Licence Category A, B 1.1, B 1.

3 and B2
• III •

19 a
• •
ec rques e 0 ic
ns ru en yes
5.6 Basic Computer Structure
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Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of Total Training Support Ltd.

Knowledge Levels - Category A, 81, 82, 83 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence

Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of
knowledge levels indicators (1,2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C
applicants must meet either the category B 1 or the category B2 basic knowledge levels.

The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
• A familiarization with the principal elements of the subject.

Objectives:
• The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject,
using common words and examples.
• The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
• A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• An ability to apply that knowledge.

Objectives:
• The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the
subject.
• The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as
appropriate, typical examples.
• The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with
physical laws describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and
schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using
detailed procedures.

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LEVEL 3
• A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
• A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical
and comprehensive manner.

Objectives:
• The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with
other subjects.
• The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using
theoretical fundamentals and specific examples.
• The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae relatec
to the subject.
• The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple
drawings and schematics describing the subject.
• The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using
manufacturer's instructions.
• The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and
measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate.

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Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014
Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:

Knowledge Levels
Part-66
Objective 81.1 81.2
Reference A 82 83
81.3 81.4
Basic Computer Structure 5.6
(a) 1 2 - - -
Computer terminology (including
bit, byte, software, hardware, CPU,
IC, and various memory devices
such as RAM, ROM, PROM)
Computer technology (as applied in
aircraft systems)
(b) - - - 2 -
Computer related terminoloqy
Operation, layout and interface of
the major components in a micro
computer including their associated
bus systems
Information contained in single and
multiaddress instruction words
Memory associated terms
Operation of typical memory
devices
Operation, advantages and
disadvantages of the various data
storage systems ,

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Table of contents

Basic computer architecture _

Buses
------------------------------
Computer inputs and outputs _
Analogue inputs _
Digital inputs _
Discrete inputs _
Outputs _
Computers on aircraft _
Digital to analogue converter _
Digital transmitters _
Demultiplexers _
Communication between computers _
LRU assemblies and installation --
The central processor unit (CPU) -
Arithmetic logic unit -
The buffers/registers .-
Accumulator --
Status register _
Timing and control _
Memo~ -
Primary memory/volatile memory _
Secondary memory/non-volatile memory _
Volatile vs non-volatile memories _
Destructive vs non-destructive readouts ----------------
Memo~~pes .--
Magnetic tape .~.
Magnetic disc -
Optical disc .~
Solid state memory _
Magnetic core memory _
Bubble memory _
Semiconductor memory _
Read-only memory (ROM) _
General _
Programmable read-only memory (PROM) _
Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) _
Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) _

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Random-access memory (RAM) 50
Static random access memory (SRAM) 51
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) 51
SDRAM - synchronous DRAM 52
DDR SDRAM - double data rate 52
Flash memory 54
How flash memory works 54
NOR vs NAND flash memory 56
Pros and cons of flash memory 56
Cache and registers 58
Computer software 60
Introduction 60
Types of software__ 61
Programming languages 62
Low level languages 62
Machine language 62
Assembly language 62
High-level languages 63
The computer word 66
Glossary of computer terms 70

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Basic computer architecture
A microcomputer comprises of a number of devices which together make the overa
computer system. At the heart of the computer system is the microprocessor, whi
carries out all of the processing of data to formulate an answer. The microprocess -
programmable logic device made by large scale integration on a single silicon chi .

As will be seen, a microprocessor has a large degree of flexibility built into it. By itse
cannot perform a given task but must be programmed and connected to a set of a
system devices. These additional system devices usually include memory elemen -
input/output devices. In general, a set of system devices, including the microproce
memory, and input/output elements, interconnected for the purpose of performing s
well-defined function, is known as a microcomputer or microprocessor based syste

As with the purpose of a basic computer, the structure of a basic computer does no
between computers. Each computer is comprised of an input section, output sectio
central processing unit, and memory section. The differences in the computers are i
characteristics of devices used to make up each section of the computer, and the
instruction steps used to control the operation of the computer.

