — cot x

cos (180 — x) = — cosx sec (180 — x) = — sec x
tan (180 — x) = — tan x cosec (180 — x) = 4- cosec .v

The functions of (360 — x) can be easily obtained from

Fig. 22, by drawing DX and considering OX as the ter-
minal line of a reflex angle * COX
in the fourth quadrant.
The angle COX
= x and the reflex angle = 360 — x. COX
We thus have, sin (360 — x) = £LY = — DT, or sin
(360 — x) = — sin x, and in like manner for the other
functions, see Art. 23. The remaining case where the
angle is 180 + x can be obtained in a similar manner to
the above, and is left to the ingenuity of the student. The
results, however, are given in Art. 23.
Art. 23. We will next consider an angle of (90 — x)
in the second quadrant. Let COB = x be an angle in
the first quadrant, and the angle COF' = 90 -f x, the
angle GOF' being equal to x-
Making the construction shown in Fig. 23, we have,

sin x = DB cot x = GF
cos x = OD sec x = OE
tan x — CE cosec x = OF
Noting that Z COF' = 90 + v, we get,

sin (90 + x) = D'B' cot (90 + x) = GF'

cos (90 + x) = OD' sec (90 + x) = OE'
tan (90 + x) = CE' cosec (90 + x) = OF'
* A reflex angle is one greater than 180 and less than 360 , and
therefore in the III or IV quadrant.
 H

196 Plane Trigonometry.

In the right triangles DOB and

D'OB' we have
^'B'0 = ZDOB, APO^Lr^ oP'
F T^nTj =
Further, />'*' OD, and OZ>'
...

- - DB. Again, in the

Fig. 23.

equal triangles EOC

and r,) ( ; we have
OF' - 05, and
,.
" ^ CA ,n : wlu,e
the triangles COF
and ( •.>/'
winch are also equal, OE' - -
,

Referring to the above values of

OF, and CE> --op
the functions, we obtain,'

sin (90 + .v) = cos .v cot (90 + X) - _ tan x

cos (90 + x = - sin
) .v sec (90 + X) = - cosec x
tan (90 + .v) = - cot .v cosec (90 + x) = sec *
By drawing KH and
regarding the reflex angle
CO
as 270 + x, we
.nay obtain in like
manner the relations
between the functions of (2 o°
7 + x) ail d those of v The
case where the angle considered
is
( 2? o°
- x) involves a
similar construction to the
above, and should be
gated by the student. "»vcsu
investi-

We will now present in

tabulated form the results
the previous article. of

I
 Ficrther Relations Between Angle and Line. 197

II Quad. Ill Quad.

sin (i8o°-#) = 4- sin x sin (i8o°-fa;) = — sin#
cos (180 — x) = — cos a? cos (i8o°-f =a;) — cosa;
tan (i8o°-a;) = — tana; tan (i8o° + x) = + tana:
cot (180 — #) = - cot x cot (i8o° + x) = + cota;
sec (180 — x) = — sec a; sec (i8o° + a;) = — seca;
cosec (i8o°-a:) = + cosec a; cosec (i8o° + a;) = -cosec a;

IV Quad. II Quad.
sin (360 — x) = — sin a; sin (90 + =
y) -f- cosy
cos (360 — a:) = + cos X cos (90 + y) = — s'my
tan (360 — x) = — tana; tan (90 + y) = - coty
cot (360 — a:) = — cot X cot (90 -f y)= - tany
sec (360 — x) = + sec a; sec (90 + y) = — cosec
cosec (360 — a;) = —coseca; cosec (90 -f y) = -f secy

III Quad. IV Quad.

cos (270°-^) = - siny cos (270 -f= + siny
y)
sin (270 — y)= — cosy sin (270 + = — cosy
y)
tan (270 — y) = + coty tan (270 y) = —
+ coty
cot (270 — y) = + tany cot (270 4- y) = — tany
sec (270 — y) = — cosec y sec (270 + y) = + cosec
cosec (27 o° — y) = — secy cosec (27 o° + y) = — secy

These results may be

epitomized in the following rules
1. Any function of an angle whichis equal to 180 or
360 plus or minus an acute angle, is equal to the same
function of the acute angle, and will be positive or nega-
tive according as the original function was positive or
negative.
For example, cos (180 — a;) = — cos x.
2. Any function of an angle which is equal to 90 or
270 plus or minus an acute angle, is equal to the co-
198 Plane Trigonometry.

named function of the acute angle ; or, if the original

function is a co-function, it will be equal to the plain
function of the acute angle. The sign of the last
function will agree with the sign of the original func-
tion.

For example, sin (270 — x) = — cos x.

In both the above rules the sign of the final function
is determined by the quadrant in which the original angle
occurred.
It will be noticed that any function of an angle greater
than 90 can be reduced to the function of an angle less
than 45 , or, if desired, to one of an angle between 45
and 90 .

Art. 24. From the definition of negative angles it is

evident that the moving radius, having described a 1

tive angle, will arrive at the same point as if it had de-

scribed the positive angle, represented by ;/)o° minus the
number of degrees in the negative angle; hence the
functions of the negative angle and of this corresponding
positive angle will be exactly the same.
For example, the functions of - 75 are exactly the
same as the functions of + (360 — 75 ) = 4- 285.
Therefore, to find the functions of a negative angle,
subtract this angle (as if it were positive) from 360 , and
find the functions of the positive angle resulting.
For example, tan — 125 = tan (360 — 125 ) = tan
235 = tan (270°- 35 °) = cot 35 .

Art. 25. In Art. 18 we drew attention to the impor-

tant part played by the directed lines of a right triangle
in determining the trigonometric functions. Up to
this point we have considered the initial line as horizon-
tal, but this is often not the case, as a triangle may obvi-

ously occupy any position in the plane. To facilitate the

recognition of the functions of an angle in varying posi-
tions, we suggest the following rules :
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 199

I. The perpendicular is always at right angles to the

initial line, or the initial line prolonged backwards ; it is

directed from the initial to the terminal line, and is posi-

tive for acute and obtuse angles, and negative for reflex
angles.
II. The hypotenuse is invariably directed from the
vertex to the perpendicular, and is positive in all positions.
III. The remaining side, the adjacent side, if the
angle be acute, isdirected from the vertex to the foot of tie
perpendicular. It is positive for acute angles and reflex
angles ^between 270 and 360 , and negative for angles
between 90 and 270 .

In giving the ratio expressing any trigonometric function

of an angle, care should be taken to give the correct
directions of lines to which reference is made.

In Fig. 24, keeping the above rules in mind, we have:

cos EBK =
BE cos FED - ^~ cos FGD = -^
,

BK
'

ED GD
cos GDH = DH Note that in each case the directed
DG
lines are measured from the vertex to the perpendicular,

according to Rules II and III. Again, tan EBK = EK

BE
tan FED = -^, tan FGD = -|^-, tan
HG
EF GF' DH
200 Plane Trigonometry.

Further, in triangle DBM, tan DBM = GK. wliile cot

BD
DKG in the triangle DKG = ^- . Taking the obtuse

angles BKG and BKM we have tan BKG - -^- , and

t

KD
tan .BAM/ - —
KD
. By Rule III the latter functions are

negative.
Art. 26. In articles 22 and 23, we found certain
relations existing between the functions of an angle formed
by increasing or diminishing 90°, 180°, etc., by an acute
angle a\ and the functions of %\ we obtained, for example,
sin (x + 90) = cos a\ It would seem natural to inquire

at this point, whether it would not be possible to im I

or diminish % by any olhcr angle v, and find relations

between the functions of the new angle (x ± v and those )

of x and y. A geometrical investigation of such a prob-

lem clearly includes several ca» tin- ter- i

minal lines of % and y lie in the several quadrants; it

will be found convenient at fust to confine our. attention
simultaneously to the two cases where (x <<jo and : -
\* »

(x + y) >QO, in the latter of which the angle a* is acute

and y extends into the second quadrant

To express sin (x + y) and cos (x + y) in Terms and

Functions of x and y.

Art. 27. In each of the Figs. 25 and 26, let the

angle DBC = x and the angle CBN = y ;
in Fig, 2$ t

the sum of these angles, x and y, is less than 90 , while

in Fig. 26, it is greater than 90 , but the individual
angles x and y are each less than a right angle.
In both cases take a point A upon
, I he line bounding the
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 201

angle y, and let fall two perpendiculars, one AG, upon

the initial line of x produced backward,
(or the initial line

as in Fig. 26); the other AE, upon the terminal line of x.

Note that the angle included between these perpendiculars
to the sides of the angle x is GAE = x (by Geometry).

Now in each case we have a right-angled triangle GBA

formed by the AG and sin DBA = G L4—
= —
line sin (x + y)
BA
 \

202 Plane Trigotwmetry

Again, the perpendicular AE completes a right triangle

AEB which contains the angle EBA - v.
We have, however, as yet, no right triangle with
XOS an
angle. Now one such triangle must be constructed,
at least
if it is our purpose to establish relations between the sides

of the triangle ABG, whose ratios represent the functions

of (x + y), and line ratios representing functions of the
individual angles X and y. This si our drawing
EF±BD and EH LGA. We thus obtain two new tri-
angles BFE
and All/., the former right-angled at F, the
latter at //. ins an angle x.
It now remains to investigate geometrically the relations

existing between the sides of the triangle ABG, whose

ratios represent the functions of (x •

y), and those of the

triangles ABE, BFE, and AHE, giving careful attention
to the directed lines.

We have, in each figure, sin ('am v) -.

B 1

Now, GA (iff HA FE HA FE HA
+
BA BA BA BA BA

Note that in these ratios each numerator and denominator

is the side of a triangle containing an angle equal to x 01
y\ it was, in fact, to obtain this result that we broke up
GA* Again, FE is a side of a right triangle FBE, and
BA of a right triangle A BE \ both we </ common side

BE: hence if BE is introduced into the ratio

FE . by
}
BA
breaking it up into two ratios without altering its value.

thus, — BE
BA
— = BE
—. - .

BA
- , the former will be a function

of x, namely, sin a*, and the latter a function of y, or, as we

see, cos y.
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 20}

TJ A
Again, taking the ratio , we note AH is a side of
BA
the triangle A HE, and BA of BA E ; these have a common
side AE ; introducing this as above, and observing the
directed lines, we get,

AH AH EA AH —
EA = cos x sm 'y.
BA BA AE AE BA

Collecting our results, we finally obtain,

sin (x 4- y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y,

We have discussed this proof at length because of its

great importance. The steps are few and simple, but it is

desirable that the reasons for them should be clearly

understood by the student before proceeding further, as
other similar proofs follow which form a basis for many
of the most important formulae in trigonometry.
For the sake of clearness we will now give concisely
the necessary steps and construction discussed above.

Art. 28. I. To show that sin (x + y) = sin x cos y

+ cos x sin y. Let

ZDBC = x and Z.CBN = y ; then Z DBX = x + y.

Take a point .4 on BN, the bounding line of v, and draw

AG±BD, AE±BC, also EH ± AG and EF _L BD.
The angle GAE = x, '•' its sides are _L to those of x

sin (x + ^
y) =G4 —
BA
=
GH+HA
BA
FE + HA
BA
FE ^ HA
BA BA '

_FE '
BE AH EA
BE BA AE "
BA'

.*. sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y, . . (1)

204 Plane Trigonometry.

II. To show that cos (x + y) = cos x cos y - sin x sin y,

making the same construction as above, we get,

Fig. 27.

cos (x + = G
y)

BF-GF
BA

Fig 28.

Fig. 28

Hence in both cases,

cos (x + y) = BF-GF BF _ HE (Notice again the

BA BA BA use of the com-
BF BE HE EA mon side of the
BE' BA . 1 E BA' triangles.)

*. cos (x + y) = cos x cos y — sin # sin y . (2)

 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 205

III. To show that sin (x — y) = sin x cos y — cos x sin y.

Given Z x < 90. Let Z DEC = x and Z CBN = y, then
DBN = x - y.

Making the construction indicated in Fig. 29, and

observing that the point A is again taken upon the line
bounding the angle y also that the KEA = x, we have,
; Z

in (x -
-y)
GA KF KE - FE
BA BA BA
KE FE
BA BA
_= KE BE '
EF EA
'
BE '
BA EA '
BA
sin (x -
-y) = sin x cos y -- cos x sin y. • (3)

IV. To show that cos {x — y) = cos x cos y + sin x

sin y. Referring to Fig. 29, we see that

cos (x — = BG =
=
BK + KG BK FA
y)
BA BA BA BA
BK BE + FA EA
BE BA EA BA
cos (x — y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y.
(4)
 206 Plcme Trigonometry.

Art. 29. It might now occur

to the student to inquire
whether the proo s of the four
formal* just given lid
not be simplified by making
use of the unit circle, and
should we attempt such a method,
which line would lend
itself best to selection as
a unit radius ? glance at the A
four cases just investigated shows
that the line extending
from the vertex B to the point
A, selected up,,, the line
bounding the angle y, always appears
as a denominator
hence our choice obviously lies with
this line Making

the same construction as

before for case I. and in add*
Hon describing an arc through^
with F, as center, further,
putting BA = ,. we 0Dtain

sin (*H y) GA </// + //., /,/, + HA

Now sin x = FE FE -sin * BE
BE
and COS X = AH AH - cos x AE,
AE
1"
but BA -
BE = cos y and AE = sin y.

Substituting these values, we get

FE = sin x cos y and A II = cos v sin
,
y
Hence sin (* + y) = sin A cos + cos £
.

y v gin
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line. 207

A similar method may be adopted in each of the other

cases.
Art. 30. We might now ask, Are the formulae that we
have just derived, general truths ? Do they hold when
the dimensions of the angles x and y are unrestricted ?
Also when either or both are negative ?
The student will readily see that it would be tedious to
attempt to investigate all possible cases geometrically.
A more simple method is to show analytically that the
formulae still hold good if the angles x and y be increased

by a right angle, or if equal negative angles be substi-

tuted, and hence establish the general truth.

