Electrical Engineering Department

Electrical Installations and Drawings (ENEE323)

Lecture Notes
Instruments, Inspection, and Testing

A) Instruments:

In order to fulfill the basic requirements for testing according to the IEE Regulations, or any other
regulations, the following instruments are needed:
1. A Continuity Tester (low ohms)
2. An Insulation Resistance Tester (high ohms)
3. A Loop Impedance Tester
4. An RCD Tester
5. A Prospective Short-Circuit Current (PSCC) Tester
6. An Approved Test Lamp or Voltage Indicator

1. A Continuity Tester

It is a Low-Reading Ohmmeter in the range of 2 – 0.005Ω or even less. A Continuity Tester should have a no-
load source voltage of between 4V and 24V, and be capable of delivering an AC or DC short-circuit current of
not less than 200mA. It should have a resolution (i.e. a detectable difference in resistance) of at least 0.05 m-
ohms.

Bells, buzzers and simple multimeters will all indicate whether or not a circuit is continuous, but will not show
the difference between the resistance of, say, a 10m length of 10.0mm2 conductor and a 10m length of
1.0mm2 conductor.

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2. An Insulation Resistance Tester
An Insulation Resistance Tester is a High-Reading Ohmmeter (called Megger) measures values less than
1MΩ up to infinity. It must be capable of delivering 1mA when the required test voltage is applied across the
minimum acceptable value of insulation resistance.

Consequently, an instrument selected for use on a low voltage system should be capable of delivering 1mA at
500V across a resistance of 0.5m-ohms.

3. A Loop Impedance Tester

It is basically a Special Ohmmeter whose range is 0 – 2000Ω used to measure the impedance of a loop.
This instrument functions by creating, in effect, an earth fault for a brief moment, and is connected to the
circuit via a plug or by ‘flying leads’ connected separately to phase, neutral and earth.

The instrument should only allow an earth fault to exist for a maximum of 40ms and a resolution of 0.01
Ohms is adequate for circuits up to 50A. Above this circuit rating, the ohmic values become too small to
give such an accuracy using a standard instrument and a more specialized equipment may be required.

The Earth Electrode Resistance has any value ranging from fractions of Ohms to hundreds of Ohms, and is
measured by using a Special Ohmmeter; either Proprietary Test Instrument or a Loop Impedance Tester.

4. An RCD Tester
It is usually connected by the use of a plug, although flying leads are needed for non-socket-outlet circuits.
This instrument allows a range of out-of-balance currents to flow through the RCD to cause its operation
within specified time limits.

The test instrument should not be operated for longer than 2s and it should have a 10% accuracy across
the full range of test currents. The current range of the tester is 5 – 500mA.

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5. A PSCC Tester
Its name stands for Prospective-Short Circuit-Current Tester. Normally one half of a dual, loop impedance/PSCC
tester, this instrument measures the Prospective Short Circuit Current (phase-neutral fault current) at the point
of measurement using the flying leads. Its current range is 2 – 20kA.

6. An Approved Test Lamp or Voltage Indicator

A typical Approved Test Lamp is shown in the Figure below. A flexible cord with a lamp attached is not an
approved device, nor for that matter is the ubiquitous ‘testascope’ or ‘neon screw-driver’, which encourages
the passage of current, at low voltage, through the body!

The Approved Test Lamp has the following characteristics:

The leads should be adequately insulated and, ideally, fused.

The leads should be easily distinguished from each other by color.
The leads should be flexible and sufficiently long for their purpose.
The probes should incorporate finger barriers to prevent accidental contact with live parts.
The probes should be insulated and have a maximum of 2mm of exposed metal, but preferably have
spring-loaded enclosed tips.

Maximum Test
Voltage is Marked

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B) Inspection
Certain information such as General Characteristics’, Design procedure, Drawings, Diagrams, Charts and
similar information relating to the installation must be available to the verifier.

A sequence of inspections must be conducted, prior testing, for any installation; some of these are:

1. Diagrams
Are diagrams, instructions and similar information relating to the installation available?

2. Connection of Conductors
Are terminations electrically and mechanically sound, and whether insulation and sheathing is
removed only to a minimum to allow satisfactory termination? Is there any loose connection?

3. Identification of Conductors
Are conductors correctly identified in accordance with Regulations and Standards; color, size and
type?

4. Labeling
Are all protective devices, switches (where necessary) and terminals of conductors correctly labeled,
is numbering used in Distribution Boards?

