MODULE 1

AR 138 / AR 0327
PLANNING 1

SITE PLANNING AND LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

SITE PLANNING—in its narrow sense:

a. Involves the disposition of space for appropriate uses

b. The positioning of structures to provide effective relationship(well-proportioned masses
with attractive outlooks and good orientation)
c. The provision of access to the structures in an expeditions, attractive and safe manner
d. The design of the services, walks, streets, parking facilities, drainage and utilities
e. The preservation of the natural advantage of the site and its enhancement by landscaping
-In its larger sense:
o involves consideration of the site in relation to the physical pattern and economic
growth trends of the larger area of which it is part

An analysis of the area should be made based on:

a. Population growth
b. Family formations
c. Family size
d. Housing inventory
e. Income levels
f. Schools
g. Taxes and assessment
h. Transportation and traffic patterns
i. Directions of growth

An analysis of site development costs should be made based on:

a. Terms of densities
b. Housing types
c. Construction types
d. Topography and grading
e. Local requirements with regard to :
Zoning
Subdivision regulations
Utility services

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Principles of neighborhood planning:

1. SIZE- A residential unit development plan should provide housing for that population for
which one elementary school is ordinarily required, its actual area depending on
population density.
2. BOUNDARIES- The units should be bounded by arterial streets sufficiently wide to
facilitate traffic by-passing the neighborhood instead of passing through it
3. OPEN SPACES- Small park and recreation spaces, planned to meet the need of the
particular neighborhood should be provided.
4. INSTITUTION SITES- Sites for the school and other institutions having service spheres
coinciding with the limits of the unit should be suitably grouped about a central point or
common, and combined with neighborhood recreation area, usually
5. LOCAL SHOPPING CENTRE- If warranted by the population to be served the local
convenience shopping facility should be located at the edge preferably at an arterial
traffic junction and adjacent to similar commercial districts, if any, of adjoining
neighborhoods.
6. INTERNAL STREET SYSTEM- The unit should be provided with a suitable street
system, each highway designed to facilitate circulation and to discourage its use by
through traffic
 sites are provided for parks, playing fields and recreational area
 church sites are provided for convenient locations
 there is a central shopping area with off-street parking
 Two school sites are provided, reasonably accessible from all parts of the
neighborhood. The catholic school is off-centre because it also serves adjoining
neighborhoods.

HOUSING TYPES

 No longer considered good practice to limit housing within a subdivision to one type and
price range
 There is a variation-for larger sites, single family dwelling houses may vary, high rise or
the garden type may also be possible
 Apartment and town houses provide transition between commercial and less dense
residential areas

Single family dwelling housing: lot sizes: 18.00 m minimum width-because of the
popularity of the one-storey house.
Row houses or town houses are aplenty because of their economical use of land and low
Site development costs.
Rental housing: for a more attractive appearance these are built at lower densities and

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 with more emphasis on open space and often includes club-like amenities, 15 to 25
families per half hectare.

LOT SIZES AND DEVELOPMENT COSTS

The cost of raw land and the cost of installing streets and utilities have greatly increased
in recent years.

STREETS: Conformance with master plan for the city is usually a requisite for any subdivision
plan. As a rule, this applies to major streets.

 No major street may traverse in any subdivision or residential area

 When in the boundaries major streets are an asset- becomes an access to the other areas in
the community
Considerations in street patterns:
 fire protection – hydrant location
 access to other buildings
 curvatures of curbs at intersection,
 cul-de sac, turn around
 street pattern should discourage through traffic

Subdivision street types:

 collector streets – those carrying traffic from minor streets to arterial streets with a paved
area of 10.9 m consisting of two moving lanes and two parking lanes
 minor streets – depending on the off-street parking provisions must be 8.00 m for the
single family dwelling detached and 9.60 m for row houses and apartments
 short loop access – such as culs de sac or loop streets, paved area minimum of 6.00 m

SIDEWALKS:

The design of sidewalks should be governed by local regulations. 1.20 m is the customary
design of sidewalks. The new one is 3.00 m: 1.20 for planting strip and .80 m for the pedestrian
walk.

CURBS:

The rolled curb is more economical than the straight curb.

LOT LAYOUT:

The lot layout in a subdivision can make the difference whether attractive or unattractive
and economical project.

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TOPOGRAPHY:

 Can influence the character of a subdivision

 Hilly land with grades steeper than 10 percent may be developed for low density,
higher priced homes
 Gently sloping land is best for low priced homes

SUBDIVISION REGULATIONS:

Subdivision of the land is a permanent change which determines the use of the land for at
least a generation and affects the surrounding area.

 The public interest is concern and local governments exercise strict controls over
this important function
 Generally require conformance with established standards of design and
construction such as:
 Streets – location, types, rights of way, pavement widths, and
specification, grades and curbs, gutters, sidewalks, alignments,
curvatures
 Blocks – length, widths, crosswalks, utility easement
 Lots – size, shape, minimum dimensions
 Open spaces – types, shapes, sizes
 Utilities – storm and sanitary sewers, culverts, bridges, water
service, monuments
 Names – of area and streets and street numbers

Landscaping and fences may be controlled as to placement and height. This may be desirable for
the following reasons:

a. To ensure visibility at street intersections

b. To prevent interference with surface drainage
c. To preserve a desired aesthetic character for the subdivision as a whole

Questions:
1. What is Site Planning?
2. Site planning is inclusive of the
analysis of the area and analysis of the
site development costs.
What are its bases? Discuss each.

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 3. Mention the guiding principles in neighborhood planning and rationalize why each is
considered in neighborhood planning.
4. Why is there a necessity to adapt variation in terms of housing types, its design and the
price range?
5. Give examples of subdivision street types and discuss each.
6. Landscaping and fences may be controlled as to placement and height. Enumerate the
reasons.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

For the selection of a site for educational institutions, there must be consultation with regional
planners and agencies that possess the knowledge of the growth patterns of the community. The
basic items to be used as a reference for the selection of school site:

1. Present and future environment. Economic, social and housing make-up of the
community.
2. Integration with community planning. Potential housing expansion with regards to size,
need and location zoning requirements, limitations and restrictions.
3. Role in comprehensive school building plan. Relationships to other schools in the same
community.
4. Site characteristics. Site location – urban, suburban or rural (determines demand for
minimum or maximum space required). Percent of usability of site for building,
recreation and playfields, parking roads and services; soil conditions – water table, flood
plan, adjacent watersheds and possible suitable materials for structural applications
5. Utility services. Utilities – availability and cost of electrical services, sanitary service, (if
none, possibility of sewage treatment of septic tank); initial cost of land versus cost of
improvements.