A basic computer system consists of four functional system device units:

1) the input unit
2) the memory unit
3) the central processing unit
4) the output unit

The physical components and circuits that comprise a computer system are known as -
hardware. These circuits are capable of performing only a small number of different
operations. Any additional operational capabilities of the computer must be accomplis
by programming. A program is an organized collection of elementary computer opera
called instructions, which manipulates information, called data. The p1rograms that are
written for a computer are called its software.

The program and data are first stored in the memory unit via the input unit. The individ -
instructions of the program are then automatically entered, one at a time as directed b .
control unit, into the central processing unit (CPU), where they are interpreted and
executed. The execution usually requires data to be entered into the arithmetic/logic uni
(ALU) where the circuitry necessary for manipulating the data is contained. During the
course of computation, or at its completion, the derived results are sent to the output un
The ALU and control unit together are normally called the central processing unit (CPU .

In addition to the memory unit, the other computer units are also capable of storing
information. Information is stored as groups of binary digits (bits) in storage devices calle
registers. Essentially the operation of the computer can be regarded as a series of
information transfers from register to register with possible information modification (e.g.
addition) being performed between transfers. The group of bits handled all at the same
time by the computer is known as a word, and the number of bits that make up the word is
the word length. A word is the basic logical unit of information in a computer.

Microprocessors are available with 4, 8, and 16 bit word lengths. The 8 bit word length is
so common that it is given the special name 'byte' (4 bits is called a nibble).

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The essence of the computer (bits and bytes, episode 1)

https://youtu.be/6wU2NoAtWKM

The digital computer (bits and bytes, episode 2)

https:llyoutu.be/AdF2uk-EscE

Key components of the computer (bits and bytes, episode 3)

https:llyoutu.be/C3dLwtwdEjM

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Buses
In a microcomputer the various units are connected by buses. A bus is a set of lines 0 e
which information is transferred from any of several sources to any of several destin a ·0 _
Common bus types used within a computer are:

• The address bus

The address bus consists of up to 16 parallel lines and is uni-directional: i.e.
information flows in only one direction. This bus is used to transmit an address
the microprocessor to the memory, input or output unit.

• The data bus

The data bus normally consists of 8 parallel lines and is bi-directional: i.e.
information can flow in either direction on these lines. This bus is used to carry a--
and instructions from one unit to another.

• The control bus

No standard format exists for the control bus lines, their function and number
varying considerably between different types of processors. Some of the lines ar •.•
bi-directional and others uni-directional. This bus is a set of lines over which sig a
travel to maintain timing and status information.

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Input Centre
(keyboard. mouse, etc.) (screen, printer. etc.)

Memory

Basic computer model

Memory 110

System bus

The computer bus

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Computer inputs and outputs
A digital computer requires a means of sensing and communicating with the outside worl
This requirement is satisfied by the input section which converts the inputs into the prope
format for the central processing unit (CPU). The input section is commanded by the CP
to bring in data. This data is sent either to memory for storage or to the CPU for
processing. There are three types of inputs which the computer may receive: analogue,
digital, and discrete.

Analogue inputs
Analogue inputs are constantly varying with respect to time. This is a smooth changing
voltage. An example of an analogue input would be a voltage representing flap position.
As the flap position changes, the voltage from the positional sensor also changes. In or e
to use this positional voltage, the voltage must be converted into a form the computer ca
use. The conversion from analogue to digital is accomplished by analogue to digital
converters (ADC).

Digital inputs
Digital inputs are varying inputs also, but they vary in steps or increments. By using a
positive voltage to represent a logic "1" (HIGH), and ground or a negative voltage to
represent a logic "0" (LOW), information can be represented by a series of high and 10
levels. Depending upon the input requirements of the computer, the digital input signal
may need to be "conditioned" before being used for processing. For example, one type :
digital input uses + 10 volts to represent logic" 1" and -10 volts to represent a logic "0".
However, the computer can only use +5 volts for a logic "1.' and a ground potential for
logic "0". The digital receiver converts the -10 volt levels to the proper ground potential
(logic "0"). and converts the +10 volts to +5 volts (logic "1"). The computer can understa
these levels as the proper logic and thus process the information.