Thus, sin j
(x 4- 90) + y\ = sin J90 + (v 4- y)\.
By Art. 18, sin (90 + A) = cos A.
If .4 = (x 4- y) we get

sin {90 4- (x 4-
y) \ = cos (x 4- y) = cos x cos y
— sin x sin y.

Now cos x = sin (90 4- x) and sin x = — cos (90 4- x).

Substituting, we get

sin {(90 4- x) 4- r} = sin (90 4- x) cos y

4- cos (904- a*) sin y.

From the above equation it follows that if sin (x 4- y)

= sin x cos y 4- cos x sin y be true for any special quad-
rant, it also holds when x is in the following quadrant.
But this equality has been proved for the first quadrant,
hence it is true when x is in the second, and thus the
limit may be indefinitely increased. A similar method of
procedure shows that if either or both the angles be in-
creased atwill, or negative angles substituted, the truths

expressed by the four formulae of the previous article re-

main —and hence they are universal
 :

2o8 Plane Trigonometry.

Art. 31. From the relation tan A = , it is easily

cos A
possible to find an expression for tan (x + y) as follows

tan
,
(x 4- y)
s
= sin (x
*
4- y)
-^
sin a* cos zy 4- cos
;
x sin y
L—
:

cos (x 4- v) cos .-v cos y - sin 3 sin y

Divide by cos x cos y ;

sin x cos y cos v sin y

tan
/
[x + y)
x
= -
cos
——
cos y
z
sin v s in
os *-
y
.v __ y
-
y COS % cos y

tan v ;
tan v
.\ tan / , i
= / N
(a* 1-
"
y)
1 -tan % tan y
(5)

Likewise,

cot
.
,
(a- 4- y)
N
-
cos (x
.
-7
l
v) cot % -^ -
cot v I
. . •
ux
(6)
sin {x V y) cot y •
( ot *

Tan (jc — y) and cot (g - y) are found in identically

the same manner as tan (x y) and cot (a* 4- y).
Art. 32. Suppose in the formula*:

sin (a* 4- y) = sin a* cos y + cos x sin y

cos (x 4- y) = cos a* cos y — sin x sin y

tan a* -^ tan r
.

tan ,
(x 4-
y)
N
= ^—
1 — tan a* tan y

• .
z x
= cot x cot r — 1
and cot (x 4- y)
'

cot x 4- cot y

y be made equal to x, then these formulae become,

sin 2 jc = sin x cos a 4- cos x sin a* = 2 sin # cos a* .
(7)
 Further Relations Between Angle and Line, 209

cos 2 x = cos 2 x — sin 2 x (8)

tan 2 x =
2 tan
—
iaii
—x—
tan 2
- z
(9)
x

1 #
, . cot 2 a; — 1 , v
and cot 2 x = (10)
2 cot x

If 2 x = A in these formulae, then x = % A, and substi-

tuting we have,
sin A = 2 sin £ ,4 cos £ ^4 . . . (7)

cos A = cos 2
\ A — sin 2
£ yl . . (8)

tan i A
tan
,

^4 =
1
2
-
j
tan 2 i .1
w
z
(9)
N

, . ,
= cot 2 \ A — 1 , v
and cot ^4 *
(10)
2 cot \ A

That is, the sine of any angle equals twice the product
of sine and cosine of half the angle. The cosine of any
angle equals the square of the cosine of half the angle
minus the square of the sine of half the angle. Write
the corresponding rules for tangent and cotangent. These
formulae give the functions of an angle, when the functions
of its half are known.

Functions of Half an Angle.

Art. 33. In the formula cos A = cos 2 \ A — sin 2 £ A

since cos 2 § A — 1 - sin 2
£ A
cos 4 = 1 — sin 2 \ A — sin 2 \ A = 1 - 2 sin 2 \ A
whence 2 sin
2
\A = \ — cos A
1 — cos A
or,
•

sin 2
2
£.4=
1 a ,
(11)
 ,

2 j o Plane Trigonometry.

Making the contrary substitution, sin 2 \ A = i — cos 2 \ A ;

cos A = cos 2
J A — (i — cos 2
\ A) = cos 2
% A — i +
cos 2 \ A = 2 cos 2 \ A 1 — i

whence, 2 cos 2 \ A = \ + cos .1,

or, COS 2 I i 1
.1 =
l + cos -I /
(12)
\

* ^
sin
Since tan \ A =
cos ^ ^4

1 — cos ^4

tan 2
\ A =
sin '"'

'
' = 2
= * ~ cos ^ . (13)
cos 1 o- -4 1 + co s l 1 + cos A
2

+COsA
and cot? * A -1 (14)
I - COS .1

These formulae make it readily possible to find the

functions of half an angle when any function of the whole
angle is given.
For example, to find the functions of 30 having
tan 6o° = V
3 given.
From the formulae, tan 2 6o° =-f 1 sec 2 6o°
it follows that, 3 + = 1 sec 2 6o°
sec 6o° = 2
hence, cos 6o° = \.

From (11) and (12) are derived respectively,

•
2 1 — cos 6° 1 — T 1
Mil jU J
2 2

whence, sin 30 = \

cos 2 30
00 = 1 + 00s 6o°
= 1 + i
2. = |,
2 2

.-. cos 30 = \ v
'3
 Flirt Jier Relations Between Angle and Line. 211

o
= 1 — cos 60 1 — \ \ ,
tair 30 = t = — = \
1 + cos 60 1 + \ f
.-. tan 30 = V\ = \ V3, etc.

It will be observed that these results tally with those

obtained in Art. 9, page 10.

Sum and Difference of Functions.

Art. 34. Returning to the formulae,

sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y . (1)

sin {x — y) = sin x cos y — cos x sin y . (3)

If (x +is replaced by a single angle, say P, and

y)
(x — y) replaced
is by another angle, say Q, then the
addition of the two formulae above will give the sum of
the sines of P and Q, thus :

x + y = P
x — y = Q
add, 2 x = P + Q
x = h{P + Q)
subtract, 2 y = P — Q

Adding (1) and (3) above,

sin (x + y) + sin (x — y) = 2 sin x cos y.

Substituting values of x and y, a; + y, and # — y, assumed

above,
sin P + sin Q = 2 sin 1 (P + Q) cos | (P - (2). (15)
Subtracting (3) from (1), and substituting,
sin P - sin Q = 2 cos * (P + Q) sin £ (P - Q). (16)
In the same way, taking (2) and (4),
cos (x + y) = cos x cos y — sin x sin y . (2)
cos (x — y) = cos x cos y + sin # sin y . (4)
 2 :

2 1 2 Plane Trigonometry.

Adding and substituting,

cos P+ cos Q - 2 cos i (P -f Q) cos } (P - (?) . (17)

Subtracting (4) from (2), and substituting,
cos P - cos Q =- 2 sin J (^ + (?) sin i CP - (?) ( l8 )

Exercise. State formula; (15), (16), (17), and (18) as

rules.

EXERCISE VI.

Goniometry.

Express the following functions in terms of the functions

of angles less than 45 °.

(sin 113 ; cos 2 1 6°; tan 97 ; tan 315°; cot 263 ;

sec 190 CSC S ° ;

1 1 ; COS302 ; sill::o°; tan 1 7 5 ° ;

cot3i6°; cos 156 ; cot 142 .

2. sin - 7 ; cos - 1 18 ; tan - 217 ; cot - 105 .

By application of formula' find the simplest value of the

following function :

3. sin (180 — x) ;
cos (180 + x) ; tan (90 -f x).

4. sin {270 + v) ; cos (270 - y) ;

.sin (360 - x) ; tan
(360 - y).

Prove following relations

k
6,
4.
tan /
- \
= T - tan x
(45 x) .

1 4- tan a*

4 cos x — 3 cos
3
6. cos 3 x =» x.

7. sin 3 .v = 3 sin % — 4 sin 3

x
8. sec A esc A = 2 esc 2 J.
9. cot \ y + tan \ y = 2 esc y.

10. sin x = 49T cos x = %\ sin y =

; ;
^ ; cos y = }§ :

Find sin (.v + y) and cos (.v — y).

 Furtiter Relations Between Angle and Line. 213

11. cos 26 = .9. Find and cos 13

sin 13 .

12. sin 53 8' = .8. Find sine, cosine, and tangent

of 106 16'.

By formulae (15), (16), (17), and (18) show that,

13. sin (45 4- x) -f sin (45 — x) = 2 sin 45 cos x

= v 2 cos x.
14. sin (150 + x) — sin (90 — x) = 2 cos 120 sin (30
+ x) «— sin (30 -f #).
15. If .x, y, and z are the three angles of a triangle, prove,
sin x + sin y + sin 2 = 4 cos ^ x cos ^ y cos ^ ar.

Transform the following into expressions suitable for

use of logarithms :

16. tan x + tan y. 19, cot x cot y — 1.

17. cot # + tan x. 20. sin v — cos 2

x sin .r

sin #
18. tan x tan y + 1. 21.
v I — cos JC

22
I ~~ C0S 2 ^ 23
tan ^ + tan y
1 + cos 2 ^1 cot x 4- cot y

tan2
24. i-- ?
1 + tan 2 x

Inverse Trigonometrical Functions.

Art. 35. In an algebraic equation involving more than

one unknown quantity the equation may be solved for any
one of the unknowns in terms of the others, thus if 3 x y :

= 4, solving for x, or for y, y x = | y" 1

j xr\ ; =
Likewise in Trigonometry the expression, y = sin %
may be solved for x, by adopting a notation like this
x = sin -1 y, read x is the angle whose sine is
y or )

x = anti-sine of y.
214 Plane Trigonometry.

The symbol — i above the sine symbol must not be mis-

taken for an exponent, although it is adopted from the
analogy of the process to exponential division: sin -1 is
a single symbol and inseparable, having a definite mean-
ing, distinct from sin*
Likewise, we have cos -1 A, tan^M, cot" 1 A, etc.;
read respectively anti-cosine, anti-tangent, etc.
Art. 36. These inverse functions may be readily con-
verted into direct functions by setting them equal to
another quantity, representing their value.
For example, sin
-1 - 30
\

whence \ = sin 30
or, in general, sin" ]
A B, whence A = sin B.

It is to be observed that the expression sin -1 A rep-

resents the angle and not its function, namely, the angle
whose sine is A, which above is called B.
Example. Prove cot
-
1
a cot" 1 /?

_j lib — 1
= cot
b

Let cot -1 a = v, hence a = cot x

and -1 = -
cot b v, hence b cot y.

= cot x cot ? "~ '

Substituting in formulae cot (x + y)
cot x + cot y

COt (cot" 1
(7 + cot" 1
b) = " '

or cot -1 a + cot" 1 b = cot" 1 ~ '

a + b
 PART IV.

SOLUTION OF OBLIQUE TRIANGLES.

Article 37. In the right triangle the right angle is

always known, and it is always possible to find remain-
ing parts, when two are given, provided the two given
.parts are not two angles. In the oblique triangle there

Fig. 32.

are in general six variable parts, three of which must be

known, in order that the triangle may be completely
solved.
It is plainly necessary to divide the oblique triangle
intotwo right triangles, that the relations of its parts
may be found, through the medium of angle functions,
since these latter are defined as ratios in right triangles.
In the triangle ABC, draw the perpendicular BD,
then,
and call and c, using small letters for the
the sides a, b,

sides opposite the angle denoted by the corresponding

large letters.

215
 -

2i6 Plane Trigonometry,

In the right triangle ABD,

sin A - - (where BD = h) (a)
c

In triangle BDC, sin C = - . (j\

Divide (a) by (b) ^AC . £

sin c
(l9)

By drawing perpendiculars from the other vertices,

same manner may be shown,
successively, in the

sin A a , .
(20)
sin B b

sin B b
(21)
sin C c

With (19), (20), and (21), if two angles and any side
are given, the remaining parts may be found.
Art. 38. A slight transformation produces a formula
which makes it possible to find the unknown parts when
two sides and the included angle are given.
Taking (19) by division and composition, according to
the theory of proportion,

—A + —CC— =
—sin A —
:

sin
sin
sin
;
a
a
—
+
c

c
• • •
,
\tn)
N

Dividing (16) by (15),

sin P- sin Q = 2 + Q) sin \ (P - Q)

cos j (P
sin P+ sin Q ~ 2 sin h (P + Q) cos } (P - Q)

cos h(P + (?) sin $ (P - Q)

m
sin $ (P + Q) cos *(/>-())
= cot£ (P + (2) tan J (P - 0.
 Solution of Oblique Triangles. 2 1
7

Replacing P and Q by A and C respectively in this

formula,

sin A - sin C=
sin ^4 + sin C
cQt j (4 + q x tan j (il _ q.

Substituting this value of — in (m) ,

sin A + sin C

cot \ (A + C) tan £ (.4 - C) =

a + c

or tan £ (4 - C) = -tan \ {A + C) . (22)

a + £

Since A + C = 180 - B,

this formula makes it possible to find the remaining

parts when the two sides a and c and their included
angle B are given.
By an exactly analogous process, using (20) and (21),
may be derived,

tan iU-B)= ^T
a+ b
tan iU+5). • (23)

and tan J (JB - C) - ^—^tan £ (5 + Q . . (24)

b + c

which meet all requirements, when any two sides and

their included angle are given.
Art. 39. In the above case the third side may be
found directly, without finding the two unknown angles,
by employing the geometrical theorem relative to the
square of a side opposite an acute angle.
 !l8 Plane Trigonometry.