5. Routing of Cables
Are cables installed in such a way that account is taken of external influences such as mechanical
damage, corrosion, heat, etc.?

6. Conductor Selection
Are conductors selected for Current-Carrying Capacity and Voltage Drop in accordance with the
design requirements?

7. Connection of Single Pole Devices

Are single pole protective and switching devices connected in the live conductor only?

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8. Protection against Shock
What methods have been used to provide protection against electric shock?

9. Isolation and Switching

Are there correctly located and installed appropriate devices for isolation and switching?

10. Protective Devices

Are protective devices, monitoring devices, and meters correctly chosen and set to ensure fault
protection against indirect contact and/or overcurrent?

11. Access
Are all means of access to switches and switchgears and equipments adequate?

12. Notices and Signs

Are danger notices and warning signs present?

13. Thermal Effects

Are fire barriers present where required and protection against thermal effects provided?

14. Accessories and Equipments

Are all accessories and equipments correctly connected?

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C) Testing

C.1) Testing Continuity of Protective Conductors

All protective conductors, including main and supplementary protective bonding conductors must be
tested for continuity using a Low-Resistance Ohmmeter. Each measured value, should be compared with
the relevant value for the length and size of a particular conductor. Such values are shown in Table # 1.

o
Table # 1: Resistance (Ω) of Copper Conductors at 20 C

Where a supplementary protective bonding conductor has been installed between simultaneously
accessible exposed and extraneous conductive parts, because circuit disconnection times cannot be met,
then the resistance (R) of the conductor must be equal to or less than 50/Ia.

Hence, R ≤ , where 50 is the voltage above which exposed metalwork should not rise, and Ia is the

minimum current causing operation of the circuit protective device within 5s.

For example, suppose a 45A BS 3036 fuse protects a cooker circuit, the disconnection time for the circuit
cannot be met, and hence a supplementary bonding conductor has been installed between the cooker
case and an adjacent central heating radiator. The R of the protective conductor should not be greater
than 50/Ia, and Ia in this case is 145A (obtained from IEE Regulation figures); that is,

50/145 = 0.34Ω

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Conducting a Continuity Test:

To conduct a test to establish continuity of main or supplementary bonding conductors, just connect the
leads from a Low-Resistance Ohmmeter (Continuity Tester) to the ends of the bonding conductor, as
shown in the Figure next. One end should be
disconnected from its bonding clamp, or else the
measurements may include the resistance of parallel
paths of other earthed metalwork. Also, remember to
zero the instrument first or, if this facility is not
available, record the resistance of the test leads so that
this value can be subtracted from the test reading later
on.

The continuity of Circuit Protective Conductors (CPC’s) may be established in the same way, but a second
method is preferred, as the results of this second test indicate the value of (R1 + R2) for the circuit in
question.

The test is conducted in the following manner (This procedure is shown in the Figure below):
1. Ensure that the installation is disconnected from the supply

2. Temporarily link together the line conductor

and CPC of the circuit concerned in the
Distribution Board (DB) or consumer unit.

3. Test between line and CPC at each outlet in

the circuit. A reading indicates continuity.

4. Record the test result obtained at the furthest

point in the circuit. This value is (R1 + R2) for

the circuit.

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C.2) Testing Insulation Resistance
This is probably the most used and yet the most abused test among all.
Affectionately known as ‘meggering’, an Insulation Resistance Test is performed
to ensure that the insulation of conductors, accessories and equipments is in a
healthy condition, and will prevent dangerous leakage currents between
conductors, as well as between conductors and earth. It also indicates whether
any short circuit exists.

Insulation resistance is the resistance measured between conductors and is

made up of countless millions of resistances in parallel, as shown in the Figure
next.

The more resistances there are in parallel, the lower the overall resistance would be, and as a
consequence, the longer a cable is, the lower is the insulation resistance. In addition to the fact that
almost all installation circuits are also wired in parallel, it becomes apparent that tests on large
installations may give, if measured as a whole, pessimistically low values, even if there are no faults.

Under these circumstances, it is usual to break down such large installations into smaller sections, such as
floor by floor, distribution circuit by distribution circuit, etc. This also helps to minimize disruption in the
case of periodic testing.

The test procedure is as follows:

1 Disconnect all items of equipment such as capacitors and indicator lamps as these are likely to give
misleading results. Remove any items of equipment likely to be damaged by the test, such as dimmer
switches, electronic timers, etc. Remove all lamps and accessories and disconnect fluorescent and
discharge fittings. Ensure that the installation is disconnected from the supply, all fuses are in place,
and CB’s and switches are in the ‘on’ position. In some instances it may be impracticable to remove
lamps, etc. and in this case the local switch controlling such equipment may be left in the ‘off’ position.