Analysis should be made based on the specifics of the site and surrounding area, the educational
program and community relationship based on:

1. Site analysis and evaluation

a. Location: regional
Vicinity
b. Description:
Size and survey locations
Existing conditions:
 Soils – classification and uses
 Topography – contours and grade elevations
 Hydrography – flood plain, watershed, streams lakes and swamps
 Structures – existing structures, types, historic value, landmarks

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  Easements – widths and description
 Vegetation – type and size of materials
 Utilities – sanitary, storm, water, gas and electric
 Wind and sun – humidity and precipitation
 Natural features and present land use
c. Zoning
Type and restrictions
d. Environment conditions: noise, vibration and interference:
 Aircraft
 Railroad
 Auto
 Commercial smoke and smog
 Electrical
 Radar
 Industrial
e. Access road characteristics: type: paved, unpaved etc.
Width: paving and right of way
Volume: daily average and peaks
Planned improvements: widening, extensions,
expressways
Traffic patterns: regional, city and local
2. Site requirements
a. Vehicular parking requirements:
Executive
Employee
Visitor
Service
Maintenance equipment
Public transportation
b. Pedestrian: circulation
Recreation
c. Utilities: normal requirements
Special requirements
d. Miscellaneous: police and fire protection – distance, location, municipality
Exhibit areas
Community use

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 Questions:
1. What are basic items to be used as a reference for the selection of school site:
2. In Educational Institutions, analysis should be made on the specifics of the site and surrounding
area, the educational program and community relationship based on :
Site analysis and evaluation
Site requirements
What specific aspects are being considered under each?

INDUSTRIAL SITE PLANNING

Most plant construction will be done by corporate clients; therefore the source of responsibility
must be clearly established to avoid misunderstanding about the relation of the proposed type of
its plant to the site.

Selection of plant site: the site has direct influence on the ultimate efficiency of the plant.

 A consultant must first be selected before a site selection is made

 Normally the management chooses the plant site and makes the consultant design the
plant around the site conditions
 To be considered:
Physical, economic, legal, social site size, climate, land
topography, soil conditions, availability of raw materials
 Site elements:
Labor supply and union history
Tax conditions
Freight and transportation
Site characteristics
Population mix, growth and projection
Climate
Human transportation
Local industrial mix
Protection: fire, legal and police
Local politics and attitude
Local living facilities
Local educational facilities
Local recreational facilities
Freedom from natural disasters
 Plant site analysis:
Location cost fire protection

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 Size and description zoning soil structure
Site economics transport water supply
Sewage power gas
Telephone lines mail local services
Police protection sprinklers fire protection
Taxes tax attitudes local weather
Floods precipitation local laws
Local ordinances politics local natural
Resources
Prevailing wind direction
Local manufacturers (neighboring manufacturers)

COMMERCIAL SITE PLANNING

For the selection of a commercial area, the criteria below apply:

 A site available for development and located within the trade area recommended in
the market analysis
 Location easily accessible to at least one existing or shortly to be constructed major
highway, preferably to two or more highways:
For its advertising impact on passing cars, but is not necessary if suitable
access road exits between the highway and the site
 Adequate present and future capacity of adjacent highways for through traffic plus
that to be generated by the centre.
 Land cost in proper relation to total capital cost and to obtainable rents
 Adequate size and suitable shape to permit proper planning of merchandising area
and a proper number of parking spaces

 Zoning suitable to proposed use or at least a reasonable chance that zoning my be

obtained: zoning changes are often: difficult
Expensive
Time consuming
 Utilities available installed at acceptable costs
 Subsurface ground conditions that can be overcome as acceptable costs:
Rocks sewers streams swamps
 No easement or other legal restrictions that will interfere with proper planning
 Topography that will permit as near to an ideal plan as possible without incurring
excessive grading or drainage costs

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Questions:
1. What are considered under plant site analysis?
2. For the selection of a commercial area, what specific criteria apply?
3. How relevant is zoning as a criteria in commercial site planning?

SITE PLANNING CHECKLIST

The development of the underlying data outlined is critical to intelligent site planning:

I. Legal
A. Plat or boundary line survey
1. Easements
2. Right of way lines
3. Hectareage / acreage / sq. meters
4. Oil and gas transmission lines
B. Restrictive covenants or deed of registrations
C. Existing land uses and buildings
D. Zoning (existing and proposed)
1. Permitted uses or special exceptions
2. Density
3. Setbacks/ height limits
4. Coverage
II. Planning data
A. Adjacent land uses
B. Utilities
1. Water
2. Sewer (storm and sanitary)
3. Gas
4. Electric
C. Roads, alignment and rights of way (existing and proposed)
1. Major thoroughfares and freeways
2. Primary arterials
3. Secondary collectors
4. Tertiary streets
5. Service drives
D. Public parks and open spaces

III. Environment
A. Topography: minimal: ft interval

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 1. Slope analysis
B. Drainage
1. Off-site considerations
a. Watershed: above and below site
b. Existing development in watershed
c. Proposed development in watershed
d. Potential impacts
2. On-site drainage characteristics
a. Drainage patterns
b. Swales
c. Existing inlets, culverts or drains
d. Areas of erosion or siltation
C. Hydrology
1. Surface water
a. Existing and intermittent water courses
b. Floodplains
2. Subsurface: water table and aquifer
D. Vegetation
1. Tree cover: types and species
2. Under story
3. Groundcover
E. Geology and soils
1. Surface soil characteristics, noting high shrink/swell soils or high
water table
2. Subsurface geology
F. Climate
1. Precipitation: annual rainfall and seasonal variations
2. Solar analysis
3. Wind: direction and velocities

Question:
1. What specific factors are considered critical in intelligent site planning? Discuss each.

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 SITE PLANNING

3.1 Planning Objectives

1. Preservation and enhancement of the character of the site by retaining natural features,
such as ground forms, trees and other natural vegetation to the maximum extent feasible.
2. Utilization of site potential to best advantage by locating and orienting buildings so that
they are compatible with the site natural resources and in harmony with its environment,
3. Development of functional relationship between site access points, parking lots, building,
service areas and other project site elements.
4. Provision of usable site and building access for the disabled.
5. When required, provision for orderly future expansion of buildings, parking and support
facilities.

3.2 SITE ANALYSIS

The site analysis should show an accurate and thorough understanding of the existing site. It
should include, but not limited to, consideration of topography, point of access, existing
structures/utilities, trees, soil characteristics, patterns of land use, views and vulnerabilities to
flooding, erosion, Seismic activity or other threats.

A. Site Selection

Where a project site is yet to be selected, the potential site must be an area compatible
with the project usage. The site should be easily accessible, buildable and near public
utilities for water, power, sewerage and drainage for practical and economic
considerations.

B. Site Description

The site must be properly and completely described: clearly defining its technical
boundaries, showing access thereto such as highway, road or alley: indicating
easements, encroachments, approved/building lines, proposed road widening, existing
structures, utilities and trees. For site on rolling grounds or steep slope, its contour
lines must be shown at convenient intervals.

Site development must be planned to enhance the functional and esthetical

relationship of building and site. Sitting of buildings and placement of support
facilities must be such as to use to best advantage the site topography, vulnerabilities,
views and climatic conditions.

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 C. Topography

The topography of the site must be considered. Site with flat gently rolling terrain is
preferred since its development will be comparatively cheaper than a site with steep
slope. However, when the available site has steep slope, this condition must be
utilized to advantage by appropriate selection of floor levels to reduce earthwork.
Reduce earthwork by respecting the existing site’s topography and its drainage
pattern. Observing these criteria will result in site elements fitting comfortably into
the terrain. Structures, when completed, should appear as though they belong
naturally to the setting providing an aesthetically pleasing site development.