IfABC is any triangle, BD being a perpendicular fn m

B upon AC, then by geometry,

c
2
= a 2 + b 2 -2bxDC,
but, in the right triangle

BDC, cos C
^

DC or£>C

- (7 COS C.
Substituting this value of
c PC above,
Fig- 33- c
2
= 2
a' +- lr - 2ab cos C .
(25)

By drawing perpendiculars from the other vertices and

applying the same theorem, arc obtained the following:

<r = Ir -f r — 2 be COS A . . . . (26)

/'- - (j
2
+ r - 2 ac cos B . . . . « .

Art. 40. There is plainly a third case that arises in

the solution of oblique triangles, namely, when the three

sides are given.
b
2
- c
2
Solving (25) for cos C, <

2 db

Subtracting each side from 1 and then adding each

side to 1, are obtained,

2 2
— cr 4- lr ab b + c
cos C= 1
2 ab 2 ab
c* - (a -hr
(R)
2 ab

* Formulae (25), (26) and (27), each of which involves the three
sides and one angle, enable us to find these angles, as C, in the equa-
tion above, but the result is in very inconvenient form; adding to
and subtracting from 1, is to bring the 2ab from the denominator
into numerator to combine with a~ -f- tr, forming a perfect square.
 Solution of Oblique Triangles. 219

a2 + b
2
- c* 2 ab + a2 + b
2
- c
2
1 + cos C= 1 +
2 a&
ab 2 ab
a&
=
(a + b)
2
- c
2

(5)
2 ab

Factoring (R) and (5) , observing that the numerator of

the right-hand members of both equations are each the
difference of two squares,

~ ~ ^+ a ~ ^ (g
- + 6 ) (g+a-fr)
cozC - - fl
fc 6* ft
)1
*i
2 a& 2 a&

(a + b ~ c) (a + b + c)
, + cosC = _

2 a&

From (11) and (12),

1 - cos C - 2 sin* §
2 C = ('-* + *) fr + * - &)
M
W
2 ab
+ b ~ c) (a + b + c
1 + cosC = 2 cos* 1
2 C = ((7

2 ab
).-
W
(v)

Putting s = % (a + b + c) or 2s=a + b + c,

then, 2 (s - a) = c - a + b
2 (s - b) = c + a - b
2 (s - c) = a + b — c

Substituting these values in (//) and (v) ,

= 4 - ^ ~ 6) = (s - a) (5 - b)
2 sin
2
hC (* <*) 2

2 ab ab

2 cos* C - ±±1LzlA = 2 J fr - g)
i
2 C7& #6
- fl)(j -*>
or, sin*C-\/ (5 (28)

Is (s — c) , v
C
cos I
-v-V^
k

ab
•
(29)
2 2o Plane Trigonometry.

Divide (28) by (29),

taniC-v/^f^
- V s (s c)
(30)

By an exactly analogous process, corresponding expres-

sions for \A and \B are found as follows:

sin 4.-1 - /
(J
"
^ - f)
(31)

cos 1

*niA-J<L^MIE
,1

.....
V

- y/ 1 ^ •
&)

(33)
- 5 [S </ )

sin } B - \/ -*
( 34 )

cos h B - t/* « - '-*

(35)
1 </r

tan J
B - i/^Zf-)J-L^l
\ 5 (5 - ft)
..... (36)
J ;

A comparison of (30), 133), and (36) will show that,

\/(.v — a) (s - ft)
—(5 - C) •
u
common
- 1

± - ' is a multip.e.
5

If this expression be represented by r,

then (30) may be written, tan JC« s — c

($$) may be written, tan \ A =

s — a

and (36) may be written, tan \ B «-

5 - ft

which reduces the calculation of the three angles to the

determination of the value of one radical expression, r.
 Solution of Oblique Triangles, 221

EXERCISE VII.

Oblique Triangles.

Calling the angles A B, and C, the sides respectively

,

opposite a, b, and c, and the area 5, solve the following

triangle

1. A = 69 2i' 3 o", C = 23 ii
/
17", a = 123.23.
2. B = 101 42' 21", .4 = 47 12' 19*, b = 10.029.
* 3. £ - 99 12' 10", C = 35° 0' 40", a = 1027.2.
4. 4 = ii° 17' 33 ", B = 77° i5
7
> c = 3-457 6 -

6. ,4 = 82 12' 36", b = 62.117, c = 90.741.

6. 2? = 109 49' 38", a = 22.222, c = 19.34.
7. C- 67 S
8' 8",
S a = 393.6n, c = 208.47.
8. 5 = 23 27' 50", 6 - .08679, a = .07241.
9. - in,a c 6 - 425,
238. =
10. = 1023.75,
a c 6 = 978.36,
1321.13. =
11. a = 18.705, c b = 23.202,
9.667. =
12. Find S in each of the above examples :

13. A line A B, 225 yds. long, is measured off on level

ground. The angles formed with it by imaginary lines to
C, a point in the same plane, are respectively 98 12' 23"
and 78 9 r 2i /r Find the distance from .4 to C.
.

14. In running a line from B to C\ two points in a

survey, an impenetrable swamp is encountered. A third
point D is chosen, from which B and C are both visible
and accessible. The distances DB, DC, and the angle
CDB are then measured and found to be, DB = 429.58
ft, DC = 319.26 and Z.CDB = 18 21' 36".
ft., Find
length and direction of BC.
15. Two forces of 116.5 and 200 pounds per sq. in.

respectively make an angle of no° 25' with each other.

Find the intensity and direction of their resultant.
16. Three forces of 95.265, 68.21, and 105.2 lbs.
respectively are in equilibrium. Find the angle between
the first two.
Note. Additional problems on the oblique triangle on page 252.
 3

222 Plane Trigonometry.

17. To find the height of a steeple, a line mn ioo ft

long measured on the
is ground, and the horizontal angles
at m and n made by mn with imaginary lines drawn to the
point directly below the top of the steeple on the ground,
are found to be 8o° 9' 25" and 72 31' 13" respectively.
Also the elevation of the top of the steeple from m is
,/
i4°2 3o What is the height of the steeple ?
/
.

18. From a point in a 2$ r

/ slope, the angle subtended
by a tower higher up the slope is 29 16' 25". From a
point 75 feet higher up it subtends an angle of 42 12'
17". Find height of tower.

To Express Angles in Radians.

Art. 41. In addition to the unit of angular measure,

the degree, used in Geometry, Trigonometry emplo]
unit called a radian*
A radian is the central angle, m any circle, whose arc
is equal in length to the radius.
Hence the number of radians in a given angle is the
number of times its arc contains the radius of the circle
at whose center its vertex IS placed.
Since the total of the angles at the center of any circle
is 360 degrees and the circumference is 2 it, where
7r = 3. 1 41 6 and r = radius, 360 degrees = 2 wr (central
angles are measured by their an

360° i8o c
= 57.3^ = r.
2 7T

That an arc which equals r, subtends an angle

is, of

57. ,more accurately, 206,265".

or,
Since the total circumference is 2 it times r, and r
represents a radian, the circumference contains 2tt radians ;

also the arc subtending an angle has thesame ratio to the

entire circumference that the angle has to 360 degrees.
Hence the angle will contain the same part of 2 it radians
 Solution of Oblique Triangles. 225

that it does of 360 degrees, or, what is the same thing, it

will contain the same part of it radians that it does of

180 degrees.
Find the value of 30 , 45 , 65 , 90 , 225 in radians.

30 = -2^- or I of 180
180 6

.\ xo° = -^- 7r radians = — radians.

180 6

45 = -45_or I of 180
180 4

•\ = ^5 w radians = — radians.
45
180 4

65° = -^_or iiof 180

180 36
1 ^ •

•\ 6c; = —^- 7r radians.

36

oo°
V
= -92_ or 1
2
f l8o °
180

•\ 90 = — radians.
2

225°= i^-or iof 180

180 4

,\ 225°= ^radians, etc.

4
Express, 22^°, 40 135 300 270 in radians.
, , ,

An angle is plainly the same part of 180 that it is

of 7r radians, hence the process of expressing radians in

degrees is the exact reverse of the above.

For example, - radians = i-of 180 = 6o°

3 3
—
5
radians = —of 180 = 72° etc.
5
 22 A Plane Trigonometry,

l. Express in radians, 130 90 ;

; 75 ; 225 ; 67^
n- 15'; 312 ; 720 32 12' 20".
;

2. Express in degrees, -w rad. ;

- rad. ; .23 tt rad. ;

3 6
2 tt rad.; .25 ?r rad. rad.
-\ ; | tt

3. If a circular object subtends an angle of i° at a dis-

tance of what is its diameter?
1 14.6',
4. wheel makes 20 revolutions per second, what
Jf a is
its angular velocity in radians?
5. What is the radius of a circle if an arc of 2100
miles subtends ail angle of 57.3 minutes at the cenu
6. If the difference in latitude between two places on
the earth (regarded as a is 12', and their
sphere)
7
distance apart is 495.8 miles, what is the diameter of the
earth ?

7. At 3 o'clock what is the angle expressed in radians

between the hands of a watch?
8. The moon is 239.000 miles from the earth (approx.),
and its diameter is 216a miles. What angles does it sub-
tend to us ?
 PART V.

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY,

Article i. A spherical polygon is a portion of the

surface of a sphere inclosed by intersecting arcs of
great circles.
Hence the sides are measured in degrees, minutes, and
seconds, instead of linear units.
Knowing the radius of the sphere of whose surface the
polygon is a part, the length of its sides can be also easily
expressed in linear units, for any side will be the same
part of a circumference (found from the formula, 2 irr) as
its number of degrees is of 360 .

It is to be remembered that an arc of a great circle

bears the same relation to a spherical surface that a
straight line does to a plane surface.
Art. 2. By Solid Geometry, the sum of the sides of a
spherical triangle is always less than 360° and the sum ;

of its angles is greater than 180 and less than 540 .

Also the essential theorems relating to plane triangles

apply equally to spherical triangles.

Right Spherical Triangles.

Art. 3. As in Plane Trigonometry, the right triangle

furnishes the simplest relations between its parts, and
hence it provides the natural starting-point. Let, then,
ABC (see Fig. 34) (notation being the same as before) be
a spherical right triangle, with sides a, b, and c being ; C
the right angle. To avail ourselves of the known rela-
tions of Geometry, let O be the center of the sphere, of
 :

226 Spherical Trigonometry.

whose surface ABC is part. Join

Through the vertex .1 pass a plane
with .1, B. and C
± to 05, intersecting
the face 0,1£ in AD, the fact- O.JC in .1/-;, and the face
0£C in D£. Then since 0£ is J_ to ADE, its plane

Fig. 34.

OBC is
± to ADE; and hence I/: (a line in !/)/•; drawn
.

through a poinl of the n of these

ii
two perpendic-
ular planes) is J. to 0£C, and
hence is ± to OC and DE
hncs of the plane OBi .

That is. AED,AEO, ADO, and

ODE are righl angles
and.)/)/, is the plane angle of
the dihedral wh<
»s OB, or /LADE /; (by
Geometrj
. :

The radius of this sphere may clearly

be taken
unity for simplicity's sake, without
in any way alie< tin-
results.

Remembering that the central angles

AOC, AOB and
BOC are measured by their an sctivelyfi,* anda the
plane right triangles. AOE,
AOD, DOE, and ADE wUl
clearly furnish relations between ,/. /,. ,-. and B. For
example
By Goniometry =
(since radius i), cos AOB - cos <
= OD, but in A ODE, cos DOE = cos a
OD or OD
= OE cos a - cos b cos </, since OE = cos .IOC » cos b.

cos c = cos b cos ;7

(0
 Splicrical Trigonometry. 227

Formula (1) may be stated thus : In a right spherical

triangle the cosine of the hypotenuse equals the product
of the cosines of the two legs.
It bears the same relation to the spherical right triangle
that the Pythagorean theorem does to the plane right
triangle. Again,

sin c = AD = = or sin 6 = sin c sin B (2°).

sin ARE sin B
Put this formula into a rule.
By changing the construction of the figure (drawing
the perpendicular plane through B), it can be similarly
proved that, sin a = sin c sin A 6
(2 ). This formula
could be inferred by analogy.
Again,

tan a
DE AD cos B sin c cos B sin
- x cos B
OD OD cos c cos c
= tan c cos B . .
(3
a
)

By analogy, tan b = tan c cos A • • • • (3

6
)

Again,

cos B DE OE sin a cosb sin a

but from (2»)
AD AD sin c

sin a sin a
= sin A . .*. cos B = cos b X
sin c sin c

= cos b sin A . . (4°)

By analog}', cos A = cos a sin B . . .

(4
6
)

Art. 4. Thus a variety of combinations may be made

and each relation proved geometrically.
By grouping and comparing these various formulae,
Baron Napier, a famous Scotch mathematician, discovered
a very simple device for reproducing them. Understand,
his rules are purely empirical, that is, found by trial, and
 2

2 8 SpJi erica! Trigonometry.

are not proofs in any sense; but since these

formulae can
be proved rigidly, Napier's rules make their
reproduction
easy.
Ignoring the right angle, and taking the other five
parts
in a circle just in the order they occur, but using
the
complements of the two angles and of the hypotenuse,
the rules are as follows (see Fig. -
35)
(1) The sine of any part is equal to the product of the
tangents of the two parts adjacent to it.
(2) The sine of any part is equal to the product of
the
cosines of the two parts opposite (not adjacent) to it.
For example :

Sin (Co. A) tan (Co. c) tan b.