Discrete inputs
Discrete inputs are represented by an on/off condition, such as the closure of a switch 0
relay. This on/off condition can be represented by a ground for logic "0" and an open fo
logic "1", or open for logic "0" and +28 volts for logic because the computer can only use
+5 volts and ground in its processing. Another method of input interfacing is by the use 0
a multiplexer. A multiplexer, similar in function to a mechanical rotary switch, allows the
selection of one input of many to be sent to the CPU for processing. The selection of the
inputs is accomplished by means of the address bus, a group of directional circuits or line
originating in the CPU. The selected input can be routed to the CPU on the data bus, a
group of bi-directional circuits or lines which connect the computer sections and allow the
transfer of data between the sections. The resultant output from the multiplexer is a serial
group of high and low states. This data is stored and/or processed by the computer as a
"word" of information.

Outputs
The purpose of the output section is to provide interface between the computer and the
outside world. It provides output signal conditioning into a format usable by other systems
and computers. The CPU controls the transfer of data to the output section. Since the
devices outside the computer may require analogue, digital and discrete types of signals to
perform their tasks, the computer outputs need to be changed into proper formats.

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Analog and digital (bits and bytes, episode 8)
ttps://youtu.be/TWJxHi9nJrg

Memory 110

Data bus
Address bus
Control bus
System bus

Control
••
Data
••• ••

32 data
outputs

32 data
outputs

Data bus, address bus and control bus

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Computers on aircraft
Most readers will be familiar with the desktop or laptop computer, their hardware including
inputs (keyboard, mouse etc.) and outputs (monitor, speakers etc.) Computers on aircraft
have the same architecture, but their inputs and outputs are more specialised.

Inputs for an aircraft computer include:

• Keypad and control display unit (CDU)

• Knobs and switches (e.g. autopilot flight mode control panel)
• Flight control stick or control column
• Sensors and transducers

Outputs for an aircraft computer include:

• Display units (EFIS and EICAS/ECAM etc.)

• Flight control and other actuators

If the inputs and outputs are designed to interface with the flight crew (pilots or cabin staff)
then they are known as human/machine interfaces (HMI).

The CPU of an aircraft is known as a line replaceable unit (LRU) or a line replaceable
module (LRM) where the aircraft is equipped with integrated modular avionics.

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Address bus
,..-----t
10V ~igital Output
+ .Fl. ~_ Inputs
CPU section
OV~ U- - -
-10V

...L
+DC -----0...Lo------~
.-L 0---- ..•.
Memory
section

p---------------------------, I
I
I

Arithmetic

Input Memory Output

I
I
I
: (Central processor unit (CPU) )
I

~---------------------------.
Address

Control &
arithmetic
unit

Data bus

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Typical specialist computers on aircraft include:

• Flight management computer

• Flight control computer
• Automatic flight control computer
• Traffic collision avoidance system computer (TCAS)

Usually, the inputs and outputs of the computer are located quite remote from e
computer LRU or LRM. When we consider all of the components, i.e. the inputs, 01r.:m:~.
and the CPU, we call this the "system", hence the traffic collision avoidance comoute •..
when supplied with all its sensors and outputs, becomes the traffic collision avo'
system.

Digital to analogue converter

Analogue devices, such as control surface drive units and analogue instruments
analogue signals. The binary outputs from the CPU are transformed to analogue
a digital to analogue converter (DAC).

Digital transmitters
Aeroplane systems often need digital data formatted differently than that of the so
computer. The binary data from the source computer is sent to a digital transmitte
is converted and transmitted in the correct format to the user system via a digital b

Demultiplexers
Binary outputs from the computer may be used directly by systems requiring on/off
However, the outputs are often buffered between the computer and the users of that
signal. In addition, an output is often sent to several devices requiring that one out
The demultiplexer accomplishes both of these functions. It operates in reverse of a
multiplexer by taking one input and sending it to one of many outputs.

Modulator-demodulators, or modems (bits and bytes. episode 5)

https:/Iyoutu.be/gqQQCzh_z2Y

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The flight management computer and

its HMls (CDU and display unit)

Typical avionics rack on an aircraft.