Topographic maps shall include the following:

 Massing of vegetation and location of major trees

 Rock outcroppings
 Lake, streams, river and marches
 Man-made features such as roads, bridges and buildings
 Other important features.

Boundary or property line surveys, including easements, right-of-way, and other

encumbrances on the site, define acceptable land uses, points of access, and buildable
areas. They are, therefore, strong determinants of the final design. These surveys
should bear the seal of a licensed surveyor and be legally recorded. Utility surveys
must show utilities existing on the site, including their location, sizes and elevations.

Natural site elements such a vegetation, wildlife habitats or interesting landforms are
advantageous to preserve for environmental or aesthetic reasons. The location of
endangered species habitats while limiting buildable area and influencing the cost and
feasibility of the project will in the long run be beneficial to the development.

3.2.4 Geotechnical/Soils

Geothetical characteristics greatly affect the economics of development and therefore

have an effect on the buildable area of the site. This information can obtained from soil boring
tests which normally carries with it an interpretation by a soils engineer.

The soils report, part of soils boring tests, usually contains the following information:

 Depth to bedrock (if any)

 Elevation of water table (if any) and comments on variability and flow direction
 Bearing capacity of the soil

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  Expansive nature of soils
 Location of fault lines (if any)
 Soils types
 Optimum moisture content for compaction
 Percolation rate
 Contamination from hazardous wastes (if any)

This information has important implications for engineered fill, building form, foundation
and structural design, erosion potential, drainage, and runoff.

3.2.5 Climatic Factors

In the choice of site placement of buildings, the following climatic factors must be considered.

a. Amount of rainfall and frequency and intensity of typhoons which will influence the
type of construction and drainage. Water collection and storage of rainwater is
encouraged as an alternative to piped water.
b. Precipitation. Amounts and forms of precipitation vary according to region and season.
Precipitation rates and amounts; the differing characteristics of precipitation forms are
necessary inputs to the requirements for drainage, load-bearing of structural systems,
foundation design the sizing and capacity of the mechanical systems of buildings, and the
drainage networks of sites.

Precipitation also affects construction schedules. Excessive rainfall can cause floods,
mudslides, and site conditions that may delay construction. On the other side of the coin,
low precipitation causes other problems, such as dust and an increased risk of fire.

c. Solar radiation. To reduce heat load on buildings they must be properly oriented in such
a way that the greater surface of the structure faces the North-South access. Glassed area
must consider reduced heat transmission to inner spaces.
d. Temperature and Humidity. Together with solar radiation, air temperature produces the
sensation of heat. Human comfort depends on the relationship of heat to wind and
humidity, a fact that has been recognized by meteorologists’ reports of the “wind chill
factor” and the “comfort index.” The importance of these intertwined climatic factors
varies according to season and locality and can influence location on the site as well as
building configuration and design.
e. Wind Direction. Prevailing winds on the site influence the orientation of buildings.
Window openings must be oriented to the direction of prevailing breezes especially
during hot months.

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Questions:
1. Enumerate the site planning objectives.
2. What are inclusive of site analysis: discuss each
3. In the choice of site placement of buildings what climatic factors must be considered?

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3.3 SITE DEVELOPMENT

3.3.1 Location and Orientation

Locate and orient buildings, to maximize the use of natural ventilation and
lighting, and minimize energy consumption, within the constraints of the
functional requirements, the topography and site configuration.
North- South exposure of buildings has the advantage of maximizing the cooling
effect of prevailing winds coming form the southwesterly and Southeasterly
directions. Such exposure minimizes the effect of afternoon solar heat at the
same time.

To enhance the effect of natural ventilation and lightning, buildings must have a
setback at least 2.0 m from the line and be provided with open courts
where feasible.

3.3.2 Site Drainage

Drainage is a basic site design consideration and must be done design

consideration and must be done in conjunction with sitting and orientation
of buildings, location of parking lots and roads, consideration of topography
and compliance with functional site parking lots, roads and walks must be
grade to assure positive drainage for each major site element must be
coordinated into a total drainage system.

Existing drainage ways, if any, should be utilized to retain the original character
of the site and to avoid unnecessary earthwork.

3.3.3 Grading Design

Balance cut and fill for the entire site as closely as possible to eliminate the need
for hauling earth on or off the site. If topography in areas required for parking
roadways and other site features requires cut or fill, appropriate selection of
finished elevations thereof provides a useful mechanism for balancing excavation
with backfilling for the entire site.

3.3.4 Vehicular and Pedestrian Access and Circulation

Access and circulation patterns to and within the site must be studied in the
process of site planning. Easy and direct access and smooth circulation should be
provided for vehicles and pedestrians, including disabled persons.

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 a. Vehicular Access

Access for vehicles carrying the disabled should be considered also. These
normally proceed directly from the site entrance to a building entrance
with a reserved drop-off area or to a reserved handicapped parking pace
may be portions of the lot nearest to the appropriate building entrance
provided with ramp and grab rails.

b. Pedestrian Access for Disabled

Design of Pedestrian access for the disabled should include consideration

of walks, (with slope and alignment), raps (width and slope), grab rails,
signage and drop curb transitions, maximum slope of walks and ramps
should not exceed one (1) vertical to twelve (12) horizontal, or 1:12. Since
the disabled may be using wheelchairs, walks and amps must be graded to
avoid steps and safe for wheelchair movement.

c. Pedestrian Circulation

In multi-building sites, pedestrian walks between buildings should lead

directly from the entrance of one building to that of another building.
Walk-ways should be aligned for easy recognition of the destinations.
Formal walkway designs not leading directly to building entrances should
be avoided.

3.3.5 Parking Lots

a. Number of Parking Lots

The number of parking lots shall be determined in accordance with the

requirements of Rule XIX, Implementing Rules and Regulations of P.D. 1096.
b. Lot Location

Parking lot must be located to provide proximity and direct access to the entrance
of the building or facility served to reduce walking distance to the minimum.
Vehicular access to lots from the site entrances (s) should also be direct and
obvious.

c. Parking Lot Grading

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 Parking lots must have sufficient grade to provide positive drainage for heavy
rainfall conditions and to prevent excessive pounding following rainy periods.
d. Parking Design

1) Parking design for long-term spaces shall consist of 90- degree slots in 2.50m
width by 5.00m length with two-way traffic aisles to permit the highest
capacity with the greatest economy. This design should be adopted in project
sites with limited areas.
2) The design of short-term parking may consist of either 90- degree slots
mentioned above or 60 degrees angle parking slots measuring 2.00m.
3) The parking layout must produce effective control of either one-way or two-
way vehicular circulation. Under some circumstances, one way circulation
with 60 degree slots can improve safety because of the comparative ease in
maneuvering and high turn-over rate in parking slots. The use of one-way
aisles should be based upon access/ egress conditions and available land. Dead
end parking should be avoided.
e. Multi-Basement Parking – consider emptying time, carbon monoxide build up
exhaust system
f. Above Grade Parking –usually resorted to when lot is too small to afford open
parking, or when basement parking is too cost-intensive or deemed structurally
unsound. In above-grade parking, attention must be given to visibility at entrances
and exists, impact on street traffic, ventilation and screening requirements,
clearances between levels, and clearance handicapped vans.

