Lecture 2

Hydraulic study (i.e. discharge calculations using

different methods, linear waterway, scour depth,
Afflux etc.)

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Site Selection

Normally selection of site for culvert and small bridges is guided by road alignment.
When there is choice following should be guiding factor

(i) Which is situated on a straight reach of stream, sufficiently downstream of bends;

(ii) Which is sufficiently away from the confluence of large tributaries as to be
beyond their disturbing influence;
(iii) Which has well defined banks;
(iv) Which make approach roads feasible on the straight; and
(v) Which offers a square crossing;
(vi) The river in the reach should have regime flow free of whirls, eddies and excess
currents. If any of them is present, it will be aggravated by the pier structure that
have to be put up and will result in excess scour, which can endanger in the
foundation;
(vii) The site of meandering river should be a nodal point. A Nodal point is defined as
location where the river regime does not normally shift, and the location serves as
a fulcrum about which river channels swing laterally.
(viii) As it may not be always possible to get firm in erodible, high banks for sitting a
bridge, an otherwise suitable site can be selected and improved upon by providing
artificial training works.

1.2 Classification of bridges

It can be classified as follows, according to its length.

(a) Culvert –Length up to 6 m

(b) Minor Bridges –Length up to 60 m
(c) Major Bridges -Length more than 60 m
(d) Long Span Bridge –Length more than 150 m

2.0 Collection of Hydraulic Data:

2.1 Longitudinal section of river / streams should be taken at the rate of 25 m interval cross –
section of the river should be taken as follows: -

Cross Sections
Catchment Area Distance (u/s and d/s of the crossing) at
which cross section should be taken
1. Up to 3.0 sq. Km. 100 m
2. From 3.0 to 15 sq. Km. 300 m
3. Over 15 sq. Km. 500 m

Discharge should be calculated by minimum three methods namely Dickens Formula, Rational
Formula and Area Velocity method.

(i) HFL, OFL and LWL should be ascertained by intelligent observation and local enquiry.
(ii) Collection of sample of bed material should be done.
(iii) Information of constructed bridges in the U/S and D/S should be taken.

Typical Catchment Area Map

3.0 Discharge calculation:

It is calculated by normally three methods namely Dicken’s formula, Rational formula and Area
velocity method.

3.1 Dickens Formula

Catchment area boundary should be ascertained on the Topo Sheet, taking in the account all the
tributaries contributing to the main channel. Area, length of flow and head different should be
measured on the catchment area map. Discharge can be calculated by Dicken’s formula as
below: -

Q = CM^3/4
Where
Q = the peak run-off in m^3 and M is the catchment area in sq. Km.
C =11-14 where the annual rainfall is 60-120 cm
=14-19 where the annual rainfall is more than 120 cm
=22 in Western Ghats

3.2 Rational Formula

Relation between the intensity and duration of storm can be understood by following: -
Let storm = F cm rainfall in T hours.
Hence, Mean intensity I = F/T cm/hour
Since the intensity is not throughout, the mean intensity reckoned over the time interval t will be
higher than the mean intensity.

Hence, intensity of storm is inverse function of its durations. This can be explained as bellow: -
i/I = T+C/t+C
Here C is a constant taken as 1.
Hence
i = I (T+1/t+1)
I =F/T(T+1/t+1)

(a) One-hour rainfall

I =F/T(T+1/t+1)

here t =1 hour i.e. Io = F/2(1+1/T)

(b) Time of Concentration (tc)

It is time taken by the run-off from the farthest point on the periphery of the catchment (called
critical point) to reach the size of the culvert is called time of concentration. It is given by

tc = (0.87 x L^3/h) ^0.385

where

tc = the concentration time in hours

L = the distance from the critical point to the structure in Km.
H = the fall in level from the critical point to the structure in Km.
L and H found from the survey plans of the catchment area and tc calculated from above
equation.

(c) Critical intensity or Design intensity

It is intensity of rainfall during concentration time tc

Ic = F/T (T+1/tc+1)
Here T= 1 hour and I0 = F/T
Hence, Ic = I0 (2/tc+1)

(d) Calculation of run-off - Following rational formula can be used to calculate discharge
‘Q’

Q =0.028 A Ic m^3 /s

To account for losses due to absorption introducing a co-efficient P. Then

Q =0.028 PAIc

Where

Q = max. run-off in Ic m^3 /s

A = area of catchment area in hectares.
Ic = critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour
P = co-efficient of run-off for the catchment characteristics.