Each LRU relates to a different aircraft system

Typical line replaceable Flight control stick is a computer input

unit (LRU)

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Communication between computers
When computers on an aircraft communicate to one or more computers on the aircraft, a data
"word" (see description later) is carried on a databus. The data word complies with a common
protocol. Various protocols are used, sometimes more than one on the same aircraft type.
Common protocols include:

• ARINC 429
• MIL-STD-1553B
• ARINC 629
• Avionics Full Duplex Ethernet (AFDX)

Each of these protocols are discussed in details in the chapter "Databus" in this Module 5.

The following terminology is applicable to external databus systems generally:

• Parallel bus: Each bit of the data word is transferred via a specific wire.

• Serial bus: Each bit of the data word is transferred on the same wire.

• Parallel buses are faster than serial buses but require much more wiring, and hence are
rarely used to carry data between LRUs on aircraft, but are frequently used inside an LRU.

• Single source - single sink: This is the earliest application and comprises a dedicated
link from one piece of equipment to another.

• Single source - multiple sink: This describes a technique where one piece of transmitting
equipment can send data to a number of recipient pieces of equipment (sinks). ARINC 429
is an example of this data bus which is widely used on civil transport and business jets, and
lately also on light aircraft.

• Multiple source - multiple sink: In this system, multiple transmitting sources may transmit
data to multiple receivers. This is known as a full-duplex system and is widely employed by
military aircraft (MIL-STD-1553B) and on the Boeing 777 (ARINC 629).

• Simplex: A data bus can transmit only in one direction.

• Half-duplex: A data bus can transmit in both directions, but not at the same time.

• Full-duplex (duplex): All LRUs can send and receive data at the same time.

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L
, Rx
~
R Rx Rx Rx
U Rx Rx

L
Tx - roo-
Tx
Tx + + + + +
R .J

U Rx "'
Rx Rx Rx

Tx
~~ h
t
Single source - multiple sink data bus system

I' I'

ARINC429 .•.
LRU LRU
.J
ARINC 429

Single source - single sink data bus system

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o ue

Serial (left) and parallel (right) cables

448mm

668mm

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Parallel
1
o
1

,,-s_e_ria_I __ ~===:::=:::D 10111011 1

1
o
t
1
1

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LRU assemblies and installation

A line-replaceable unit (LRU), is a modular component of an aircraft that is designed to be
replaced quickly at an operating location. An LRU is usually a sealed unit such as a radio
or other auxiliary equipment.

LRUs improve maintenance operations, because they can be stocked and replaced
quickly from on-site inventory, restoring the system to service, while the failed
(unserviceable) LRU is undergoing maintenance.

The LRUs are usually mounted in racks within a dedicated area or compartment onboard
the aircraft where temperature can be controlled. Cooling and ventilation is incorporated
into the LRU mounting assembles, often incorporating a dust filter.

Quick replacement of the LRU, during line maintenance, is facilitated by use of quick
release clamps on the retainer assemblies and built-in test buttons and LED displays
within the LRU themselves.

Aircraft which use integrated modular avionics (such as the Airbus A380 and Boeing 787)
use an avionics 'cabinet' which incorporates a power supply as well as cooling facilities.
The modular components are line replaceable modules which can be removed and
replaced individually.

Visit the A330 avionics bay

https://youtu.be/9IQ_hX61Ix8

777 E/E bay

https://youtu.be/2S-Cggs 1jOo

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Filter
Filter retainer
¥ assembly
Filter
assembly
Filter retainer

----- *
Clamp~
hold down
(2x)
Tray

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The central processor unit (CPU)
A microprocessor is a single integrated circuit which contains all the elements of a central
processing unit. These are:

• Accumulator
• Arithmetic logic unit
• Buffers/registers
• Timing and control

Arithmetic logic unit

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) is responsible for performing most of the computation
in a modern processor.

This includes basic arithmetic such as binary addition and subtraction, operations to shift
and rotate the bits in a binary number, comparison operations (such as testing for zero,
negative numbers, etc.) and logical operations such as AND, OR, XOR (exclusive OR) and
NOT (negation).