Since, sin (Co. A) cos .1 and tan (Co. -

c) cot r,

COS .1 COt C tan b,

which is formula (3*) already found.

c .a

Co.B

Fig- 35-

Again, sin (Co. A) = cos (Co. B) cos a,

or COSi4 = sin Bqos which

>
(7, is formula (4*).
Again, sin (Co. c) - cos a cos /;,

or » c os c = cos a cos which is

/;, (1), etc.
 Spherical Trigonometry, 229

Art. 5. It is to be observed that if three certain parts

are to be combined in an equation, one must be chosen,
to which the others are either both adjacent or both oppo-
site, inorder to use Napier's rules.
Suppose, for example, A and c are given in a right
spherical triangle and the other parts are required. The
case stands thus: [given ?
\ f required<

B\ since A and c are the known parts and

-First, to find
B is to be found, an equation between A, r, and B is
necessary. Of the three, A, c, and B, A will not answer
for the middle part, for c is adjacent and B opposite c, ;

however, has both ,4 and B adjacent to it, hence by rule 1:

sin (Co. c) = tan (Co. A) tan (Co. B)

or, cos c = cot A cot B
cos c
whence, cot B= = cos c tan A (whence B is found)
cot A

Second, to find a : of the three, A, c, and a, A cannot be

middle, nor can c> for in neither case do the other two
occupy the same position relative to it; but a has both A
and c opposite to it. Hence, by rule 2,

sin a = cos (Co. A) cos (Co. c)

or, sin a = sin A sin c (whence a is found)

By a like procedure, find the formula for b.

Art. 6. A quadrantal triangle is one having at least
one side a quadrant (90 ) in length. Its solution can be
easily reduced to that of a right spherical triangle by using
its polar.
Example. Solve the triangle in which a = 90 B = ,

65°, £ = 8o°. Constructing the polar triangle and calling

corresponding sides and angles a', b' y c\ A', B', C, we
 1

230 SpJicrical Trigonometry

have by Geometry, a' = 180 — A, b' = 180 - B, c' = 180

- C, A' = 180 - a, £' = 180 - J, C" = 180 - c\ hence
4' « 180 - 90 = 90 and A'B'C is a right spherical
f
triangle, a being the hypotenuse.
To find b.

.\ sin (Co. B') = cos (Co. C') cos V or cos B'

= sinC" cos //
whence, cos (180 — b) = sin (180 — r) cos (180 — B)
or, — cos b = (sin c) (- cos B) = — sin c cos 2?
that is, cos /; = sin c cos B, etc.

EXERCISE I.

Right Spherical Triangle (C - 90 ).

1. a - 39° 21' 3**. /» = 69° 21 ' 13"

2. B - 112° I0' II* ,4 - 88° 14 ' i7"
3. b = 56° 25' 42", c = 6i° 23
4. A - 76° 30' 5*'. a = IIO° 17 »4' '

6. A = 67 29' 39". b = 79° '9 '9" '

6. B = 42° 47' 58", a = 25° 32 '47"

B - b =
tt
7. 98 45' 1
58° 8
8. c 9 o°, C = 104 10' 15", B = 70° 16 26" '

9. c = i6^° 14' 12", b - 112° 38 10"'

10. c = 102 27' 6", a - 99° 1 '33"

11. A = 53° 49' 36", B - 78 29 14"
12. B — 83 ° 44' 22", c = 10° >9'
13. b = 32° 47' 18", A - 8o° 3° 20"
14. a 29 18' 18", B = 39' 27"
142
15. A = 152 21' 21", B = 149° 7' 9"
16. a = 90°, <: = 94 20' 37", b = T-° 15' 28"
7i

Isosceles Triangle.

Art. 7. The spherical isosceles triangle depends upon

the right spherical triangle for solution in exactly the same
way that the plane isosceles triangle depends upon the
 Spherical Trigonometry. 231

plane right triangle. An arc of a great circle drawn

through the vertex perpendicular to the base, divides the
isosceles triangle into two equal right triangles, which are
readily solved.
Art. 8. The analogy between plane and
in process
spherical trigonometry is maintained an in the solution of
oblique spherical triangle, which is made to depend upon
the solution of right spherical triangles, by drawing an arc
of a great circle through one vertex perpendicular to the
opposite side, thus forming two right triangles, which,
however, are not equal unless the original triangle is

isosceles.
Art. 9. These two right triangles having a common
side (the arc), enable us through it to find the relation
between the opposed parts of the oblique triangle, since

they are on both sides related to this common part in a

way we have learned to know.
Let ABC (Fig. 36) be a spherical triangle, with sides a,
b, c. Through C draw the great circle arc CD _L to AB
at D. Call CD, h AD, m and DB, n.
; ;

In the right triangle ACD (b being the hypotenuse),

taking h as a middle part, with A and b sin h = cos ;

(Co. A) cos (Co. b) = sin A sin b.

 232 Spherical Trigonometry.

Likewise, in CDB ; sin /* -= sin B sin a.

.*. sin ,4 sin b = sin B sin a, Two angles and

or, A sin B : sin : : sin a : sin b (i m ). opposite side, or
n
Similarly, sin A sin C : : : sin a : sin c (i )
two sides and
sin B sin C '
: : sin b : sin c I
opposite angle.

Put these formulae into the form of a rule.

Art. 10. Again, in the right triangle CBD }

cos a = cos // cos n < OS // cos (c- m) ,

(since ;z = r - mQ
= cos h cos r cos ;;/ cos // sin r sin m (1) [cos (c - ;;;)

= cos c cos m + sin c sin ;;/], but cos // cos m = cos b

(in the right triangle ACD) and,

cos // sin w = X sin m

- m
rcfor cos 1
/; = cos 1
// cos ;;/, .\ cos //l = cos b n

= cos X = cos b tan ;;; = cos b

3 m cot b

= sin 6 cos.l for cos .[ - rot 6 tan ;;;,

cos 1

tan ;;/ = .

, also
,

cot b cot h
J

Substituting these values for cos // cos m and cos h

sin m in (1),

= m
cos a cos ft cos c -f sin b sin c cos A . . . (2 )

By similar process or by analog}-,

cos b = cos a cos r + sin <z sin r cos B .

(2
n
)

cos ^ = cos a cos /> 4- sin <z sin /? cos C . (2 )

Napier's rules are applied in every case above.

 Splierical Trigonometry. 233

Art. 11. From (2™), solving the equation for cos A,

cos a ~ cos b cos c

cos A = ( X)
sin b sin c
which gives A, but in inconvenient form.
Hence,
j. cos a — cos b cos c (subtracting both
sin b sin c sides from 1)

sin b sin e + cos 5 cos £ — cos a _ cos (b — c) — cos a

sin 6 sin c sin b sin £

cos (b — c) — cos a _ — 2 sin ^ (6 —c+ a) sin -J-

(b — c — a)
sin 6 sin c sin 6 sin c

[By formula 18, Plane Trigonometry, calling P= (b — c)~\

and Q = a,
=
2 sin 4- (6 c + a) sin j- (a-b + c)
sin 6 sin c

["for — sin x= sin ( — x) , hence, — sin J (6 — £ — a)l

|_=sin J[- (6 — c — a)] = sin £ (a-b + c).
Let 5 = £ (a + 6 4- c)

then, s — a = % (b - a + c)

s — b = h(a — b + c)

s — c = % (a + b — c).

Substituting these values above,

2 sin
—
\ (6 — c + —
a) sin
—
t (a - J + c)
I — COS AA = ;
l

sin b sin c

2 sin (s — e) sin (s — &)

sin b sin £

but, 1 - cos A = 2 sin

2
A .4 (by Goniometry),
2 sin (5 — c) sin (s — b\
"
- 2 sin2 * '4 = sin 6 sin c

sin (s — c) sin (s - b)
m
or, sin* hA= sin b sin c
"

(3 )
234 Spherical Trigojiomctry.

By a similar process with (2") and (2") or by analogy,

sin (5
(s
V
— a) sin (5
(s — c)£ n
sin 2 * 5 = .

sin a sin
•

c
. . .
w
(3 )

sin (s — a) sin (s — M
, 1

sin a sin &

By adding 1 to each side of equation (.v) the value

1 + cos A = cos 2 1,
A can be easily found to be:

cos' J A -
8in
sin
fsin(,-q)
/> sin r
.... ( 4-)

Likewise, cos 2 A £ =
sin a sin c
~~
.... (4")

and cosHC = si "" in( '- r

) .... ( 4 «)
sin /> sin a

n n
Dividing (3-) by (r) ; (3 ) by ( 4 ) ; (3 ) by (4 ),

SM* * A = ,,
sin (.v-,-^ sin ( .?-/»)
tan 2 i j
^
cos Jj4 2
sin 5 sin (5 — (/)

tM i ijB ."fa('-«)"»fr-g) . .
(5 -)
sin 5 sin (5 — />)

tan- 4 C = sin fr - a) sin (5 - b)

-
_ ( ^
sin 5 sin (5 c)

Art. m have the least common

12. (5 ), (5"), (5 )

multiple,

sin Q - a) sin Q -
;
j) sin (s - c) _ T
2
, bd) ,
,

sin s

/ sin (5 - a) sin (s - 6) sin (s - c)

V sin s
 Spherical Trigonometry. 235

If r be divided successively by (5™), (5"), and (5

2
)

and the roots of the quotients extracted, the results are :

m
tan \ A = (6 )
sin (s - -a)
r
tan \ B = (6") Three sides.
sin (s --b)

r
tan 1 C= (6°)
sin (s — c)

Attention is called to the analogy between these re-

sults and the corresponding formulae under Plane Trigo-

nometry. They will be found to have exactly similar
application, and the use of r is as before a great simpli-
fication of the labor in solution of triangles.
Art. 13. Reverting to formula (2™),

cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A>

and substituting the values of a, b, c, and A in terms of

the sides and angles of the polar triangle, (.r) becomes

cos (180 - A
) - cos (180 - B') cos (180
;
- C)
+ sin (180 - B') sin (180 - C') cos (180 -a')
or, -cos /I' = (-cos 5') (-cos C ) + (sin B') (sin C")
r

(-cos a')

or, cos A' = - cos B' cos C" + sin B f

sin C" cos a'.

It is clear that the accents have no significance except

to distinguish the parts ofone triangle from the corre-
sponding parts of its polar. Since a relation has been
found between the parts of this single triangle among
themselves, and since this triangle, although it happens
to be polar to a certain other triangle, is not in any sense
a special kind of triangle, the above result is perfectly
general, and the accents may be dropped hence, ;

cos A = — cos B cos C -f sin B sin C cos a. (7

771

)
 —

236 Spherical Trigonometry.

Likewise,

cos B = - cos A cos C + sin A sin C cos b . (7")

cos C = - cos 4 cos £ + sin A sin £ cos c . (7 )

Art. 14. By treating (7*), (7"), and (7 ) exactly as

we did (2'"), the following formulae arise:

_
- cos 5 cos (5*- .-1
)
[where S - A]
sin 21
ha ~~ (S
>

^
sin JJ sinC L^+* + (

sm~ \ b= :
— —
Sill .1 Mil C
L iP )

snr^c=
. - ,
- COS
sin
—— B—
S I

.1 sin
/oox
l» )

sin B >in C
cos-a 1
&-
;
a
S- :
4) cos (5
/-.
-
. . • •
,
V9
,

)
J
sin .1 sin C

cosMr- ^ (S - A) cos (S-B) (9#)

Mil .1 Sill B

tan a £a-
- Em cos (S
— v
,g
s
—- ^
- • • •. ( IO )
J

tan'U--
*°
- CQS ^ CQS
cos (5- A)
J^(S-C)
cos
. . . . (10-)'

tan'*,- —^\
cos (5 - .1) cos (.S -
=r
7i)
• • • - (-*)

m found to be
The G. C. D. of (io ), (io"), and (io"j is

cos 5 - R2 , say.
cos {S - A) cos (5 - 15) cos (S - C)
.-. tanifl = 2? cos (5 - .1) . . (ii")l
tan h b -X cos (5 - B) . . (>>") Three angles
tanic = i?cos (5- C) . (n°)J
 Spherical Trigonometry. 237

Note. —
It is to be observed that + C = 2S is A+B
always greater than 180 and less than 540, by Geometry,
and hence S is always greater than 90 and less than
270 ; and hence cos 5 is always negative, by Goniometry.
Therefore, — cos S must be always positive so that the ;

values of the radicals in this last article are never imagi-

nary in a real triangle.

n
Art. 15. Dividing (5™) by (5 ) we get

tan 2 \ A _ sin 2 (s — b)

tan 2
\ B sin 2 (s — a)

—
or,
tan A«
tan \
—AB = — sin
sin (s
(s
)
—
b)'

a)

or, tan \ A\ tan \ B : : sin [s - b) : sin (s - a).