Maximum Value of P in the Formula Q =0.028 PAIc, can be taken as follows:

Steep, bare rock and city pavements 0.90

Rock, steep but wooded 0.80
Plateaus lightly covered 0.70
Clayey soils, stiff and bare 0.60
-do- lightly covered 0.50
Loam lightly cultivated or covered 0.40
-do- largely cultivated 0.30
Sandy soil, light growth 0.20
-do- covered, heavy brush 0.10

(e) The Final run-off Formula

Introducing factor “f” for mean intensity of rainfall as some fraction of I.

Q =0.028 PfAIc

Hence here, Ic = I0 (2/tc+1)

Hence Q = 0.028 PfA I0 (2/tc+1)

Hence Q = 0.028 AI0 2 Pf/ (tc+1) = AI0 {(0.028x 2 x Px f)/ (tc+1)}

= AI0 {(0.056 x Pf)/ (tc+1)} = AI0 λ
Where

λ = {(0.056 x Pf)/ (tc+1)}

3.3 Area Velocity Method

(a) Calculation of velocity:

Plot the probable scoured bed line and measure the cross-sectional area A in m² and the
wetted perimeter “ P” in m. Then we should calculate the hydraulic mean depth, R by the
formula

R=A/P (in m)

Next, we should measure the bed slope S from the plotted longitude section of the stream,
Velocity can then be easily calculated from the Manning’s formula:

V=1/n (R²/3 S ½)

Where

V = the velocity in m/s considered uniform throughout the cross section

R = the hydraulic mean depth
S = the energy slope which may be taken equal to the bed slope, measured over a
reasonably long each
n = the rugosity co-efficient

Rugosity Co-officiant can be assumed as per following table:

Surface Perfect Good Fair Bad

Natural Streams 0.025 0.0275 0.03 0.033

(1) Clean, straight bank, full stage, no rifts or deep pools.
(2) Same as (1) but some weeds and stones. 0.03 0.033 0.035 0.04
(3) Winding some pools and shoals, clean. 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
(4) Same as (3), lower stages, more ineffective slope and 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055
sections.
(5) Same as (3), some weeds and stones. 0.033 0.035 0.04 0.045
(6) Same as (4), Stoney sections. 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06
(7) Sluggish river reaches, rather weedy or width very deep. 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
pools
(8) Very weedy reaches 0.075 0.1 0.125 1.15
(b) Calculation of Discharge

Q = A.V.
Q = (A. R²/3 S ½ )/n
Q=λS½

Where, λ = (A R²/3)/n

λ is a function of the size ,shape and roughness of the stream and is called its conveyance
factor. Thus, the discharge carrying capacity of a stream depends on its conveyance
factor and slope.

When the cross section is not plotted in natural scale the wetted parameters cannot be
scaled off directly from the section and must calculated.

Then PQ=√(PR)²+(QR)²,

Their sum gives the wetted perimeters.

(c) Design Discharge

Fixing Design Discharge:

Flood discharge can be estimated in three diverse ways. The values obtained should be
compared. The highest of these values should be adopted as the design discharge Q, provided it
does not exceed the next highest discharge by more than 50 %. If it does, restrict it to that limit.

4.0 Lacey’s Theory for Erodible Beds

Lacey’s Equation:
When an alluvial stream carrying known discharge, Q has come to regime, it has a regime wetted
perimeter P, a regime slope S, and regime hydraulic mean depth R. It will have fixed area of
cross-section A and a fixed velocity V.
Silt factor Ksf = 1.76 √dm

where dm is the weighted man diameter of the particles in mm.

(a) Regime Cross Section wetted perimeter of regime channel is calculated as follows:-

P = 4.8 Q½

This may vary from 4.8 Q½ to 6.3 Q½ according to local condition

Hydraulic Mean Radius (R) = (0.473 Q ^ 1/3) / (Ksf ^ 1/3)

Slope of Regine Channel (S) = (0.0002 f ^ 5/3) / (Ksf ^ 1/6)
Regine Velocity (V)= (0.44 Q ^ 1/6) / (Ksf ^ 1/3)
Regine Channel Cross Sectional Area(A)= (2.3 Q ^ 5/6) / (Ksf ^ 1/3)

Silt Factor in Ksf in Lacey’s Equation⁽¹⁸⁾=1.76 ʃ dm

Type of bed material Dm Ksf

Coarse silt 0.04 0.35
Silt/fine sand 0.081 to 0.158 0.5 to 0.6
Medium sand 0.223 to o.505 0.8 to 1.25
Coarse sand 0.725 1.5
Fine bajri and san 0.988 1.75
Heavy sand 1.29 to 2.0 2.0 to 2.42