What constitutes "basic" arithmetic varies according to the processor architecture. Many
ARM processors include a coprocessor hardware unit which is used to perform much more
complex mathematical operations such as arcsine, cosine, floating-point division, etc.

Inside the ALU is a vast array of logic gates arranged in various sub-circuits (such as
ripple carry adders and comparators) to perform the necessary operations. In computer
design, significant effort is expended in ensuring the ALU is efficiently implemented.

The buffers/registers
Registers are used as temporary storage for instructions and data within the
microprocessor.

The current program status register contains conditional flags and other status bits that
reflect computational results (such as arithmetic overflows, carry out results from the ALU,
etc.)

The address register is an internal register which can store either a future program
counter address (so that the next instruction can be fetched in advance) or the address of
a value.

The data registers ("data in register" and "data out register") are used to hold data read
from memory and data written to memory respectively.

Accumulator
Some processor architectures have specialized registers known as accumulators which
are used to store intermediate arithmetic results and their assembly languages have
commands to enable programmers to utilize them.

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~---------------------------------------~

Input Output
section iY-----I .-- --.11 section

Data bus

Memory
section

Read instruction pointed at

by program counter

Decode the instruction

.)

Obey the instruction

Increment program counter

to point at next instruction Data bus

Registers

Arithmetic
logic unit

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Status register
The status registers contain single bit registers which are:

• Zero flag - is the result zero?

• Sign flag - is the number plus or minus?
• Carry flag - did a carry occur?
• Parity flag - check whether the total number of bits is odd or even.

Timing and control

The program counter is a register inside the microprocessor that stores the memory
address of the next instruction to be executed.

The processor first fetches the instruction from the address stored in the PC. The fetchec
instruction is then decoded so that it can be interpreted by the microprocessor. Once
decoded, the instruction can then be executed and the PC incremented so that it contai
the address of the next instruction. This is known as the fetch-decode-execute cycle.

Memory
The purpose of the memory is to store the program instructions and data. These are
recalled at appropriate times by the CPU while it is performing its functions.

Memory can be basically divided into three types:

• semiconductor
• maqnetic
• optical

Magnetic memory is typically used where bulk-data is maintained on a Long-term basis. I

this type of memory, the data can be stored as a presence (or absence) of a magnetized
area in the storage medium.

Semiconductor (also known as "solid state") memory can be used for transient or
permanent data storage. In this type of memory, the data is stored as a voltage level.
Access to the memory elements is directed by the address bus. Information transfer is
accomplished using the bi-directional data bus.

Memory devices are the individual elements of the computer memory which can store logic
"1" and logic "0" bits, in such a manner, that a single bit or group of bits (words) can be
stored and retrieved. The memory can be physically part of the computer. For example,
the computer-on-a-chip has built-in memory. Although this memory is usually small, it does
provide the computer with the necessary storage for instructions and data.

Memory devices may be on the same circuit card as the computer, in the same line
replaceable unit (LRU), or in a separate LRU. In the case of aircraft computer systems, the
memory is usually within the same LRU.

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Semiconductor memory chips

Memory

+
Volatile memory
+
Non-volatile memory

W ."
Random access memory (RAM) Read only memory (ROM)

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There are many memory devices in use. The most common are the magnetic tape,
magnetic disc and solid state memory.

Primary memory/volatile memory

Primary memory is internal memory of the computer. RAM and ROM both form part of
primary memory. The primary memory provides main working space to the computer.

Secondary memory/non-volatile memory

Secondary memory is external and permanent in nature. The secondary memory is
concerned with magnetic memory. Secondary memory can be stored on storage media
like floppy disks, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes. This memory can also be stored
optically on optical disks - CD-ROM or DVD-ROM. The following terms comes under
secondary memory of a computer.

Volatile vs non-volatile memories

The selection of a memory type for a given computer system can be based upon the ne
for memory retention when system power is removed. If the memory is of a type that lose
its data when power is removed, it is termed volatile memory; memory that retains data
when power is removed is termed non-volatile memory. Volatile memory is made
temporarily non-volatile by using a dedicated battery to provide enough power to the
device to hold its memory.