By composition and division,

tan % A + tan \ B : tan \ A — 'tan \ B : : sin {s — b)

4- sin (s — a) : sin (5 - 6) -sin (s — a),

whence,
tan ^ A - tan j- j?
= sin (s - b) - sin (s - a) ,
p .

tan \ A + tan ^ B sin (s — 6) + sin (s — a)

But
sin ^ A _ sin ^ Z?
tan \ A — tan \ B _ cos ^ ^4 cos ^ i?

tan ^ ^4 + tan \ B sin ^ .4 sin \ B

cos \ A cos \ B
sin ^ ^4 cos \ B — cos ^ ^4 sin ^- J5

sin J A cos ^ £> + cos J A sin ^ ,6

sin {\A-\B) = sin 1 (4 - B) ,

p .

lj
sin(hA + ±B) sin \ {A + 5)
 238 Spherical Trigonometry*

Again,
- - - = 2cos^( 2 s-a- b) sin \ (a - 6)
sin (s b) sin (s a)
sin (* - i) + sin (j - a) 2 sin J (2 s - a - b) cos
J (a - 6)
["Let P = (s - and Q - 1 ft)

[0 - a) in (15) and (16) J

cos he
X
sin
= J (q —- 6)
"'-
- cot } c tan I
(fl
- ft P
Mil
J
c COS$ (a - />j
.
1

rSincc 2 5 -a+ 6
ft + £, .\"|

|_- $ - Q - b
ft =
- c
<;

.'. substituting (I\) and (P,) in (P)

sin J
1./ B -
I />)
sin ,.-/ //)
J

01 tan J (
, _ /;; = s
jM(^ («
sin J
(./ • /;

pTwo angles and included side"]

L(i2*) pairs with u:'). page 239. J

By the same process, using (5") with (5°) and (5") with
(S°)> we get,

cin 1 f R— f^\ \ Two

Tn amalM an/1
ind ;,-,
In-

sini(S + C) cluded side u") and (12")

1 1 pan 1,

lively with i-" and (»*)

V
sin A (.l+C)
Art. Using the polar triangle, and substituting in
16.
(12"'), (12*),and (12°) the values of their parts in terms
of the supplementary parts of the polar as was done in
Art. 13, arise the corresponding formula-

tan^-l -£) = sin ^-fr) C oUC Two

included
sides and
(i3 m )
sin § (a +b) angle
- (13"). 03"),
taiq(B-C)- sinHft c>
cot*.l pair respec- (13")
sin £ 4- c)
(/>
tively with (i3 x ),
sin * - f) Kpage
tani(^ -C) = ((7
coU£ (13*), (i 3
(13°)
sin J (a + c) 240.
 Spherical Trigonometry. 239

Art. 17. Multiplying together (5™) and (5"),

tan 2
\ A tan 2 \ B=
S1r2
f
s " ^
sin 2 s
tan ^- /I tan ^ B __ sin (s — c)
or,
1 sin s

As before, taking this proportion by composition and

division :

1 + tan ^ A ta n \ B _ sin s -f sin (s — c)

— — — 00
1 tan \ A tan \ B sin s sin (s c)

sin ^.4 sin -^^

1 +
But
1 + tan \ A tan \ B cos + A cos -^ 5
1 - tan i i tan i5 sin i A sin + i?
cos \ cos J A B
cos J .4 cos J B sin ^ A
-f- s'mh B _ cos (.4 -i-
— B)
cos ^ .4 cos \ B — sin \ A sin ^ B cos -J-
(.4 + B)
Also,
sin s + sin (s — r) __ 2 sin ^ (2 5 — r) cos -i- £
sin s — sin (s — c) cos h {2 s —
2 c) sin + c

[substituting s for P, and^

c) for (2 in (15) and(i6)
J
=- tan -| (a + b) cot ^ c [since 2s = a + b + c; 2 s
— c = a + b]

(y) becomes, substituting these values for its members,

cos Jr (.4 - B)
tan (a + b) cot J c,
cos i
-J-

(.4 + B)
or,
COSJrU-£)
tan \ (a + b) - tan 4 c (12*)
cos^(.4 +5)

Likewise, Two angles

tan £ (6+0 =
cosH^-Q taiU *>and included (12*)
cos + (5 + C) side.
and
tan * (a + c) =
C0S
* ^ ~ C) tan
240 Spherical Trigonometry*

By using polar triangle in application to (12^

2
(12 ), we get,

taniU+B) = co ^0 7 -^)
cqUC
-

(1 30
cos £ (a + b)

sides and
tani(S + O- ~LL£z£*
'
+ cos } (b c)
cot iA [ included angle ^3')

tan lU+O-— cos j

<*** (13*)

Art. 18. By using formula- when 2 •

1 1

sides and an opposite angle, or 2 angles and an opposite

side are given : Formulae -ides are
given ; formula- ii u' , 11 . when 3 angles aie
given ; formula- |
1 2 \ u '.hen two
angles and the included side- are given; formula (i3 m ,

l
3% (13*1 13 . when two sides and the incl
angle are given, any spherical triangle may be completely
solved.*
Art. 19. KwMi-ii. Given .1 135 21' 21"; a =
117 10' iS": b - 78 23' 40".

To find B. sin . I : sin B : : sin a : sin b

sin .1 sin /;
sin B =
sin </

log sin B = log sin A l-

log sin /; 4- colog sin </

log sin A = log sin (180 — A)

- log sin 44 38' v/' 9.846771 - i<
log sin 78 2}' 40" «- 9.991029 — k
colog sin a «* colog sin (180 - a)
= colog sin 62 — 4() — 42" ---
0.0;

log: sin B = 19.888585 - 20

= 9.888585 - 10

B = 50 41' 21".
* Solutions of examples involving formulae (12) and (13) will be
found on page 251.
 Spherical Trigonometry. 241

To find Formula (i2 w) contains the known parts a,

c.

b, A, B and the unknown c, with no others hence by solv- ;

ing it for tan \ c, the value of c may be found.

In (i2 m) then, tan \ c = sm I U + B) tan j ( a _ j)

sin -i-
(4 - 5)

4 = 135° 2l' 2l" a = 117 10' 18"

# = 50° 41' 21" b = 7
8° 23' 40"
4 + 5 = 186 2' 42 /r
a - b = 38 46' 3 8
,/

,4 ~ £ = 84 40' 00" 1 (a - 5) = 19 23' 19"

21"
i (4 +5) - 93° 1'
1 (A - 5) = 42 20'

log tan \ c = log sin £ (4 + B) + colog sin £ (A - B)

+ log tan -J (a — 6)
log sin £ (4 + 5) = log sin [180 - £ (4 + £)] - log
sin 86° 58' 39" - 9-99939 6 - IO

colog sin % (A - B) = colog sin 42 2c/

= 0.171699
log tan \ ( a — b)
= log tan 19 23' 19" = 9.546459 - 10
log tan \c - 9-7 I 7554 - 10
4 £=27° 33' 30"
r
* - 55° 7

To find C, use formula (13™) in the same way.

Example. Given A = no° 36' 24"; 5 = 122 8'

42"; C = 140 20' 18".

Here the three angles are given to find three sides, hence
formulae (n m), (n n), (n°) apply.

2 log R = log ( - cos S) + colog cos (5 - A )

+ colog cos (S — B) + colog cos (5 - C)

242 Spherical Trigonometry.

A = IIO° 36' 24"

B = 122° 8' 42"
C - I40 20' 18"
2 5 - 24
S = 373 -
32 — 42
S = 186 —
5 - A - 75 - 56 - 18
5 — B = 04 - 24 — 00
S — C = 46 - 12 — 24
log (- cos.S') - log - [ - - S)] 1

= 6° 32' 42" - 9.997180

1' — 10
colog cos (5 - . 1 )

= COlog cos 75" 56' 1

,614] 59
colbg cos (5 -
B) colog cos 64 ji' 0.364430
colog cos (5 - C)
= colog cos 46 1 2' 2 4" — O . I

a logR - 1.135c
log* - .5677565
log tan ] a log K :
log S
- - .1 )

log tan ] b - log R + log cos (5 - 5)

log tan $ c = log K • log cos (5 - C)
log R -5677565
log - i4) « ^48 - 10
log tan \a 5-IO
.
}* -41 S
= S3 S3 *& a
f

log* = -5 6 775 6 5
log cos (S - B) = 9- 6 3557° - IO
log tan \ b = 10.2033265 — 10
lb = 57° 5,6' 51"
ft- US 53' 42"
= .5677565
log/2
l og cos (S — C) = 9 .84034 9 - ic

log tan £c = 10.4081055 — 10

•
= 68° jo' 36"
c- 137 i?' 5*"
 Spherical Trigonometty. 243

EXERCISE II.

Find unknown parts of following triangles :

1. a = 57°56'42" b = 137° 22' 18" C= 9 4°47'i2"

2. 5 = 131° 17' 24" C= 94° 48' 24" «= 57° 56' 36"
3. ,4 = 68° 34' 5=130° 4 8' 24" C= 94 i'36"
'4. a =149° 24' 24" b = 129° 48' 24" c= 67° 19' 12"
6. c = 88° 12' 20" 6 = 124° 8' 17" C= 50° 2' 1"

6. /!= 76° 13' 42" 6= 96° 49' 6" c= 83° 18' 25"
7. a = 48° 48' 48" 5=i39°2o' 3 o" c= 84°3 9 '29"
8. A= 65° 41' 16" £= 109° 33' 22" c= 78° 42' 36"
9. £ = in°44'46" b =102° 37' 14" C= 89° 27' 15"
10. a = 83° 40' 40" 5= 68°i8'i7" C = 49° 11' 10"
11. 6= 26° 5
6'
4
8" B= 39°io'45" C=i 4 5°35'36"
12. a =100° 47' 9" 5= 99°36'i 3 " c = 87° 49' 27"
13. ,1= 127° 32' 25" 5= 112° 57' 42" C= 75° 55' 45"
14. a - 6S° 3 8'48" 6= 73°42'37" c = 58 i7'i6$*
15. C=ii3°io' 7" 5= 98° 43' 14" c = 7 i°2i' 8"
16. a- 39° 7' 7" 6= 77°33'ii" C= 82°2 3 '
5
2"

17. 5= 109° 22' 11" 6=ii9°i2 /

43" C=i02°37'i 9 "
18. .4 = 133° £= 6' 4" 91° 48' 24" C= 78° 43' 58"
19. b- 44° 33' 20" B= 86° 25' 18" c= 22° 16' 40"
20. A= 97° 27' 32.4" 6= 62° 14' 17.3" c = °
59 52 4"
'

21. a= 49°57'57" b = 51° 42' 37" c= 82° 42 'i8"

22. .4 = 112° 46' 33" 5 =109° 27' 23" C= 98° 7' 36"
23. A= 56° /

5 6 56" b= 79° 28' 43" c= 62° 3 o'2i"

24. B= i2i° 19' 39" o- 8i°57'i6" C= 85°47 /
3
2"
 PART VI.

APPLICATION OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.

Article 20. Most frequent application of Sphei
Trigonometry is made in Practical Astronomy and Navi
gation.
In these sciences, the Spheri< al Triangle tak
form, known as the Agronomical Triangle, the earth's
surface bein spherical, and hence the
1

meridians as great cin l<

In the accompanying figure, 57, ABC is the horizon;

Fig. 37.

FGII is equator projected on the sky, called the

the
equatorial; PZA IS the meridian.
The observer is supposed to be at the center, O, the
point Z being the zenith, and P the north pole. 5, being
any celestial object, SM IS called its declination.
its altitude, (A) ; PL the latitude (/) of the observer at O.
Hence in the Spherical Triangle ZSP, ZS — 90 — h\
SP = 90 - d; ZP = 90 - /: also the angle AZX be-
-44
 Applicatioii of Spherical Trigonometry. 245

tween the great circle (vertical circle) through S and Z,

and PZA the meridian, reckoned from the south point
through the west point, is called the azimuth, (a) of S.
The angle ZPS, between the great circle (hour circle)
PSM through 5 and P, and the meridian, PZA is called ,

the hour angle, (/) of S.

Hence in the triangle PZS = 180 - (in theAZN
figure) and AZN
is found by subtracting the azimuth

from 360, when it exceeds 180 .

Art. 21. Example. What time does the sun set in

St. Petersburg, lat. 59 56', on the longest day of the
year?
On the longest day of the year the sun is farthest north,
and its declination on that day is always 23 27', the
angle its apparent path makes with the equinoctial. Also
at setting it is on the western horizon, hence its latitude
is zero. .-. in the ZSP, ZP = 90 - / = 90
triangle
- (59° 56') - 3o° SP = 90 - d = 90 - (23° 27')
4';
= 66° 33 ' and
; SZ = 90 - h = 90 .

We have then a triangle with three sides given, which is

Fig. 38.

solvable by the method explained previously, or since

it is we can use its polar which
also a quadrantal triangle,
will be a right triangle.
Then in the figure ( 3 S), drawing the polar xy z, since
 ;

246 Spherical Trigonometry.

the hour angle / is required, we must find side /'

/' = 180 - t.

y = 180 - 90 = 90 z - 180 - (90 - /) = 90 4- ; /

x = 180 — (90 - d) = 90 + J, and /' is hypotenuse.

By Napier's rules, /' being a middle part to % and c the

otherknown parts, sin (co. /') - tan (CO. x) tan (co. z)

or cos /' = cot x cot z. Substituting values above, cos

(180 - /) = cot (90 + d) COt (90 -

whence, — cos / = (— tan d) — ( tan /), or cos /

= — tan d tan /.

That is, / - tan (23° 27') tan (59 56')

lo^ tan 23 27' - 9.63726 — 10

log tan 1
- 10
log («— cos f) 10
/ « 180 - (48 31' n 131 28' i6 ,r

or in time, / 1

[5
= 8 hr. - 45 min, — 53 sec.

That is, the sun sets about 8. }'» o'clock P.M.