3.3.6 Site Utilities

a. Underground Utilities
Provide adequate underground utilities concrete or masonry trench with retractable
covers for maintenance and avoid diggings of new roads. The trench alignments shall be
coordinated with the paving, roads and landscape, including future extensions, to avoid
conflicts with these site elements. Provide the most economical run. Coordinate the
location of underground site utilities such as water supply, sewerage and drainage system
to reduce the possibility of utility crossing and contamination.

Questions:
1. How should drainage ( being a basic site design) be done when designing?
2. What are the guidelines in the design of Parking lots?
3. What should be given due consideration in the design of multi-basement parking?

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 MEASURES FOR EVALUATING THE
IMPACTS OF LAND DEVELOPMENT

IMPACT AREA

I. Local Economy Public Fiscal Balance MEASURE

1. Net change in government fiscal flow

(revenues less operating expenditures and
Employment annualized capital expenditures).
2. Number of new long-term and short-term
jobs provided.
Wealth 3. Change in numbers and percent
employed, unemployed and underemployed.
II. Natural Environment
4. Change in land values.
Air
5. Change in level of air pollutants and
number of people at risk or bothered by air
pollution.
Water 6. Change in level of water pollutants and
number of person affected, for each body
of water.
7. Change in noise and vibrations level, and
Noise number of people bothered by excessive
noise and vibration.

Greenery and Open Space 8. Amount and percent change in greenery

and open space.
Wildlife and Vegetation 9. Number and types of endangered or rare
species that will be threatened.
10. Change in abundance and diversity of
wildlife and vegetation in the development
and community.
Scarce Resource Consumption 11. Change in frequency, duration, and
magnitude of shortages of critically scarce
resources, and the number and persons
affected .
Natural Disasters 12. Change in number of people and value
of property endangered by flooding, earth-
quakes, landslides, mudslides, and other
III. Aesthetics and Cultural Values natural disasters.
Views
13. Number of people whose views are
Attractiveness blocked , degraded , or improvided.

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14. Visual attractiveness of the development development improves or lessens the
as rated by citizens and “experts.” overall neighborhood attractiveness
15. Percent of citizens who think the

Landmarks 16. Rarity and perceived importance of

cultural, historic, or scientific
landmarks to be lost or made inaccessible.

IV. Public and Private Services 17. Change in rate of water shortage
Drinking Water incidents.

18. Change in indexes of drinking water

quality and safety.

Hospital Care 19. Change in number of citizens who are

beyond x minutes travel time from a
hospital emergency room (using such time
and the community considered as
reasonable.

20. Change in average number of days

waiting time for hospital admittance
elective
surgery.
Crime Control 21. Change in rate of crimes and existing
community or new development (or
expert
rating of change in hazard).
22. Change in percent of people feeling a
lack of security from crime.
Fire Control 23. Change in fire incidence rates.
24. Change in rating of fire spread and
rescue hazards.
Recreation 25. Change in the number of people within-
or beyond- a reasonable distance (x
miles or y minutes) from the recreational
facilities, by type of facility.
26. Change in usage as a percent of
capacity; waiting times; number of
people turned away; facility space per
resident; and citizen perceptions of
crowdedness at recreational facilities.

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 27. Change in perceived pleasantness of
recreational facilities.
Education 28. Change in number of students within x
minutes walk or y minutes ride from
the school, by type of school.
29. Number and percent of students having
to switch school or busing status
(from walking to housing or vice versa).
30. Change in crowdedness “breakpoints”
(such as need for added shifts) or
indicators (such as student teacher
ratios); student teacher; and parent
perceptions of crowdedness and
pleasantness of schooling.
Local Transportation 31. Change in vehicular travel times
between selected origins and
destinations.
32. Change in likelihood of finding
satisfaction parking space within x
distance from destination or residence.
33. Change in duration and severity of
congestion.
34. Change in numbers and percent of
residents with access to public transit
within x feet of their residences; and
numbers and percent of employees who
can get within x distance of work
location by public transit.
35. Change in the rate of traffic accidents (or
expert rating of change in hazard
presented).
36. Number and percent of citizens
perceiving a change in neighborhood
traffic hazard; and change in pedestrian
usage of streets; sidewalks and other
outdoor space.
Shopping 37. Change in number of stores and services,
by type, available within x distance of y
people.
38. Change in the percent of people
generally satisfied with local

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shopping conditions (access, variety,
crowdedness).
V. Housing and Social Conditions
Housing Adequacy 39. Change in the number and percent of
housing units that are substandard
and change in number and percent of
people living in such units.
40. Change in the number and percent of
housing units by types (price or rent
range, zoning category,
owner-occupied and rental, etc.) relative to
demand or to number of families in various
income classes in the community.
People Displaced 41. Number of residents, or workers,

displaced by developments, and by whether

they are satisfied by having to move.
Population Mix 42. Change in the population distribution by
age, income, religion, racial, or
ethnical group, occupational class,
and household type.
Crowdedness 43. Change in percent of people who
perceive their neighborhood as too
crowded.
Sociability/ Friendliness 44. Change in frequency of visits to friends
among people in the existing
neighborhood the existing neighborhood
and the new developments.

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 COMMUNITY OBJECTIVES REGULATING LAND DEVELOPMENT

I. Local Economy
To keep the local government fiscally solvent without excessive taxes; to
maintain a high level of stable employment and to reduce unemployment and
underemployment in the community; to maintain prosperity; and to enable citizens in the
community to achieve levels of personal income and wealth consistent with a descent
standard of living.

II. Natural Environment

To minimize pollution, protect wildlife and ecologically important features,
preserve the natural environment and conserve scarce resources.

III. Aesthetic and Cultural Values

To protect and improve the physical and cultural attractiveness of the community

IV. Public and Private Services

 Health and Safety. To minimize illness, injury, death rates and property loss of
damages.
 Recreation. To provide a variety of accessible and enjoyable recreational facilities
and programs in the community.
 Education. To provide quality education at all levels of people in the community;
to provide as diverse educational experiences as the community requires; and to
assure the convenience and pleasantness of attending school.
 Local Transportation. To provide access to an adequate choice of community
services, facilities and employment in a safe, quick and convenient manner and to
move goods efficiently.
 Shopping. To promote adequacy, variety, convenience and pleasantness of
shopping for people in the community.

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 V. Housing and Social Conditions
 Housing. To increase the opportunity for all citizens to obtain satisfactory housing
at prices they can afford.
 Social Concerns and Community Morale. To promote friendliness, psychological
well-being and good community morale while protecting individual’s privacy and
ability to regulate their interpersonal contacts.