(b) The Regime Width and depth

Provided a stream is truly alluvial, it is destined to come to regime according to Lacey. It will
then be stable and have a section and slope confirming to his equation. For wide alluvial streams
the stable width W can be taken equal to the wetted perimeter P of Equation

That is W = P = 4.8 Q½
Also, the normal depth of scour D on a straight an unobstructed part of a wide stream may be
taken as equal to the hydraulic mean radius R in equation. Hence

D = (0.473 Q⅓) / (Ksf⅓)

(c) Linear Waterway

 1. Alluvial Streams: - The linear waterway of a bridge across a wholly alluvial stream
should normally be kept equal to the Regime width.
2. Streams not Wholly Alluvial: - When the bank of the stream is high, well defined, a rigid
(rocky or some other natural hard soil that cannot be affected by the prevailing current),
but the bed is alluvial, the linear waterway of the bridge should be made equal to the
actual surface width of the stream, measured from edge to edge of water along the HFL
on the plotted cross section. Such streams are later referred to as quasi-alluvial.
3. Streams width Rigid Boundaries: - In wholly rigid streams above rule applies, but some
reduction in the linear waterway may, across some streams with moderate velocities, be
possible and may be resorted to, if in the final analysis it leads to tangible savings in the
cost of the bridge.

5.0 Normal Scour Depth of Streams

(a) Alluvial Streams: -

Normal scour Depth is calculated as per Clause 703 of IRC:78-2000

Here, Dsm =1.34 (Db² / Ksf)⅓
Db = discharge in m³/s per m width
Ksf = silt factor for material obtained up to deepest anticipated scour.
= 1.76 √dm, dm being the weighted mean diameter of particles in mm.
Dsm = normal scour depth in mm.

(b) Quasi- Alluvial Streams: -

Some streams are not wholly alluvial: A stream may flow between banks which are rigid
in so far as they successfully resist erosion, but its bed may be composed of loose
granular material which the current can pick up and transport. Such a stream may be
called quasi- alluvial. Since such a stream is not free to erode its banks and flatten out the
boundaries of its cross section as a wholly alluvial stream does, it does not acquire the
regime cross section which Lacey’s equations prescribe. In any such case the width W of
the section, being fixed between the rigid banks, can be measured. But the normal scour
depth D corresponding to the design discharge Q estimated theoretically as it cannot be
measured during the occurrence of high flood.

(c) Scour in clay: -

Scour in clay is generally less than scour in sand. Normally in field we get a mixture of
sand and clay at many places. For assessment following definition of sand and clay be
given.
 Sand -Where φ is equal to or more than 15° even if C (cohesion of soil) is more than
0.2 kg/cm²
Clay - Where φ is less than 15°
& C (cohesion of soil) is more than 0.2 kg/cm²

Scour in sand of above definition can be calculated by the formulae given earlier. In Clay
instead of silt factor (Ksf) clay factor ( Ksfc) is adopted.

(Ksfc = F(1+ √ c)

Where
c =Cohesion in kg/cm² and
F = 1.5 φ for φ ≥ 10° < 15°
= 1.75 φ for φ ≥ 5° < 10°
= 2.0 for φ < 5°

Scour depth (dsm) = 1.34 (Db² / Ksfc) ⅓ Db = discharge per unit width

(d) Scour in bouldary strata: -

There is no rational method to assess scour in bouldary strata of boulders of pebbles. In

the absence of any formula Ksf may be determined as per clause 703.2.2 of IRC:78 ad
adopted. If, say, average size of pebbles is db.

Then, Ksf = 1.76 (Db) ½

for db = 50 mm
Ksf = 1.76 (50) ½ =12.4
Scour depth = 1.34 (Db² / Ksf) ⅓ = 1.34 (Db² / 12.4) ⅓

5.2 Maximum Scour Depth

Maximum scour Depth can be calculated as follows: -

a. For Abutment = 1.27 x Normal scour depth

b. For Pier = 2 x Normal scour depth

Depth of Foundation

6.0 Depth of Foundation

The following rule should be kept in view while fixing the depth of Brage foundations:

Rule (1) In Soil - The embedment of foundation in soil shall be based on

assessment of anticipated scour. Foundations may be taken down to a
comparatively shallow depth below the bed surface provided good
bearing stratum is available and foundation is protected against scour. The
minimum depth of open foundations shall be up to stratum having
adequate bearing capacity but not less than 2.0 m below the scour
level or protected scour level.