Again: On a given day the sun's declination is
l8°35 / JVT. At 3 o'clock P.M. its altitude is 48 22'.
What is the latitude of the plai I

Z/W. we have here, ZPS (l) = 4s°[3

In the triangle
X15;] SP = 90 - J = 9 o°- [iS°3 5 'J= 71 25'; and
ZS = 90 - h =90° -[4S ::'] 41° 38'. to find Z/> = 9 o
— /. That is, we have two sides and one angle given, from
which the third side ZP is readily found.
Art. 22. Since the longitude of a place is the same as
the difference between its local time and Greenwich time.
if Greenwich time is known at any observation, the hour

angle as calculated above will give local time, and hence

the longitude is easily found.
Every ship carries chronometers with Greenwich time,
and therefore this method gives its longitude readily.
 Application of Spherical Trigonometry 247

Art. 23. There another class of problems whose

is

solution is much by the use of Spherical

simplified
Trigonometry. For example, let it be required to find the
angle between the lateral faces of a regular octagonal
pyramid, whose edges meet at an angle of 18 at the
vertex.
In the pyramid ABCDEFGH - K to find the angle be-
tween the faces, say between ABK and CBK. Take B
as the center of a sphere of
any convenient radius ; the
surface of this sphere will in-
tersect the three faces ABK,
CBK, and ABCDEFGH in
the sides of a spherical tri-

angle, which will be isosceles,

because the pyramid is reg-
ular.
Call this triangle MNP (as
represented in Fig. 39), the
sides being m, n and p, ac-
cording to our usual designa-
tion.
By geometry, /_ ABC = A M B
arc p = -| [2 right angles Fig. 39-

X (8 — 2)] = I right angles = 135 . Also, since the

pyramid KBC (or KB A) is isosceles.
is regular, Hence,
since BKC (or BKA)= 18 KBC (or KB A) = ,
i (180
")- That arcs m and n = 8i°. is,

By dropping a perpendicular arc from P to MN , say

at jR, the isosceles triangle is divided into two equal right
triangles, wherein m (or n) = 8l° and RN (or RM) = %
(135 67 3o
)
=;
. Whence i zl P (the required angle) is
easily found.
Again : Through the foot of a rod making an angle m
with a plane, a straight line drawn making an angle
is

n, with the projection of the rod on the plane.

243 Spherical Trigonometry.

What angle does the rod make with this tin

MN be the plane, and 0.1 the rod, OC its projection, and

OB the line inthe plane. With as a center describe

a sphere with any convenient radius. It will Intel

the planes of the three lines in the right spherical tri-

Fig. 40.

angle MNP, whose sides will be m

w. and p. of which m
)

and n are known. With m and known, it will In-

;/

to find p , which equals

the lOB< Why
is the .spherical triangle a right one? It will be
that while these problems can be solved by Plane 1

onometry methods, the solutions are greatly simplified by

the application of the spherical.

Area of Spherical Triangle.

Art. 24. By Solid Geometry the area of a spherical

1
l.R
triangle is given by the formula : , E being the
1 So
spherical excess [(.4 + B + C) - 180] in the trial

expressed in spherical degrees, and R is the radii

the sphere.
To use this formula it is clearly necessary to know the

three angles.
 Application of Spherical Trigonometry. 249

However, the value of E can be found from the three

sides, by the formula tan 2 \ E = tan \ S tan \ (S-a)
:

tan J (5 — b) tan J (5 — c) wherein a, 6, and c are the ;

three sides and 5 = i (a -f 6 4- c).

Example Find the area of the spherical triangle,
.

whose sides are a = 69 15' 6", b = 120 42' 47", c =

:

159° 18' 33", on a sphere whose radius is 7918 miles.

a = 69
° 1:' 6"
b = I20° 42' 47"
c = i59° 18' 33"
a + b + c = 2 5 = 349° 16' 26"

5= 174° 38' 13" i-S = 87 19' 6V

S - „ = 105 23' 7" J (5 - a) = 32° 4 i' 33*"
S-b= 53° 55' 26" J (S - b) = 26 57' 43"
S-c- 15 19' 4o" * (5 - c) = 7 39' 5°"

log tan h S = 11.32942 — 10

log tan 7 (5 - a) = 10. 1 1805 - 10
log tan + (5 - 6) = 9.70644 - 10
log tan J (5 — r) = 9.12893 — 10
log tan 2
\ E = 20.28284 - 20
log tan \ E = 10.14142 - 10
\E= 54° 10' 5"
E = 216° 40' 2€>'*

may be expressed if £ be reduced to sec ,

180 648000
onds (since 180 must also be multiplied by 3600).

logT-^
648000
—- 4.68557 - 10

log E" = 5.89210

log7 9 i8 2 = 7-797 2 4
log area = 8.37491
area = 237088889 sq. miles.
250 Splicrical Trigonometry.

EXERCISE III.

Applications of Spherical Trigonometry.

1. A ship's captain ol the sun's altitude to be

14 iS' at 6 o'clock A.M. The almaiuu fili-

ation as 1S 36' N. What is the ship's latitude?

2. ship in latitude 50 13' finds the sun's altitude
If a

to be 16 20' at 9 o'clock A.M., Greenwich time, the

sun's declination being 21° 6', what is its longitude?

At what time will the sun rise at Melbourne, lat. 37

3.

49' S.' on the longest day in the southern hemisphere,

sun's declination being -

4. What angle dors tin- shadow on a sun-dial plate

make with the gnomon a! 3 P.M, in latitude 40
5. Find the latitude of the I which the sun
at 9.30 P.M, on the I lay.

6. In what latitude will the sun I

ally in the
northeast point on the longest day?
7. The moon's path makes an angle of 5° 8' with the
eeliptie, in which the rth's shadow lies. A
section of this shadow is circular in form with it

on the ecliptic, If the radius of the moon is 15

how far must the moon he from the U >n of its

path with the ecliptic, that it may just touch the shadow,
that is, begin an eclipse ?

Example i . T wo s ides ai

iven, = 92°
a 37' 40" 7
C=io8° 48' 1

= 44
b 5 3 12 1

a + b = 137 29 5- 1 \ (a + 6)- 68 44 56
a — b = 47 45 28 i }(<*-&)- 23 52 44
 Spherical Trigonometry. 251

The pair of formulae applying here is (i3 m ) and (13*),

tanH^-^)= Sin Ha "^

"
cotiG
* (i3 m )
sin \ (a-b)
— b)
+ B) _
cos % (a 1
tan * (4 cot i C (13 )
cos -J-
(a + 6)
log sin A (a — 6) = 9.607245 — 10
colog sin \ (a + b) = .030584
log cot hC = 9.854906 — 10
log tan \ (.4-5) = 9.492735 - 10

i(A-B) = i7° 16' 29"

h (A + 5) =61 1 49 logcos^ (a-b) = 9.961138-10
Add;.4 = 78 18 18 colog cos h (a + &)= 0.440745
Sub. 5 = 43
; 45 2° log cot ^C = 9.854906-10
log tan h {A -^5) = 10.256789-10

Example 2. Two angles and included side

Given, 5=128° 50' 18" a = 69° 8' 38"

C= 54 46 10 !<* = 34 34 19
5 + C=i83 36 28 1(5 + 0=91 48 14
B-C= 74 4 8 U£-C)=37 2 4

The pair of formulae applying is (12") and (i2 y)

tan ±
sm 2 (H-C) •
2 (b-c)=
V ;
t (l2«)
sin* (B + C)
, , -,, , v
= cos i(J5-C)
*-*
. ,
tan J (6
v
4- c)
J
z tan * a .

-
cos 1 (5 + C)

It is to be observed that § (5 + C) being greater than

qo°, its cosine is negative. Its sine and cosine are found
in table by observing the rule, sin x = sin (180 - x) and ,

cos x = — cos (180 — x).

 5

252 Spherical Trigonometry.

log sin \ (B-C) = 9.779^09 - 10

colog sin J (5 + C)
= 0.00022 1

log t an h a = 9 .83830 2-10

log tan ^ (6-0 -9.618352 - 10

^(b-c)= 22 33' 6"

£(6 + 0= 86 43 30 log cos A /.'
C)- 0.002 152 -10
6—109 16 36 colog cos \(jB + C)= 1.501
C- 64 10 24" log tan \a= 9.838302-10
tan* (6 + a=II 2 42442-io
-

The finding of c in Example 1 and .1 in Example 2 baa

been explained in Article 19.

Additional Problems on Oblique Triangle.

1. Two
observers notice rocket explode in the air at
.1

elevations of 6o° 30' and 45 15' 2 * respectively.

° If

the interval between the flash and the report of tfo

plosion is 2 \ sec, for the first observer, what is the in-

terval for the second ?

2. A ball is thrown south with a velocity

sec. from a train running 78.6'
per >uth 30 15
What is the velocity of the ball

with respect to the earth ?

3. In laying out a railv

curve (see 1
r
ig. .1 I
to conna t

C two pie* es of straight tra< k DB

and IK\ two points E and F
Fig. A.
arc taken in the prolongation

of DB and HC (meeting at I , By measurement

Z.AEF = 43° «*' Z AFE =27° 44'. and EF = 413'
Find Z .1 and the distances DE and FIL radius of curve

being 2000'.
 Spherical Trigonometry. 253

4. In bevel gear wheels (Fig. B), AD = 2r, AB = ir\

Z DCO = m, Z
ACP = n, y = OCP between shafts. Z
Show that - = sin m If
r' sin (y — m)
the rates of revolution (o> and a/)
are inversely as the radii, show
*
., .
tnat tan m = 0/ sin y
f-
w + o)' sin y
— .

5. ^4.6 is the crank of an engine

(Fig. C), ££ the connecting rod,
D and C the extreme positions of
the end E, so that DC is the length
of the stroke. If in any position
AD makes angles $ and <£ with
AB and BE as shown, prove that
AE = AB cos</> + BE cos 6 and ;

since ,4£>= ,4£ + ££, find DE, distance traversed by

the piston while the crank moves through any given
angle.
6. The distance from a point

on the ground 2 4' from the foot

of an abutment to a point 49' up
its inclined face is 58'. What is
Fig.C.
the inclination of the abutment ?

7. A section of a tunnel is the shape of a rectangle

capped by a segment of a circle. The height of the rect-
angle is 12', its width is 18', and the height of the center
of the arch is 17'. \ mile long, find the
If the tunnel is

amount of excavation and the radius of the arch.

8. The distance between conning towers on a battle-
ship 250'; the range-finders stationed in these towers
is

show respectively angles of 87 ° 15' and 88° 25' when

focused on a distant ship. What is the range ?
9. In making a survey the line AB runs directly through

a barn. A line BC 698.27' long is then run so that A is

visibL from C, whence the angle ACB is found to be
254 Spherical Trigonometry.

59 18' 30", and the distance CA measures 964.12'.

Find AB in length and direction.
10. To find the height of a distant flagstaff AB, a line
xy was measured on the level ground at place of obser-
vation, 520' long. Also the horizontal angles xyB (to
the base of the staff) and yxB were found to be 139 25'
20" and 26 28' 30" respectively What was the height
if the elevation of the top of the staff at y was 29
24/?
In running a line for a survey a swamp was encoun-
11.
tered. A point .1/ was then taken from which both ends
AB through the swamp were visible. The line
of the line
MA was found to .">'.
1 Mil, 859.74/, and angle
A MB, 70 2;/ 40*. Find length and direction of AB if
AM ran S. 28 15' K.
 PART VII.

VECTORS.

Art. i. Geometrically a line has been regarded as

possessing merely extent, without regard to its direction
except as an incidental matter. It is, however, useful to
attach a special importance to its direction as well.
With this additional quality a line is known as a vector.
Hence a vector may be defined as a directed line.

Fig. i.

For example, the line AB (Fig. i) is carefully distin-

guished from BA.
As these lines are coincident and equal in extent, the
method of distinguishing them by signs suggests itself.
That is, if AB is positive, BA is negative, and it may be
said that
BA = - AB.
Again, if from A a line extends in any other direction than
AB, it is clearly different from AB, although it may be of the
same length, as AC (Fig. i), for direction is now an essen-
tial quality of a line.
As vectors have extent as well as direction, AD (Fig. i)
would be distinguished from AB although it is part
of it.

255
256 Vectors.

A pure number, as for example the length of AB, AC or

AD in ordinary linear units, is called a scalar. As illus-
trations of scalars might be mentioned magnitude, weight,
time, etc. As illustrations of vectors we have der- 1

ations, trigonometric function-, etc.

A vector consists then of both a scalar and a vector
part.
It may be said, for example, that .1/) 3 AI\ where §
is the scalar and AB is th pari <>t 42?.
The idea of direction is the essential quality of thevi
part; magnitude is the essential quality of the scalar part.
A vector is said to equal zero, or to be a null vector as it is

called, when its magnitude is /cm. Evidently it may be

regarded as a geometric point.

Ai: 1
. 2, As a line may be regarded as a path <
>f a moving
point, it is sometimes useful to consider vectors from this
standpoint, especially in vector addition.
Since determined both by magnitude and
vectors are
direction, parallel vectors, having the Same extent and taken
in the same direction, are equal; and hence also, vectors
not parallel cannot under any circumstances be equal.

A B

"
C D
Fig. 2.

That is, if two vectors AB and CD (Fig. 2 , are equal, they

must be parallel.
Also if

CE - \ (7?

then 2 AB (since AB = CD).

So a vector may always he expressed in terms of a parallel

vector. How would EC be expressed?
 Vectors. 257

Art. 3. Addition and Subtraction of Vectors.

To meet the new conditions it is plainly necessary to
agree upon laws for the fundamental operations of addition,
subtraction, etc.
These laws are arbitrary, but are recommended by
experience.
Recurring to the idea of a moving point, it may be said
that the sum of two vectors is the straight line from the starting-
point to the final position of the point that successively and
continuously traces them.

Fig. 3.

For example, to add MN and PQ, starting with the point

M ' let a point trace M'N' equal in length and parallel to MN
(hence vector M'N' = vector MN), then P'Q' = PQ.
Clearly the point would arrive at Q' as well by traversing the
vector M'Q', hence it is said M'Q' = M'N' + P'Q' or

M'Q' = MN + PQ.

It follows, of course, from the fact that parallel vectors of

equal extent are equal, that it does not affect a vector in any
way to transport it parallel to its first position.
This same definition of addition is easily extended to any
number of vectors.
 r
258 [ ectorSi

Let it be required to add the five vectors .1, B, C, D and

£, say (Fig. 4). Let the point trace successively the vectors

"\§p'

beginning with .1, tin- directions being indicated by the

arrowheads; it will end at v. It would have < learly reached
the same point by traversing the vet tor xy l
hei

xy A + B+C D /••

Fig. 5.