Destructive vs non-destructive readouts

In configuring a computer system, the designer must provide additional circuitry for
memories whose data is lost upon readout. These type of memories are referred to as
having destructive readouts. Their use requires that the system temporarily store the data
readout then write that data back into the memory before processing it. Memory devices
which do not lose data upon readout are referred to as having nondestructive readouts.
)

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Magnetic (floppy disc), optical (CD) and semiconductor memories

Magnetic
field line(s)

Tape
Motion

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Memory types
Magnetic tape
The magnetic tape is a flexible plastic tape, with a uniform coating of magnetic material on
one surface. The tape is usually stored on a plastic or metal reel, and when the tape is
used, it is unwound off the supply reel past a read/write head and is wound onto a take-up
reel. As the tape passes the read/write head, the computer controls the reading and writing
of the magnetic bits from parallel tracks on the tape. These tracks extend from one end of
the tape to the other. The read/write head is divided into the same number of sections as
there are tracks on the tape being used. One track on the tape is usually reserved for the
clock or timing pulses to allow synchronization of the tape with the computer operation.

Magnetic tapes can be used to store the computer program instructions and data. By
means of a bi-directional tape drive, the computer may access the stored information
anywhere on the length of the tape. Depending upon the length of the tape and the speed
of the drive mechanism, memory access times can be very long.

Magnetic tapes can also be used as a storage medium for permanent record or backup. If
a program is on a magnetic disc, for example, a copy of the program can be recorded onto
the magnetic tape for backup. This is stored in a library. If anything should happen to the
disc, the copy tape can be used to reprogram another disc. As revisions to the program
are made, revisions are also made to the stored backup tape.

In a typical digital flight data recorder, aeroplane operating parameters are recorded for
later use during performance evaluation or during accident investigation. The flight data
recorder uses a 450-foot tape, with end-of-tape indicators. Recording of parameters
begins on track one of the tape. At the end of track one, the recorder senses the end of
tape and changes direction. Information is then recorded on track two in the opposite
direction until the other end-of-tape indicator is detected. The direction is then reversed
and the track is incremented. This continues until track six is recorded to the end, then the
recording changes direction and switches back to track one. A total recording time of 25
hours is achieved by using this multi-track, bi-directional recording method.

The "memory" unit is used for the storage off binary coded information.

Information consists of instructions and data.

• Instructions: are coded pieces of information that direct the activities of the CPU.

• Data: is the information that is processed by the CPU.

Magnetism: data storage

https:llyoutu.be/f3BNHbfTsvk

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1 0

Soft iron core

Recording medium

1 '0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1
Binary statement

The memory tape used in a cockpit voice recorder

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cs>
Magnetic disc
The magnetic disc is a flat magnetically coated disc. Digital information is stored on the
disc in magnetic tracks. Generally, there are 40 to 80 tracks on a disc. The tracks are
concentric about the disc center and each track is divided into pie-shaped sectors. Each
sector can store between 128 and 512 bytes of information and is accessible by using
read/write heads. The disc is rotated to allow the read/write heads to store or to read the
information on any of the sectors.

There are several sizes of magnetic discs, ranging from 3% inches to 14 inches in
diameter. Memory capacity on these discs varies, depending on disc size and formatting.
The most common floppy disc is the 3% inch floppy. Usually it is formatted to hold 1440K
bytes of information.

Discs can be flexible (floppy discs) or rigid (hard discs). Rigid or hard discs can be stacked
in such a manner that one head or multiple heads on an access arm can extend between
pairs of discs to read or write on disc surfaces above and below the arm.

The flexible disc is usually packaged inside a more rigid plastic envelope or jacket. Head
access to the disc is provided through a slot in the envelope. A sliding guard protects the
magnetic disc when not in use. A drive spindle makes contact with the disc through a hole
in the center of the envelope. This allows the spindle to spin the disc at high speeds inside
the envelope. A typical 3% inch disc spins at around 300 rpm when data is read or written.

The advantage of magnetic discs is their rapid access time. The access for magnetic tape
is in seconds (or minutes) while disc access time is in milliseconds. Size is a disadvantage
due to the mechanical components needed to drive and read the discs.