CLIENTELE GROUPS POTENTIALLY AFFECTED BY DEVELOPMENT

Physical Proximity

1. Persons living or working on the land proposed for development.

Issues: availability, accessibility, quality and cost of relocation housing
Earnings at new jobs
Disruption of social ties
Changing schools for children
Relative satisfaction with the neighborhood in likely new locations
2. Persons living or working immediately adjacent to proposed development.
Issues: almost all measures on impact of land development
3. Persons in neighborhoods around and near the neighborhood development
Issues: most measures are relevant for neighborhoods which may be defined by well-
mapped boundaries (as in the case of neighborhood service areas), by socioeconomic
characteristics of residents or by proximity to the development, such as “10 minutes
walking distance”. Traffic, crime, air and water pollution and crowding of major
recreation facilities are among effects that may spill over into several neighborhoods.
Impacts on noise, views, sociability and privacy tend to be more localized (but this
should be checked against the size and design of the specific proposal).
4. Persons within commuting distance (one hour by public transport, for example)
from proposed commercial and industrial developments.
Issues: those in this group vary according to the type of development. For a work center,
the people included are those within the locally acceptable commuting distance or time –
for example – one hour by public or private transportation. For a regional shopping centre
or amusement park, people in much larger areas may be included. Note that the number
of people within commuting distance cannot be fairly assessed until the effects of the
development itself on public transit service, new roads and traffic congestion are
estimated. Among the many relevant measures for commercial and industrial
developments are changes in employment, recreation, shopping availability, travel times

23
 and pollution along commuter corridors. Residential developments need to be assessed in
terms of available housing relative to job locations.

BUSINESS RELATIONSHIP

1. Business directly involved in the development, such as builders, realtors, and

bankers
Issues: Businessmen may be concerned with a wide range of economic, social, and
environmental changes that will affect the profitability and safety of their investment and
their reputation the community.
2. Owners and managers of business or property in the neighborhood
Issues: number and mix of potential customers, new business competition, public safety,
property values, quality of public service, and environmental impacts

Political Jurisdiction

1. Citizens of the local jurisdiction

Issues: changes in taxes, community fiscal solvency, local economy, employment, public
service quality, crime, natural environment
2. Citizens of nearby local jurisdiction and/or of the entire metropolitan area
Issues: basically the same impacts affecting the jurisdiction where the development will
occur also need to be considered for possible spillover effects, of which economic,
pollution, housing and transportation impacts.
3. Citizens of the city/province, region, etc.
Issues: city/province, regional taxes and revenues, public services, regional
environmental changes, city/province, region wide employment and housing patterns,
attractiveness of the industrial climate, important city/province, regional landmarks or
scenic attractions, energy consumption.
4. Citizens of the nation
Issues: national taxes and outlays, multiregional pollution, overall housing and
employment opportunities, impacts on minority and low-income groups, reservation of
national landmarks, scarce resources, cumulative effects and development trends will
generally be of more concern nationally than will impacts of single developments,
innovative developments of the zoning, of the decision making process and of criteria
used and court opinions on any of these aspects.

Socioeconomic and Demographic Groupings

1. Age groups, such as children and the elderly

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 Issues: education, traffic safety, recreation for children, public transit, housing, noise and
pollution, health hazards, neighborhood social conditions, recreation and crime protection
for the elderly.
2. Ethnic, racial and religious groups
Issues: equal opportunities for housing, education, recreation and employment,
neighborhood social composition
3. Income groups
Issues: housing and employment opportunities

Other Interest Groups

1. Tourists
Issues: landmarks, scenery, shopping, public safety
2. Landowners
Issues: people who own property, whether for use or for investment, have a special
interest in the local economy, the tax climate and the cumulative land use impacts
3. Distant viewers of the development
Issues: people at some distance of the development site (across the river or on a mountain
overlooking a valley) should be considered if the changes land use will block their view
or created (or removed) and eyesore.

The Long Term Public Interest

Issues: Considering these groups focuses attention on future generations and on all
groupings over time. Enduring impacts on physical environment, waste of natural
resources, tax trends, pollution, wildlife, landmarks and aesthetics all assume greater
importance from this perspective.

Questions:
1. What clientele groups are potentially affected by development ? Give one example for
each group.
2. How are the following impact areas for land development measured?
a. Natural disasters
b. Employment
c. Education
d. Crime Control and
e. Housing adequacy

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PRIVATE SPACES FOR PUBLIC ACCESS: THE VERNACULAR LANDSCAPE OF
THE HOTEL

The major elements of the vernacular landscape that present themselves for historic analysis
include: location near a major transportation network
Efficient circulation
Significance signage
Sound structural design and architectural embellishment
The use of vegetation of social functions deriving from cultural forces

A log tavern was often the first structure to be built within a settlement. The basic determinant
was the presence of a major path on Indian trail. These paths and trails were the only access
routes through the wilderness and the sole link between settlements. The log tavern thus became
a significant landmark as well as a place for the traveler to might rest and gain nourishment. The
tavern was the social center as well.

With the development of the turnpike system at the beginning of the 19 th century, the character of
the pioneer tavern changed. Taverns and inns now located at more frequent intervals along the
way, offering services to stagecoach travelers. Mail routes were regularized and the tavern /inn
often served as the first post office in a community. In its design and function, the turnpike
tavern retained the log tavern character of serving as a community center.

The word hotel had become popular use in the early 19 th century in many of the urban centers
along the eastern seaboard. The word means “noble house” and was to symbolize a “new kind of
community enterprise”. The single most important design innovation of the building, however,
was the grandness of its scale: a four-storey structures that housed private bedrooms, public
bathrooms; a large central lobby; numerous public rooms and a lavishly decorated formal dining
room.

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All of them are based on a sense of place and community and on an interrelationship between the
traveler and mode of transportation. These design determinants have created an efficient site
relationship between the hotel and the transportation system; signs that directly indicate the
presence of the facility to the traveler; functional architectural forms and embellishments that
enhance hotel charm and efficiency; plant design that makes full use of aesthetic and functional
capabilities and special exterior and interior spaces to accommodate all kinds of social activities.

PRIVATE LANDSCAPES

Landscape architects should strive to incorporate design features that encourage specific types of
behavior in the users of a project. The emphasis here is on specific behavior, not on general
classes of behavior. Private space implies a general class of behavior with the common
characteristics of being most frequently performed out of public view, or less likely to be
performed in public or performed there less willingly. The eventual success of a project will be
largely a function of how carefully the designer has identified the specific types of behavior that
has been encouraged in the users of a project and how well the landscape design features are
known to foster such behavior are employed.
There are two important lessons to be learned: First, predictable relationships exist between
features of a habitat and human behavior. Second, when a landscape- behavior relationship has
been identified and measured, the knowledge can be incorporated in future designs. Landscape
architecture can be advanced by taking three steps: 1.) measuring the behavior of people as they
use a completed project, 2.) assessing those features of the project that are responsible for
influencing behavior, 3.) applying such assessments to the design of future projects.
Measuring the behavior of people in a completed project is becoming more common as part of
the ‘’post-construction’’. Such evaluations, however, focus more on where people spend their
time in the project, than on how they spend their time. Although space occupancy is important;
behavior within the space is equally more important. Behavior has become the key element in a
design.