As algebraic subtraction is merely a form of additioi

is vector subtraction a form of addition. Bearing in mind
that reversal of direction reverses the sign of a \
 Vectors. 259

that BA = - AB for example, it follows that AB - CD

may be written

AB + (- CD) = AB + DC, since DC = - CD.

Let it be required to find the difference between two vectors

x and
m
y. Let x —
Tracing x and then —
y be required. v,

directions being indicated by arrowheads, the result is

equivalent to the vector MN. (Fig. 5.)

Find A + B-C+D-E (Fig. 4).

Art. 4. It is evident from the explanation of vector

addition that the order in which the component vectors are
added is indifferent.
If A B
y f
C, D, etc., are a number of vectors whose sum is

required, the final position of the traversing point will

clearly be the same whatever be the order in which it describes
the vectors; that is,

A+B+C+D=B+C+A+D=D+A+C+
etc.

is merely a phase of addition it makes no

Since subtraction
difference some of the vectors are negative. Hence the
if

ordinary commutative law of algebraic addition applies

 i

260 Vectors,

here. Again, if the sum of two more vectors is added to

<>r

another vector, the result is the same as if the vectors had

all been added successively in one sum. For exampl
.-1, B, C, D and E he five vectors I
Ig. 6), then A + B
+C+D+E - .w, also .1 •
/; (' •
D=«a and
xz +E= x\\

(A ! B + C + D) + E = A + B + C + D + E.

I akew

(.1 + B+ Q + D-\ E [A B + C)+ D

= .1 B (' + £> + /:.

Hem e the ft '" j Ui\ I addition also holds true with

vector-.

Art. 5. It will It observed that the sum of tw<

i> the diagonal of the parallelogram of * hie h the two \< < tor-

arc adjacent sides, the diagonal being the one joining their
when both \<
extremities, tend in the same direction
and hence tan be described by a point moving al
ward from the origin ^i the first to the extremity of the
second.
If both vectors radiate from one point, the diagonal
drawn from their common point represents their sum, as

Fig. 7.

(Fig. 7) vectors XM and X P have NQ as sum, for from P

(starting with A*) draw the vector PQ = NM %
then bj
rule NP + PQ - NQ t
or NP + NM = NQ (since PQ =
NM).
 Vectors. 261

Art. 6. From the definitionsand illustrations of vector

addition it is plain that the sum
of any number of vectors
forms one side of a polygon, whose other sides are the com-
ponent vectors, and hence if the terminus of the last vector in
a sum coincides with the origin of the first vector, thus
forming a closed polygon, the sum is zero. This has its
•
illustration in physics where any number of forces are in
equilibrium.
The sum of two vectors radiating from the same point,
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed
upon them, suggests immediately the physical law of com-
position of two forces.
As might be inferred from the similarities cited, vector
processes have a wide and very effective application to
physical problems.
It is to be observed that the rules laid down above for
addition and subtraction, as well as those for multiplication
and division to be hereafter established, are purely arbitrary.
The sum two vectors might have been given an entirely
of
different meaning if desired, but the method of addition
already explained has been found to give best results.
Once defined and adhered to, they are entirely effective.

Art. 7. A simple reference to the definition makes it

plain that the algebraic rule for signs in addition and sub-
traction holds with vectors. For example, it is evident that
AD + (— BC) = AD — BC, for this latter expression is the
same as AD + CB (where BC is reversed) by our under-
standing of vector addition, and + CB = — BC.
Hence with vectors as with scalars, H = — ; = +,
etc. Again, by a simple application of the principles of
similar polygons, it follows that x (A B) = xA + xB,
+
where x is a scalar, and A and B y
vectors.Thus: in Fig
8a let MN = xA and PQ = xB. Then adding and MN
PQ, (Fig. 8b), where NQ = PQ, MQ = MN + PQ.
Also, let ab = A; be = B (Fig. 8c), then ac = A + B.
262 Vectors.

But A MXQ and abc are similar since xA must be //

to A (x being a scalar coefficient only) and xB is to /2,
'
'

hence ZA = Z 7
6 and A MX :
Lving the
same ratio, x)\ .'. MQ has the same ratio to ac\ that

----
.!/(.> .v./r (i)

But J/g JfiV • /\) - xA + xB

and ac - .1 B

.v.l + xB = x A +B

Fig. 8a. Fig. 8b.

A
Fig. 8c.

BXRRCI8R*
i. Prove x (A - B) = xA - xB.
2. Prove (x ';-
y) A xA v.l (where x and y
:- are
scalars).

3. Prove - (.1 h JJ)= - .1 - />.

4. Prove x(A +B+ C) - *i4 + *J3 + a<

5. Prove .v(.l-/i|-('-/) v.l - *B f xC - *Z).

Multiplication.

Art. 8. Since a vector has magnitude as well as direc-

tion,and magnitude is a scalar quantity, we can rcpn
any vector as made up of a unit vector, indicating direction,
and a scalar coefficient, indicating its magnitude. It is
 Vectors. 263

to be understood that multiplying a vector by a scalar alters

its magnitude only and does not at all affect its direction.
Representing unit vectors by the small letters, corresponding
to the capitals representing the entire vectors, and repre-
senting the scalar coefficient by a capital S with a subscript
or by the unknown quantity letters x, y, z, etc., we may say,
for example,
Vector A = S a a.
Art. 9. Since scalars are ordinary algebraic or arith-
metical quantities, the usual associative and commutative
laws of algebra apply to them; for example,

xyzA = x(yz) A = (xz)y A = (yz) xA, etc.

It may further be assumed that if

A = Sa a
then a = -— ,
'
etc.
Sa
Art. 10. Since the ordinary rules of algebra apply to
scalars, vector equations may be treated, through their
scalar coefficients, as are algebraic equations.
For it is the coefficients in any equation that determine the
relation of its parts or its relation to other equations. For
example, in the algebraic equations,

ax + by = c,

dx + ey = /,

the coefficients a, b, c, etc., determine the relations of x and y

So in the vector equation,

xA + yB + zC = o,

it may be said that

xA = - (yB + zC),

x
264 / 'it tors.

Also two or more vector equations may be combined as

simultaneous, as, for example,

A + 2 B— C,

3 A + 4 B= D,

^ive as results in the usual way,

a I
( - /?

and /I = I) —

Definitions.

Art. 11. Vector- parallel to the same straight line

said to be coUinear; parallel to the same plane are
(Ophnuir.
If no straight line can be drawn parallel to two or 1

rectors, they arc said to be tum-coUinear] if no plane

Can be drawn parallel to three or m<»re vectors they are
non-(oplin<ir.
Evidently, from geometry, a plane can always be dr
parallel to any / re, but two vectors that are not
parallel may be regarded as non-coplanar with res]

but one plane.

Since a vector may be transported parallel to itself, if

three or more vectors are coplanar they can be moved until

all are in the same plane and they would there inn
(or their prolongations would intersect) unless parallel,
and hence they could be expressed in term- of each other
(by addition or subtractions If any two or more were
parallel any one of these parallels could be expressed in terms
of the others by using scalar coefficients.
It is clear that if there are but two vector- neither could be

expressed in terms of the other unless they were parallel,

for they could only intersect in one point, and hence two
vectors may be always treated as if non-coplanar, since it is
 Vectors. 265

the ability or non-ability to express vectors in terms of each

other that is important.

Art. 12. As a result of these definitions the following

rule may be established:

// two equal vectors are expressed in terms of other non-

co planar vectors , the coefficients of like vectors in the two
expressions are equal.

That is, if

M = SA - S B + S C t 2 Z
. . . . (1)

and N= SA -SB- SC 4 b Q . . . . (2)

and M= N
then S x
= S S = S S = S
4
,
2 5, 3 6 .

For, subtracting (1) from (2),

M- N= (St - S A + 4
) (S2 - 5 B+ 5
) (S 3 - S 9) C. (3)

But M- N= o,

and since .4, B and C are non-coplanar they can have no

relation to each other, hence the only way that

o = (S x - S A - S -
4
)
2
S- )B+ (S 3 - S C6)

is S — S4
x
= o, that is St = S4 ;

5 2
— S = 5
o, that is S2 = S5 ;

53 ~ Sq = °j that is ^3 = ^6'

From what was said in the previous article this relation is

always true when equal vectors are expressed in only two

other vectors, unless these latter are parallel.
 r
266 \ ectcrs.

Applications.

Art. 13. To prove that the diagonals of a parall

bisect each other.

UNPQ be a O (] the sides UN and

being th< Lively, Lei the diagonab
MI* and QA
i/A' \\ir.

Mr 1 B by definition of additioi

MR %MP X . .

(where .v rati., of \£R to \iP t

to be shown ] .

Also (WV 1 B \n.

Then QU yQ V y I 5)

(v being ratio of QR to QiV, unknowi

In triangle Jf(MJ

C MR MQ QR - A' h vH
or C = yA + (1 - v B (2)

From (1) and (2),

v = v and .v = 1 - y (by Art. 12),

whence a* = J, y «= t.

That is, S#Ji = * J/P and Q/2 = J (IV.

 Vectors. 267

Observe that the object has been to get two independent

expressions for the line involved, M R, since there were two
unknowns (x and y), just as would have been done in an
algebraic problem. The same result would have been
achieved by expressing MR in terms of MN
and (or NR
RN), and also in terms of MQ and RQ (or QR); thus,
MR= C= MN + NR= A + x (B - A)

and MR = C= MQ + QR = MQ - RQ
B-y(B- A);
=
x = ratio of NR to NQ; y = ratio of RQ to NQ,
whence C= (1 — x) A + xB
and C= (1 — y) B+ yA.
x=
.'.
y.

Hence NR = RQ.

To Divide a Line in a Given Ratio.

Art. 14. Let it be required to divide the line MN in the

ratio p :
q (Fig. 10). Take any convenient point as O, out-
Mr

Fig. 10.

side, for reference, and draw vectors OM = A; ON = B\

and OP = R, P being the point that divides the line in the

given ratio. Then R=A + MP = A + -^— (MN) (by

p + q
addition), also MN = B A (by principle addition). of

.'.R=A+^-
P + q
268 Vectors.

This last equation completely determines the length and

position of R.
Clearly the position of O is a matter of indifference, so
that we can fix it for greatest convenience.

Center of Gravity.

Art. 15. The principles of vector relations already

enunciated furnish simple solutions of the problems involving
center of gravity. The two following law- of physics are
readily applied to that end through vectors; namely,

t. Theceni
lies on the line connecting them, and divides this line into
two segments which at dy proportional to //.

For i 1 G. of i
;
:.^ of
bodies, each system may he re pi ding
the a omposing the system,
and situated at the C. G. of the system.

Multiplication of Vectors.

Art. 10. A- the vector ha- a twofold quality, namely

scalar and \v< tor, two kinds of multiplication are suggested,
scalar and vector multiplication.
The scalar product i- usually referred to as the di
product; the vector product i- known a- the skew product.
The Scalar product 0) two rectors is arbitrarily C

algebraic product of their magnitudes and the cosine of the

angle between them.
This product which i- evidently a scalar quantity (being
the product of scalars, hence the name) may be repre-
sented thus, letting A and B he vectors,

A yB= Sm Sb cos 1. B).

From this method

of indicating the multiplication by a
dot in a V
sometimes called dot multiplication.
it is

It follows immediately from this definition that if two

vectors are parallel their product is equal to the numerical

 Vectors. 269

product of their lengths, since the angle between them is

zero if they extend in the same direction; 180 , if they

extend in opposite directions. In the first case the product
is positive, since cos o = 1 ; in the second case it is negative,
since cos 180 = — 1. Hence also the product of a vector
by itself, represented in the usual way, as its square, is

A v A = SJ
Again, two vectors are perpendicular the angle between
if

them being 90 and cos 90 = o, their product is zero.

,

If the dot product of two vectors is o, then, either one of

them is a null vector or they are perpendicular. Hence, if
the dot product of two vectors neither of which is null, equals
zero, they are perpendicular.
Likewise, if the dot product of two vectors is equal numeri-
cally to the product of their lengths, they are parallel.
The scalar or dot product of two vectors follows the
ordinary rules of Algebra, as to the associative and dis-
tributive principles.

Art. 17. The scalar product of two vectors may be given

a very simple geometric interpretation as follows:
The projection of one line upon another is always equal
to the length of the projected line multiplied by the cosine

Fig. 11.

of the angle between them; as (Fig. 11), EF (= AG) is the

projection of AB on CD. EF = AG = AB cos BAG =
AB cos BCD.
270 Vectors.

The definition of the dot product of two vectors is then the

product of the magnitude of one by the projection of the
other upon it.

It is easy to prove from the laws of projections the state-

ment made above — that scalar multiplication obeys the
distributive law.

Plane Areas as Vectors.

Art. 18. Since plane- have direction, as well as straight

lines, there is no inconsistency in regarding plane are
vector quantity. Certain conventions are then 1

to so represent them. A plane area bounded by

curve (which doe- not cut itself) is regarded a- positive, if,

with reference t<> a pencil describing it, it lies always t<> the
left looking down upon it; negative if it lit- to the right.

Fig. 12.