Magnetic hard disk drive (HOD)

A hard disk is a sealed unit containing a number of platters in a stack. Hard disks may be
mounted in a horizontal or a vertical position. In this description, the hard drive is mounted
horizontally.

Electromagnetic read/write heads are positioned above and below each platter. As the
platters spin, the drive heads move in toward the center surface and out toward the edge.
In this way, the drive heads can reach the entire surface of each platter.

On a hard disk, data is stored in thin, concentric bands. A drive head, while in one position
can read or write a circular ring, or band called a track. There can be more than a
thousand tracks on a 3.5-inch hard disk. Sections within each track are called sectors. A
sector is the smallest physical storage unit on a disk, and is almost always 512 bytes (0.5
kB) in size.

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A 3% inch magnetic floppy disk (diskette)

Actuator axis

Slider
(and head)

I
I/O connector

Jumper pins
Power connector

The internal workings of an HDD

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The structure of older hard drives (i.e. prior to Windows 95) will refer to a cylinder/head/
sector notation. A cylinder is formed while all drive heads are in the same position on the
disk. The tracks, stacked on top of each other form a cylinder. This scheme is slowly being
eliminated with modern hard drives. All new disks use a translation factor to make their
actual hardware layout appear continuous, as this is the way that operating systems from
Windows 95 onward like to work.

To the operating system of a computer, tracks are logical rather than physical in structure,
and are established when the disk is low-level formatted. Tracks are numbered, starting at
o (the outermost edge of the disk), and going up to the highest numbered track, typically
1023, (close to the center). Similarly, there are 1,024 cylinders (numbered from 0 to 1023)
on a hard disk.

The stack of platters rotate at a constant speed. The drive head, while positioned close to
the center of the disk reads from a surface that is passing by more slowly than the surface
at the outer edges of the disk. To compensate for this physical difference, tracks near the
outside of the disk are less-densely populated with data than the tracks near the center of
the disk. The result of the different data density is that the same amount of data can be
read over the same period of time, from any drive head position.

The disk space is filled with data according to a standard plan. One side of one platter
contains space reserved for hardware track-positioning information and is not available to
the operating system. Thus, a disk assembly containing two platters has three sides
available for data. Track-positioning data is written to the disk during assembly at the
factory. The system disk controller reads this data to place the drive heads in the correct
sector position.

A sector, being the smallest physical storage unit on the disk, is almost always 512 bytes
in size because 512 is a power of 2 (2 to the power of 9). The number 2 is used because
there are two states in the most basic of computer languages - on and off.

Each disk sector is labeled using the factory track-positioning data. Sector identification
data is written to the area immediately before the contents of the sector and identifies the
starting address of the sector.

The optimal method of storing a file on a disk is in a contiguous series, i.e. all data in a
stream stored end-to-end in a single line. As many files are larger than 512 bytes, it is up
to the file system to allocate sectors to store the file's data. For example, if the file size is
800 bytes, two 512 k sectors are allocated for the file. A cluster is typically the same size
as a sector. These two sectors with 800 bytes of data are called two clusters.

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A segment in an annular
ring area on the hard disk

~ Each segment is
divided into sectors

Sectors are arranged

into 'clusters'

Sector
Track
'Cluster of
four sectors

Read/write
heads

Sectors and clusters

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They are called clusters because the space is reserved for the data contents. This process
protects the stored data from being over-written. Later, if data is appended to the file and
its size grows to 1600 bytes, another two clusters are allocated, storing the entire file
within four clusters.

If contiguous clusters are not available (clusters that are adjacent to each other on the
disk), the second two clusters may be written elsewhere on the same disk or within the
same cylinder or on a different cylinder - wherever the file system finds two sectors
available. A file stored in this non-contiguous manner is considered to be fragmented.
Fragmentation can slow down system performance if the file system must direct the drive
heads to several different addresses to find all the data in the file you want to read. The
extra time for the heads to travel to a number of addresses causes a delay before the
entire file is retrieved.