Only by thoroughly evaluating existing projects and only by building new projects, evaluating
and redesigning and then rebuilding and evaluating them can designs be improved.

The distinction between recreational and business walkers is virtually parallel to that between
tourists and commuters. The former has all the time in the world; the latter cannot afford to be
late.

PEDESTRIAN RULES OF THE ROAD

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 1. Step and Slide
This is the name given to the accommodation behaviors used by pedestrians to yield
rights- of way to people coming their way. Pedestrians take great pains to avoid
collisions, while they might mutter nastily as the deftly avoid contact caused by another’s
lack of alertness, they can be expected to step off the walk and onto planted areas to
avoid bodily contact.

2. Head over the Shoulder

A pedestrian walking behind a person less than five feet away strives to maintain a ‘’
head over the shoulder’’ relationship with the person in front. This action facilitates
viewing what lies ahead, and the other is that it prevents stumbling into the feet of the
person ahead. Walkways that are too narrow to permit “head over the shoulder”
alignment presumably create tension and discomforts for pedestrians who must crane
their necks to see what lies ahead and who must be ever watchful of the feet of the person
ahead.

3. Spread Effect
People walking on a sidewalk distribute themselves to the fullest width that the natural
boundaries will allow of there is not appreciable flow of traffic in the opposite direction.

4. Detouring
Pedestrians are inclined to return to their original line of walk (the same corresponding
position in the sidewalk) after being diverted by oncoming people. Every pedestrian
seems to have a position on a sidewalk relative to the positions of other pedestrians and
physical objects.

5. Perceptual Objects
Pedestrians tend to react to noticeably distinct parts of the pavement (such as gratings) as
obstructions to be avoided. If blocks on store windows were brightly colored or given
distinctive designs, they could be used as viewing areas to be frequented by window
shoppers but avoided by passing pedestrians.

Principles by which pedestrians appear to regulate their walking behavior:

a. They tend to follow the “shortest distance between two points” principle
b. Avoid sharp and rapid changes in the direction of the movement
c. Choose easy over difficult routes
d. Avoid stairs, ramps, overpasses and underpasses whenever possible
e. Prefer routes with some interesting stimulation
f. Keep from 12 to 18 inches clear of building and walls

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Rules:

1. Pedestrians select the shortest routes connecting points of departure (door, entranceway,
bus stop, street crossing, street corner, etc.) with points of destination. This rule of
behavior probably fits the business walker best.
2. The pedestrian’s selected route must not lead to collisions with physical objects or other
pedestrians. Provisions must be made in the design of walkways to enable pedestrians to
escape collisions and avoid physical obstruction easily.
3. Pedestrians select routes that do not require sharp and rapid changes in the direction of
movement. Pedestrians avoid making turns that exceed an angle of 30 degrees, their
routes tend to be curvature rather than triangular. This rule might explain the worn-out
planted areas adjacent to right-angle walkway intersections. Pedestrians inadvertently
trample a lawn or other foliage in an effort to round out their otherwise angular routes.
4. Pedestrians adopt routes that are the easiest, fastest, most convenient and comfortable to
traverse. Routes that are noisy, crowded, narrow, affected by the spray of fountains and
sprinklers and unprotected from adverse weather tend to be avoided. Pedestrians will also
reject routes that are difficult to traverse because they are covered with loose gravel or
sand, uncut grass, large stones, muddy or slippery. This implies the need for regular and
thorough maintenance of even the best designed walkways.
5. Steep stairs and ramps, overpasses, underpasses and other sharp and rapid changes in
walkways tend to be avoided by elderly people, individuals carrying heavy or
cumbersome parcels, and disabled persons.
Grades and sudden changes in walkway alignments, although exciting to skateboarders,
and adventurous recreational walkers, should be minimize in the design of the typical
pedestrian environment.

6. Pedestrians appear to prefer routes that provide some stimulation and entertainment. This
depends on the type of pedestrian, whether business or recreational, using the walkway.
The recreational and/ or window shopping pedestrian would ordinarily enjoy visual
stimulation and diversion, about the business walker would probably not. Perhaps there is
a need to provide such stimulation in an unobtrusive manner so that the pedestrian can
‘’take it or leave it’’.
7. On routes that pass along a wall or building, pedestrians keep from 12 to18 inches from
the barrier as they walk. The distance protects them from accidentally brushing against an
abrasive surface and damaging their clothing or persons. The 12 to 18 inches distance,
however, becomes a “dead space” that diminishes the carrying capacity of the walkway.

Landscape architects are called upon either to design new places from scratch or to redesign old,
existing places. The Planning steps followed by such architects:

1. Determine what volume of traffic occurs in the existing environment. What is the volume
anticipated in the proposed environment?

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 2. (a) The old environment: An established environment will reveal the actual numbers of
pedestrians who travel between any two points through the systematic observations. Paths
created by shortcutting pedestrians may need to be formalized instead of shot down in the
wound caused by the trailblazing pedestrians.
(b) The new environment: The problem of predicting volume and direction of pedestrian
traffic flow in a new environment is very difficult. Although it would be nice to postpone
the development of formal, paved walkways until after traffic patterns have been etched
by pedestrians on the raw ground, this approach requires a rare tolerance on the part of
the client for a long period of unsightliness. Nevertheless, an environment can be planned
with sufficient flexibility to allow for the addition of walkways to the basic walkway plan
after traffic flows have been established.
3. Determine the proportions of the basic classes of pedestrians (business or recreational)
that will be using the walkways.
4. (a) For the environment with a high proportion of business walkers, walkways should
represent the shortest distance between two points, thus eliminating the pedestrian’s
tendency to develop a shortcut.
(b) Conversely, the environment with a high proportion of recreational, sightseeing
walkers can tolerate walkways that meander, that contain side paths, and that are adorned
with visual stimuli and other diversions.

The principles of landscape design in the order of relative importance:

1. Shoulder of gravel, bark or other comparable material may be placed on either side of
paved pedestrian walks to create a buffer zone between errant pedestrians and frail
plants. These shoulders approximately12in in width will serve as escape ramps for
collision- avoiding pedestrians for the rare occasions when the paved areas are swollen
with unusually high levels of pedestrian traffic.
2. Intersection paths were pedestrians may change directions should have well-rounded
corner cut-off’s instead of right angle junctions so that plant materials will not suffer
from the pedestrian’s inclination to making arcing turns.
3. The straight line principle should be modified somewhat to create a curvilinear effect in
response to the pedestrian’s aversion to angular or sudden changes in a right of way.
This moderate curving should be accompanied by moderate grade changes.
To help reduce the bottlenecks that occurs when pedestrians cluster on walkways to
converse, designated ‘’rest’’ areas maybe concluded. These can be distinguished by
providing pavement with contrasting colors or design adjacent to the central walkway.
4. Planters and other physical objects should not be placed in the centre of walkways.
Doing so will create split streams of traffic that will consume excess space because
pedestrians will not be able to return to their original trajectories until a considerable
distance past the objects.