Clearly the same area would be positive on one side of the

plane and negative on the other (Fig. 12), The plane area
cbd would be positive when described by the pencil ab above
the plane; negative if described by ct below the plane, always
looking toward the plane. The definition may be modi-
fied thus: a plane area is positive with respect to a point, when
itsboundary is described in a counter-clockwise direction,
looking from the point toward the plane; in the clockwise
direction, negative.
 Vectors. 271

It is agreed, further, to represent the area (since it is a

vector quantity) by a linear vector whose magnitude equals
numerically the area, and whose direction is that of a
perpendicular to its plane on the positive side; extending

Fig. 13.

away from the plane; thus (Fig. 13) A is the vector repre-
senting the area yxz, if the length of A equals in linear units
the area of yxz in square units. This conception of a closed
area has a special application to electric currents flowing
in closed circuits, as the lines of force pass from the negative
to the positive side of the plane.

Art. 19. As a geometrical application of the product

of two vectors, one of which is an area bounded by a closed

Fig. 14.

curve, the following will serve. MLet 14) be such an

(Fig.
area represented by the vector N be any other vector.
M, and
The volume of a cylinder of height H and base M MXH is
272 Vectors.

[M merely representing area of base], but H is evidently

the projection of N
on Af, that is,

H= S 2
cos (Af, N) (where M= Sxm\ N= S 2
n).

.\ volume = M X II = S v% cos (.1/, AT) [S, and 52 being

the magnitude- of M and A'].

That is, volume -- M \/ X [M being here the vector

representing area .1/].

dot product of two vectors, one of which is a plane

The
area bounded by a closed curve, is the volume of a cylinder
with the area as base and the other vector as element.

Applications of Dot Multiplication.

Art. 20. To prove that in any triangle the -urn of the

square- of two of the sides equals twice the square of half

Pig. 15.

the third side plus twice the square of the median. Let
(Fig. IS) A y B and C be the vector sides of the triangle

MNPy and I) be the median.

Then A = \C+D (Q being middle of MP

By multiplication law,

A s/A = A 2 = \C 2 +D 2
+ CyD. . .
(i)

Also, B= D - \C.

Whence BvB = B - D + 2 2
\ C - CvD
2
. . (2)
 Vectors. 273

Adding (1) and (2):

A2 =C2 + D2 + C D
\ •

B =\C 2 + D 2 - C D
2
•

A +B = 2{\C) + 2D 2
2 2 2
.... (3)

Say the scalar lengths of A, B, C and D are respectively

*^a> ^bi ^ci ^d'

Then by principle of scalar multiplication (3) becomes,

Sa2 + S = b
2
2 (\ + 2 (.S^) or in the figure
Se ) 2 2
, geometri-
cally, MW 2
+ PN = 2 JlQ + 2 QX as was
2 2 2
, required.

Again: to derive the trigonometric formula for one side of

a triangle in terms of the other two sides and the included
angle.
Let A, B and C be the vector sides of the triangle (Fig. 16),

then C= A - B,

whence CvC= C = A + B - 2 2 2
2 A v B.

If S a Sb and S c
, are the scalar lengths of A, B and C,
respectively,
S 2
= Sa + S - 2 S a S
2
b
2
b cos (.4, B).

That is, geometrically,

PAP = MN 2
+ PN - 2
2 MN PN cos MNP.
•
274 Vectors.

< EXERCISE.
i. Prove that the sum of the squares of a parallelogram's
diagonals equals twice the sum of the squares of two of its

sides.

2. Show that the square of the hypotenuse of a right

triangle equals the sum of the squares of it- le

3. Prove that if the perpendicular from the vertex of a

triangle upon it- base, bisects it- base, the triangle is is si eles.

4. In a right triangle, -how that the square of either leg

equals the product of the hypotenuse and the projection
of that leg upon it.

Art. 21. It i- a natural inference that since vector- con-

sist of both scalar and vector parts, these should both mani-
fest themselves in a combination of vect&rs. The product
already considered i- a /
the designation,
scalar product.
There i- al ted from the
twofold nature of vectors.
The vector product of two vectors normal is a vector,
(perpendicular) to the posi and extend- heir plane
ing from it, whose magnitude is the pn duct »f the magnitudes 1

of the two vectors and the sine of the angle between them,
estimated from the first vector (in the product to the seconcL )

This product is represented by the cross multiplication

sign in a Y; thus,
.1 B

and is known as the cross product or vector product.

Let the unit vector- he represented by the small letters,

then in the equation above,

B v/ C = SS h c sin (B, C) a = A.

Since sin o = sin 1S0 = o, and sin 90 = 1, if two vectors

are parallel their vector product (cross product) is zero.

 Vectors. 275

Hence if neither of tivo vectors is a null vector and their

vector product is zero, they are parallel {or coincident).
Hence, also, A ty A = o.

If B and C are adjacent sides of a parallelogram, their

product, B ty C = S S sin (B C) b c a, say, is the area of the
parallelogram.
This is often taken as the definition of the vector product
of two vectors.

Art. 22. This vector product has two obvious and simple
applications to mechanics that may be cited here.
For example, if F and — F are two forces forming a
couple, then if G is a vector drawn from any point of F to
any point of — F, the product,

F</G,
represents the moment of the couple. Again, the velocity
of a particle rotating about an axis (whether it is an isolated
particle or belongs to a rotating body) is the product of its

angular velocity and the radius of the circle it describes.

For instance, a particle on the earth's surface, 23 27'
N. latitude, describes the Tropic of Cancer; its velocity is the
product of its angular velocity and the
radius of this tropic.
Let A (Fig. 17) be a vector along the
axis, magnitude (S a ) representing
in
the angular velocity. Let x be a par-
ticle and B a vector from any point, z,
of the axis to x. Then A ^ B = SaS b

sin (.4, B) c where c is a unit vector _L

to the plane of .4 and B (by defini-
tion of vector product). But S b sin
(A, B) = xy = R, and Sa = angular
velocity; .'. velocity of x = Sa R =
Fig. 17.

That is, the product of two vectors, one of which represents

in direction the axis of rotation of a particle and in magnitude
276 Vectors.

its angular velocity, while the other is drawn from any point
of the first to the rotating particle, represents the velocity
of the particle.

Art. 23. A ^ B, rotation from A to B

If, in the product
is from B to .1 is clearly negative;
positive, then rotation
that is, A vy B would be a normal from the positive; B A.
from the negative side of the plane. Hence, the Factors in
a vector product cannot be reversed without changing the
sign of the product.

Art. 24. The distributive law applies to vector multi-

plication, provided that the order of the factors is carefully
observed. That is,

(A </ B) V (' -
A$C + B$(
or .1 V (B VC .1 • B A

but (.1 v iu v Cis not equal to

A C + C v Bnor to C 1 + B^ C.
This may be proved by the aid of
( Geometry a- follows:

Let .1 and B be two sides

triangle taken successively (Fig. 18),
then the third side \> — A — B
or - (.1 + B). Let /) he another
vector in a different plane. Com-
plete a prism with the triangle as
base and /) as edge. The are
the parallelogram faces are,
Fig. 18.

A D, B D and - (A + B) V D.

If the area of the original triangle (lower base) is

\ [A \/ B) then the area

y
of the other base is — J (.1 \y B),
 Vectors. 277

since they are viewed in exactly opposite directions (looking

from outside). As the prism is a closed figure the sum of
these vector faces is zero; hence,

AVD+BVD+-(A + B)VD+%(A + B)
- \ (A + B) = o,

whence A </ D+B D= (A + B) V D.

If the third vector D is in the plane of A and B, a. fourth

vector may be chosen outside this plane, and the result is
the same.

Applications.

Art. 25. The addition formulae for trigonometric func-

tions are easily derivedfrom the dot and cross products.
Let V and V m and ft two unit
be two unit vectors;
vectors -L to each other in the plane of V and V.
If x is the angle made by V with /;?, and y is the angle

made by V
with w, then by theory of projections,

V= cos x • m+ sin x • 11

and V= cos y • m+ sin y •

n*

* This will be plain from accompanying figure. a may be

moved # to itself to Q-R; draw OP _L to Qi? from O. Then QP =
w cos x, PR = « sin #, and QP + PR = a.
278 Vectors.

By law of dot products,

VV V = cos (V, V) = cos (v - x) (since V and

V are unit vectors),
and FV F'= COS X COS + v sin g sin y (since ;?/ Vm= 1

and f»Vn =0, m and n being -L; cos x, cos y, sin .v, siny
being scalai

.'. COS (y — X) am COS J!

COS X + sin V -in .V.

Again, r v
7 P= sin d\ V*)c sin (v - a

and I P ( cos v sin x sin y cos .v ><-

[since
;;/ V ;;/ =a o, ;>/ V ;/ — 1, and ;/ V ;;/ = + 1].

.'. sin (v — x) sin v i

os x — cos v sin .v.

EXERCISE.

1. Prove cos (x + y) = 1 sin x sin v.

2. Prow sin (x 4- v) = sin x cos y L cos x sin v.

3. If B and C arc the vector sides of a triangle, pi

J,
that area \ S Su sin (.1, S | (l |

Suggestion: A triangle is half the parallelogram formed

on two of its sides.

4. Show that in the triangle MNP with sides »/, //, />,

wsin P= p sin .1/, etc.

Triple Products.

Art. 26. The product of two vectors only has been con-
sidered, but the products of three vectors, known as triple
products, are of equal importance at least. The produi
any number of vectors can be readily reduced to triple

products.
 Vectors. 279

The product {A V B) C is easily interpreted, since A VB

is a pure scalar, so that the product abovemerely a vector
is

with a scalar coefficient, and is readily understood. The

parenthesis is usually omitted, as B C could have no mean-
ing as yet.
The product A V (B ^/ C), however, requires interpreta-
tion, since it is the product of two vectors, one of which is

itself a vector product.

Since the dot product of two vectors is always a scalar,
the above triple product is a scalar. Also, since (B ^ C) is

a parallelogram whose sides are B and C (Art. 21), its

product with A immediately suggests the volume of a

Fig. 20.

parallelopiped as in Fig. 20. Evidently this volume may be

considered positive if the normal representing B ty C, and
A both lie on the same side of the plane of B and Also, C
clearly, if A, B and C lie in one plane the product is zero.

Hence, if the product A V (B C) or {A </ B) V C of three

vectors is zero they must lie in the same plane. Hence, also,

if two of the vectors are equal or collinear the product is zero.

A reference to the figure will show that (.4 V B) V C =
A V (B y C) since they equal the volume of the same
parallelopiped, the sign being the same. As a rule, then,

in a scalar triple product the cross and the dot may change
places without affecting the product^ as long as the order of
the vectors is not changed.
 r
280 / ectors.

The parenthesis used above A ^ (BV C) is unnecessary, as

would mean nothing since is and A a vector, B V C a scalar
and there can be no vector product between scalar and
vector.

Art. 27. A third type of triple product is :till possible,

viz., A</ {B^ C). Since (B a vector JL to the plane

of B and C, and the CTOSS product of A with this v<

that is, A </ (B V C), IS another vector _L to their plane,

this last vector must lie in the plane of B and C; that is,

A V (B^C) is a vector in the (B, C plane, HeD

can be expressed in term- of B and C' (Art. 11). That is,

.1 B .
Ci = 5jfl :
5

Likewise, (.1 v B l
'

will lie in the i.l, B) plane; hence,

/;, v/C= S 3
A + 54B, say.
These two value- are manifestly different, and therefore,

.1 7 {B V('i is no/ equal to (.1 / B

Expressed thus,

.-1 v (5 v C) ^ (-1 v B) V C.

The parenthesis is therefore important, and the associa-

tive law does not apply. It is likewise apparent that the order
of factors cannot be changed. It is readily shown that the

product of more than three vectors reduces to one of the

triple products, but the exposition of this process is beyond
the range of this book.*

Some General Applications to Mechanics.

Art. 28. Referring again to the principle of moments,

viz., that the moment of a force about a point is the product
of the force and the perpendicular upon its line of action

* See Gibb's Vector Analysis by Edwin B. Wilson, Ph.D.

 Vectors. 281

from the point, it is evident from Fig. 21 that the moment

of the force F about O is F X OM (ordinary multiplication).
But a force may be regarded as a vector although it differs
in general from a vector, in that, if the point of application
of a force is changed, although the force remains parallel

to the same line and does not change magnitude, its effect
changes. However, the laws of composition are exactly
like vector addition, and in general it can be treated in com-
position just like a vector. Hence, in the case above, the
moment of F (regarded as a vector) about O is given by the
equation (letting m= moment),

7)t = F S? G (where G is any line from O to F).

For, OM = ON sin MNO.

.'.OM XF= F X ON sin MNO = F V G.
The magnitude of this product will be the numerical
value of the moment, and its direction indicates the direction
of the impulse.
Again, it is evident from the laws of vector addition that the
resultant of two forces, regarded as vectors, acting on a point
is their vector sum, and that if several forces acting on a
point are in equilibrium their vector sum is zero; in other
words, they, or their equal vectors, will form a closed poly-
gon. Hence, conversely, if the vector sum of any number
of forces acting on a point is zero, there is equilibrium.
Since the scalar product of two vectors involves the pro-
jection of one on the other (Art. 17), the resolution of a
 2&2 Vectors.

force into components in definite directions is automatically

accomplished in scalar products. For example, by mechani-
cal law, work equals force multiplied by di-tance, say,

\V= F X D.

If F acts at an angle to D, the scalar product,

FvD,
gives W just the same, for

FS/D= Sj /'.
D . and

Sycos (F, D) is the component o! F acting along I) = XM

(Fig. 22).

Fig. 22. Fig- 23.

Again: Velocity is evidently a vector quantii

acceleration). Hence,
vector addition gives a simple
graphic representation of change in velocity. For example,
suppose water enters a turbine wheel at the rate of 50 feel
per second, and leaves the wheel at 2 feet per second The
entry angle is 12 and the emission angle i> oo°.
Let A (Fig. 23) repre>ent the velocity at entry, and B that
at issue, then C represents the fall in velocity, since

C= A - B, etc.
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