Cluster size can be changed to optimize file storage. A larger cluster size reduces the
potential for fragmentation, but increases the likelihood that clusters will have unused
space. Using clusters larger than one sector reduces fragmentation, and reduces the
amount of disk space needed to store the information about the used and unused areas on
the disk.

Most disks used in computers today rotate at a constant angular velocity. The tracks near
the outside of the disk are less densely populated with data than the tracks near the center
of the disk. Thus, a fixed amount of data can be read in a constant period of time, even
though the speed of the disk surface is faster on the tracks located further away from the
center of the disk.

Modern disks reserve one side of one platter for track positioning information, which is
written to the disk at the factory during disk assembly. It is not available to the operating
system. The disk controller uses this information to fine tune the head locations when the
heads move to another location on the disk. When a side contains the track position
information, that side cannot be used for data. Thus, a disk assembly containing two
platters has three sides that are available for data.

How a hard disc drive works

https://youtu.be/AfmTaOJMoUk

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Copyrig 12016 Issue 3 - January 2016
Module 5.6 Basic Computer Structure
l~~

~.:~ odu e asie ompu er rue

Optical disc
One of the developments in memory storage is the optical laser disc or compact disc C~
and digital versatile disc (OVO). This method of storage uses a technique which allows G
large volume of information to be stored in a much smaller area.

The 12 centimeter disc currently stores over 600 megabytes (600MB or 600 000 000
bytes). This is enough data for an average 24 volume encyclopedia. This small campa
size is used in the smaller computers (or home computers). Other laser disc systems .
be used with large mainframe computers. For instance, one manufacturer produces a
system which stores one trillion bytes of information on four 14-inch laser discs. This is
approximately equivalent to 400 billion-typed pages.

There are several configurations for optical laser disc. One configuration is called
CD-ROM (compact disc, read only memory). This performs a similar function as a read
only memory microcircuit. A second configuration is called WORM (write-once, read ma .....
times) often referred to as CO-R. This optical disc can be written onto only once but rea
many times. Once data has been written onto the disc it cannot be erased or written 0 e .
Currently, the capacity for a WORM is up to 650 Meg. A third configuration is the
rewritable CO-RW. These discs allow the user to write, read, erase and rewrite up to
650MB of information on the disc.

There are two methods currently used to organize an optical disc. The first method is ca
Constant Linear Velocity. In this method the disc is organized much like an old vinyl re
played on a stereo. The second is called Linear Angular Velocity where the data
arranged on the disc in concentric rings, much like the tracks on a floppy disc.

Information is stored on the disc as "pits" or "bumps" which are only 0.83 to 3.04 micro
long and 0.50 microns (0.002 inches) wide. Each "track" is 1.6 microns apart.

The digital versatile disc (OVO) is the same size as a standard CD but by using differe •
data encoding techniques, has a capacity of up to 4.7 Gigabytes (4.7GB or 4 7000000
bytes) . Like the CD they are available in both OVO-R and OVO-RW versions but due to
the variety of encoding methods compatibility can be a problem.
Both CDs and OVOs are available as double sided discs, with double the capacity, for
specialist applications.

In all configurations a laser disc has a special dye-polymer coating which respond to the
wavelength of the recording laser to create either "bumps" or "pits". When reading the disc,
the absence or presence of these pits is detected by a photodetector. The photodetector
compares a beam of light being sent from the recording laser to a beam being returned
from the disc. This is done by using a beamsplitter in the laser disc system. The
beamsplitter sends part of the light to the detector. The other part of the light is sent to the
laser disc, reflected back to the beamsplitter and reflected onto the photodetector. The
photodetector can now compare the two beams of light.

An erasable laser disc system uses a second laser to heat the dye-polymer layer and
remove the bump or pit created by the recording laser.

How (CD) compact discs work

https://youtu.be/SMQX02p3syA

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Compact disc

•..
Disc rotation

~
Tracking monitor
Photodetector
Focused laser and focus lens
beam 2~l

+-t-- Pit Beam splitter

0.833
to 3.054~l
Record/play Erase laser
laser
---1.6~ -

1) Plastic core layer

2) Layer of aluminium
3) Protective plastic layer

0.047"

The optical laser disc

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