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 5. Finally, landscape architects and other environment planners should become “people
watchers”. Landscape architects should be able to extract others rules of pedestrian
behavior peculiar to the regions in which they work.
By being sensitive to the needs and habits of pedestrians, landscape architects, acting as
environmental planners, can help design places that attract and maintain human
occupants in cooperative and communicate rather than competitive relationships.

CLIMATE AND SITE

The process of planning a site to accomplished buildings and exterior spaces should involve an
analysis of site with focus on the nature thermal comfort, the climatic elements that affect the site
and the building. The site planner will be able to anticipate the impact of climate on exterior
spaces. The site planner or architect can:

1. Develop exterior spaces which are sensitive to local climatic norms and extremes,
thereby expanding the opportunities for thermally comfortable outdoor
experiences
2. Reduce the thermal loads imposed on the site’s buildings, thereby promoting
thermally comfortable indoor conditions for a minimum expenditure of energy

Anything that can be done to promote comfort can produce significant financial benefits. If,
through sensitive design, people are provided with comfortable, stimulating places to live, work,
and play, and business realizes some economic benefit, the designer partially fulfills his social
responsibility to the community and his professional obligation to the client.

Comfort is a function of personal perception, expectation, and need. It depends on our

physiological and psychological responses to the environment. The comfort zone is unidentified
with what is called the “bioclimatic chart”. This refers to conditions in the exterior environment,
and that the comfort zone defines a range of temperature and humidity conditions where a person
in normal indoor clothing, doing sedentary or light work in the shade and with no wind blowing,
will presumably is comfortable.

The Climatic Elements

The four basic climatic elements that influence thermal comfort, building energy use, and the site
planning process are solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity and air movement.
Location of exterior spaces, building orientation, massing, and architectural design should be
based on normal climatic conditions.

The Three basic climatic regimes:

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 a. Macroclimatic regime refers to the general climatic conditions of a
region
b. Mesoclimate refers to the climate of a particular area or city
c. Microclimate is the area where the most of an architect’s or site
planner’s influence is exerted notably is the climate of a specific site

Anytime a building is constructed, a variety of new microclimates are created in and around the
building within the existing microclimate of the site:

Solar Radiation

-is in the form of direct, diffuse, and reflected radiation. Direct radiation arrives directly through
the atmosphere. Diffuse radiation result from the scattering of light by particular matter and
moisture in the earth’s atmosphere. Once solar radiation has reached the earth’s surface it is
absorbed, transmitted, or reflected. When short wave radiation (light) is absorbed, it is converted
to long wave radiation (heat). In this manner the sun heats the earth’s surface, driving the
climatic cycles of air movement, temperature, evaporation, and precipitation.

Effects

The sun provides light and heat for both exterior and interior environments. On hot summer
days, relief is sought from the sun in cool, shaded exterior spaces. Solar radiation heats the
interior spaces of the buildings when it passes through glass and is absorbed and is converted to
thermal energy through various surfaces inside the building. This causes a local heating of the air
in contact with these surfaces, and the “sealed “nature of the building inhibits the escape of the
warmed air. This is commonly referred to as the greenhouse effect. Solar radiation also heats the
opaque surface of a building, and additional heat is conducted through these materials into the
building.

Passive solar heating of buildings can be beneficial during cold weather, reducing reliance on
mechanical heating systems. Solar loads imposed on buildings during warm periods of the year
can greatly increase dependence on mechanical cooling systems. The use of day lighting in
building can conserve energy by reducing the amount of energy required for artificial lighting
systems, which can be the most energy intensive systems in certain commercial building types.
Parenthetically, lighting systems also generate a significant amount of day lighting “is to provide
natural illumination while effectively blocking direct solar radiation, since it usually carries
uncomfortable levels of heat and light.” Diffuse, reflected and filtered solar radiation is the most
useful for day lighting buildings.

Control and Modification

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The discussion below focuses on the use of vegetation, architectural elements and landforms or
hardscape to control solar radiation. The four basic control strategies – admission, obstruction,
filtration and reflection- affect outdoor spaces and buildings.

Vegetation: Outdoor Spaces

Proper selection and location of vegetation can ameliorate microclimatic conditions by providing
exterior spaces with access to solar radiation when temperatures are below the comfort zone and
shade when they are not. Vegetation produces shade and can intercept about 60 to 90% of
incidental solar radiation. Dense foliage, multiple foliage layers or dense canopies obstruct solar
radiation, whereas plants with loose, open foliage filter it. The temperature of surface in shade is
reduced significantly by shading. It is appropriate to examine the distinction between deciduous
and evergreen vegetation. Deciduous vegetation normally become foliated in the spring and
provides shade during the overheated periods of summer and fall. As fall defoliation occurs,
solar radiation is no longer obstructed and can be used to warm exterior spaces during the winter
months. These selective shading characteristics can be particularly useful in temperate climates
with hot summers and cold winters. Evergreen vegetation maintains its foliage throughout the
year. Shade trees can be selected with foliation periods that correspond approximately to the
tomes of overheating at a specific site. Vines, used in conjunction with architectural elements,
such as arbors and shrubs are also useful for shading exterior spaces. Ground covers and grasses
are useful for shading ground surfaces and in the summer, grass surfaces can be 10 to 14 degree
F cooler than bare soil and 50 degree F cooler than the pavement.

Buildings

As with exterior spaces, vegetation can be used to reduce solar radiation loads on buildings by
shading walls, roofs and glazed openings. It is apparent that south-facing vertical surfaces
receive the most solar radiation during winter months, whereas horizontal, west and east
orientations receive more radiation during summer months. Surface temperatures of walls and
roofs exposed to the sun can be more than 40 degree f warmer than the shaded surfaces during
the summer. Residential buildings in temperate climates are often prudently oriented with a long
wall facing south to maximize collection of solar radiation in the winter. Shrubs or vines used to
shade a wall also retard air movement across the wall surface, effectively increasing its thermal
resistance and reducing convective air flow.

Vegetation can have a significant impact on visual comfort in exterior spaces and on the use of
day lighting in buildings. Shade trees, which obstruct or filter sunlight, can reduce brightness
levels and visual discomfort due to glare, both in exterior and interior spaces. Light transmission
can be significantly reduced by trees.

Shrubs, ground covers and grasses are also useful to brightness and glare control.

Architectural Elements

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Like vegetation, architectural elements can obstruct or filter solar radiation and selectively
provide shading for exterior spaces and buildings. Architectural elements are defined in its
broadest terms and include buildings. Small, free standing or detached elements, such as gazebos
and arbors, have long been used to modify microclimate through shading. Buildings, as single or
collected objects in the landscape, will produce shading in adjacent exterior spaces. Obviously,
building shadow patterns will vary daily and seasonally.

Architectural elements and vegetation can be useful devices for controlling or modifying solar
radiation. However, their design and location must be considered carefully and based on through
analysis of the microclimate conditions.