Rule (2) In Rocks - When a substantial stratum of solid rock or other material not
erodible at the calculated maximum velocity is encountered at a level
higher than or a little below that given by Rule (1) above, the foundations
shall be securely anchored into that material. This means about 0.6 m into
hard rocks with an ultimate crushing strength of 10 Mpa or above and 1.5
m in all other cases.

Rule (3) All Beds - The pressure of the foundation material must be well within the
safe bearing capacity of the material.

These rules enable one to fix the level of the foundations of abutments and
piers.

The above rules are applicable for open foundations only, for deep
foundations like well, and pile foundations, wherever adopted depending
upon site requirement depth of foundations shall be worked out as per
IRC:78.

7.0 Span and Vertical Clearance

7.1 Length of Span:

In small structures, where open foundations can be laid, and solid abutments and piers raised on
them, it has been analyzed that the following approximate relationships give economical designs.

For Masonry arch Bridges =2H

For RCC Slab Bridges = 1.5 H
Where S= Clear Span length in metres.
H= Total height of abutment or pier from the bottom of its foundation to its top in metres. For
arche bridges it is measured from foundation to the intrados of the key stone.

7.2. Vertical Clearance:

After fixing the depth of foundations Df, the vertical clearance is added to it to get H. The
minimum vertical clearance shall be as follows.

Discharge in m³/s Minimum vertical clearance in mm

Up to 0.30 150
Above 0.3 and up to 3.0 450
Above 3 and up to 30 600
Above 30 and up to 300 900
Above 300 and up to 3000 1200
Above 3000 1500

7.3 The Number of Spans: -

a. If the required linear waterway L is less the economical span length it must be provided
in one single span.
b. When L is more than the economical span length (S) the number of spans (N) required is
tentatively found from the following relation:

L = NS
c. Since N must be a whole number (preferably odd) S must be modified suitably. In doing
so it permissible to adopt varying span lengths in one structure to keep as close as
possible to the requirement of economy and to cause the least obstructions to the flow.
d. it is preferred old no of spans, then even number of spans

8.0 Restriction of Waterway

a No restriction in waterway for well defined and confined flow.

b For unstable meandering rivers flowing through several sub channels separated by land
the restriction may be considered. But in this case river training is must.
c The restriction of waterway will result in afflux on the U/S of bridge.
9.0 Afflux Calculation

If waterway is restricted it will cause afflux.

The afflux is calculated by using Molesworth Formula

Where,
h = afflux (in meters)
V = Average velocity of water in the river prior to constriction (in m/sec).
A = unobstructed sectional area of the river at proposed site I in sq. m)
a = Constricted area of the river at proposed site (in Sq. m)

10. Minimum vertical should be as per following table.

Sl. Discharge in Cumecs Minimum vertical clearance in mm.

No.

1 Up to 0.3 150
2 Above 0.3 and up to 3.0 450
3 Above 3 and up to 30.0 600
4 Above 30and up to 300.0 900
5 Above 300 and up to 3000.0 1200
6 Above 3000 1500
11. Depth of Foundation

a) In Soil - The minimum depth of foundation shall be up to stratum having adequate

bearing capacity but not less than 2 m below the scour level or protected scour level.
b) In Rocks – When solid rocks or not erodible bed at maximum velocity is encountered the
foundation shall be securely anchored in to that material.
(i) 0.6 m for rock having ultimate crushing strength >10 Mpa
(ii) 1.5 m in other cases, like soft rocks.
 Annexure
Annexure – 1 Sample hydraulic calculation for Rocky Bed
Annexure – 2 Sample hydraulic calculation for Alluvial Bed
Annexure – 3 Typical Checklist
Annexure – 4 Soil Profile: - A typical soil profile and soil characteristic is given below: -
Annexure – 5
Annexure – 6 Typical Site Plan

Typical site plan

Annexure – 7 Typical Bore log Chart
Annexure – 8 Typical Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Drawing
Annexure – 9 TYPICAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION OGF WEIGHTED MEAN
DIAMETER OF PARTICLES dm
 Annexure – 10 A line Graph

Annexure – 11 Classification of Soil

 Annexure – 12 Recovery and Rock Quality Description

Recovery (%) = Length of core recovered /

length of core run (length drilled)
RQD (%) = Length of rock recovered in sound lengths of 100 mm or more/ length of core
run

They both give an indication of the strength of the rock mass, but can u used only as rough guide
because values obtained also depend on the diameter of the core, the method of drilling and the
skill of the driller. Descriptive terms for RQD values are given in below table.

Description terms for RQD values

RQD (%) Description
0-25 Very Poor
25-50 Poor
50-75 Fair
75-90 Good
90-100 Excellent