Landforms and Hardscape

The entire site will be considered a landform, as with smaller landscape elements. Hardscape
refers to hard surfaces constructed in contact with the ground in the exterior environment. The
selection of appropriate locations for exterior spaces and buildings related to solar access or
shading can be affected by slope direction and gradients on the site. Landforms and hardscape
exposed to solar radiation affect comfort in several ways. Hardscape can be effectively used to
collect, store and radiate thermal energy, ameliorating cold microclimatic conditions. However,
during the summer, unshaded hardscape surface temperatures can be significantly higher than
those of vegetated landforms, increasing discomfort through the generation of oppressive levels
of radiant heat and by further warming of the air. These surfaces continue to radiate heat well
after the sunset. This effect is commonly experienced in the urban environments and large paved
areas such as parking lots. Landforms and hardscape also reflect some percentage of the light
striking them which may be used to daylight buildings but must be controlled to minimize glare.

The sun provides light and heat, drives the earth’s climatic cycles, and significantly affects
comfort. Its position relative to the earth’s surface is precisely predictable. If properly designed,
vegetation, architectural elements, landforms and hardscapes can be used to modify
microclimates by admitting, obstructing, filtering and reflecting solar radiation. Site planning
decisions have an enormous impact on how solar radiation affects spaces and buildings created.
A thorough understanding of solar radiation principles and effects therefore prerequisites to an
effective site planning effort.

Air Temperature

Air temperature is referred to as dry bulb temperature and is the common climatic reference
when describing weather or feelings of comfort. It is the relative measure of the thermal energy
(sensible heat) content of the air, as indicated by a thermometer. Temperature differences are the
driving force behind the heat-transfer processes of conduction, convection and radiation which
occur between the environment and human bodies and the buildings. When a temperature
differential exits between two masses (either solid or fluid), thermal energy is transferred from
the area of higher temperature to the area of lower temperature.

34
Effects

Temperature affects our sense of comfort, which in turn affects the amount of energy required to
heat and cool the buildings. It is important for the site planner to understand the dynamic
behavior of air temperature. The lowest temperature of the day occurs shortly before dawn. After
the sun rises, the earth’s surface is heated by a solar radiation and the surface air is warmed by
convection. Air temperature rises rapidly and peaks during mid-afternoon. From this high point,
the temperature drops at a more gradual rate. As the earth’s surface reradiates thermal energy to
the clear night sky, the surface air layer slowly cools and temperatures drop until dawn.

Control and Modification

The site planner has few opportunities to cool or modify air temperature directly. However, air
temperature and comfort can be affected indirectly through control of solar radiation and air
movement.

Vegetation

In mesoclimatic regions with large heavily vegetated parcels of land is a significant amount of
cooling in air temperature.

Architectural Elements

Fountains and other water features can have a beneficial impact on air temperature in hot arid
climates. The evaporative cooling process lowers air temperature and raises humidity levels, both
of which promote comfort in hot, dry conditions. Water features are often located in courtyards
protected from the wind where they generate a pool of cool, heavy air which is retained by the
court’s walls.

Landforms and Hardscapes

Other than the effects produced by solar radiation, landforms and hardscapes have limited
influence on air temperature. However, it is important to note that topographical features on the
site, such as valleys, ravines or natural depressions, have the ability to collect cold air. Cool air
flows downhill and will settle in low spots on the site. These areas can be useful for collecting
cooler air in predominantly warm climates but pose problems in cooler climates.

Humidity

Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual vapor pressure of the air vapor mixture to the pressure
of saturated water vapor at the same dry bulb temperature.

Effects

35
Human tolerances for humidity variations are greater than for temperature variations. When air
temperature is elevated, high relative humidity limits the air’s ability to evaporate moisture from
bodies, thereby increasing thermal stress and sense of discomfort. High humidity also produces a
significant thermal load on a building’s air conditioning equipment, which expends energy to
remove moisture from the air. If high humidity are not sufficiently removed mildew problems
can occur in buildings. In cold weather, high indoor humidity may result in condensation, usually
on interior glass surfaces, which can damage materials and deteriorate finishes.

Low relative humidity can also create problems in buildings. Direct air heating systems
significantly reduce the percentage of humidity of circulating air. In addition to the drying effect
on human respiratory passages, low humidity contribute to static electricity problems, which are
of particular concern in the computerized work environment.

Control and Modification

The site planner’s options for modification are limited. The primary concern with humidity is
when air temperature occurs above the comfort zone. In hot, dry conditions, moisture can be
added to the air through evapo-transpiration from plants to induce comfort.

Vegetation

Relative humidity often exceeds ambient levels and air temperatures are diminished in dense
stands of vegetation close to the ground. This situation could produce beneficial effects in hot,
arid climates but it is often difficult to maintain dense vegetation in such climates. In hot humid
climates, vegetation may be detrimental to comfort by increasing relative humidity and inhibiting
air movement. Therefore, planning solutions using vegetation should be designed to provide
effective shading which does not significantly retard air movement. Thinning underbrush and
removing lower limbs of trees to a height of 8 to 10 feet promotes comforting air flow.

Plants are natural humidifiers and can be used to provide supplementary humidity in buildings.

Architectural Elements

Water features can raise humidity levels and lower temperature. It is sufficient to understand that
evaporate cooling can be useful in hot arid climate. Increasing humidity levels in hot humid
conditions will increase discomfort, although active water features may offset this by providing
‘psychological cooling’. Finally, it should be noted that areas of the site with poor drainage or
low areas with standing water can elevate localized humidity levels, adversely affecting comfort
in hot humid climates.

Air movement / wind

The site planner should be familiar with how specific site characteristics affect air motion and
how local wind patterns vary seasonally. Knowledge of the speed and direction of the air mass

36
close to the ground and its associated temperature can provide valuable information for siting
buildings and planning exterior spaces, so as to protect against winds that are undesirable while
taking advantage of those which are useful.

Large bodies of water affect daily air movement patterns, because they are normally cooler
during the day and warmer at night than the adjacent land surface. Consequently, during the day,
as the warmed air over the land rises, it is replaced breezes of cooler air off the water. The land
surface and adjacent air mass cool rapidly at night and the air flow reverses. Large bodies of
water are cooler during summer and warmer in winter than inland areas and therefore moderate
seasonal temperature extremes of coastal sites.

Vegetation

Vegetation can control or modify wind by obstruction, diversion, guidance and filtration. When
vegetation is used to protect exterior spaces and buildings from cold winter winds, it is referred
to as shelterbelt or windbreak. Evergreen vegetation is effective year-round wind control while
deciduous vegetation is effective when foliated.

Architectural Elements

The primary architectural elements that influence air flow are buildings, walls, and fences. Like
vegetation, buildings, or groups of buildings can be used for wind control. In hot humid climates,
buildings are spaced apart to admit comforting winds. Small elements, like gazebos, are usually
designed to provide access to comforting winds as well as shade.

Large urban structures can produce extremely discomforting, even dangerous winds at street
level. The urban pedestrian is often faced with wind gusts that may make walking difficult and
with airborne dust and debris.

Questions:
1. What are the three basic climatic regimes? Differentiate one from the other.
2. What is solar radiation? What is its effect on both interior and exterior environments?
3. How can vegetation control wind?
4. Landscape architecture can be advanced by taking three steps . What are these? Discuss.
5. The principles of landscape design in the order of relative importance.

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