2 Join together all live conductors of the supply and test between this joint and earth. Alternatively, test
between each live conductor and earth in turn.

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3 Test between line and neutral. For three-phase systems, join together all lines and test between this
joint and the neutral. Then test between each of the lines. Alternatively, test between each of the live
conductors in turn. Installations incorporating two-way lighting systems should be tested twice with
the two-way switches in alternative positions.

Table # 2 shows the test voltages and the minimum values of insulation resistance for various types of
circuits.

Table # 2: Minimum Values of Insulation Resistance

ELV 0.25
0.5

If a value of less than 2MΩ is recorded, it may indicate a situation where a fault is developing (though it
complies with permissible values).

Note: many manufacturers provide Insulation Tester and Continuity tester in one instrument.

C.3) Testing Earth Electrode Resistance

In a T-T system, the general mass of earth is relied upon for a return path under earth fault. Connection to
earth is made by an electrode, usually of the rod type, tape or plate.

In order to determine the resistance of the earth return path, it is necessary to measure the resistance
that the electrode has with earth. If the measurements were taken at increasingly longer distances from
the electrode, an increase in resistance would be noticed up to about 2.5 – 3m from the rod, after which
no further increase in resistance would be noticed.

The maximum resistance recorded is the electrode resistance, and the area that extends the 2.5–3m beyond
the electrode is known as the earth electrode resistance area.

There are two methods of making the measurement, one using a Proprietary Test Instrument, and the other
using a Loop Impedance Tester. The use of any method depends on the type of protection employed.

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Method 1: For Protection by an Overcurrent Device:

The test procedure is as follows:

1. Temporarily, disconnect the earthing conductor to the Electrode under test.

2. Place the Current electrode (C2) away from the electrode under test, approximately 10 times its
length; i.e. a 30m distance for a 3m-rod.

3. Place the Potential electrode midway.

4. Connect the Proprietary Test Instrument as shown in the Figure below.

5. Record the resistance value

6. Move the potential electrode approximately 3m on either side of the mid position, and record
these two readings.

7. Take an average of these three readings; this is the earth electrode resistance.

8. Determine the maximum deviation or difference of this average from the three readings

9. Express the deviation as a percentage of the average reading.

10. To obtain the accuracy of measurements, multiply the percentage deviation by a factor 1.2.

11. The accuracy of the measurements is acceptable if it is within 5%.

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 Example # 1: If three readings obtained from an Earth Electrode Resistance test were 181, 185 and 179Ω,
then what would be the value of the electrode resistance and would the accuracy of the measurement
be acceptable?

Solution:

Maximum deviation = 185 - 181.67 = 3.3

Deviation as percentage of the average =

Measurement Accuracy = 1.83% X 1.2 = 2.2% (which is acceptable)

For TT systems, the result of this test will indicate compliance if the product of the electrode resistance and the
operating current of the overcurrent device does not exceed 50V.

Method 2: For Protection by an RCD

This test is conducted using a Loop Impedance Tester. In this case, an earth fault loop impedance test is
carried out between the incoming line terminal and the electrode – a standard test for Ze.

The value obtained is added to the CPC resistance of the protected circuits and this value is multiplied by
the operating current of the RCD. The resulting value should not exceed 50V. If it does, then Method 1
should be used to check the actual value of the electrode resistance.

C.4) Testing Earth Fault Loop Impedance

The test is achieved by a Special Ohmmeter or Loop
Impedance Tester. Earth fault loop impedance has been
discussed in previous lectures. The main components of
the earth fault loop path are, as shown in the Figure next:
1. The CPC
2. The main earthing conductor and earthing terminal
3. The return path via the earth for TT systems, and the

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 metallic return path in the case TN-S or TN-C-S systems. In the latter case, the metallic return is the
Protective Earthed Neutral (PEN) conductor.
4. The earthed Neutral of the supply Transformer
5. The transformer windings
6. The phase conductor back to the point of fault

Overcurrent protective devices must, under earth fault conditions, disconnect fast enough to reduce the
risk of electric shock. This is achieved if the actual value of the earth fault loop impedance does not
exceed the tabulated maximum values given in Regulations.

The purpose of the test, therefore, is to determine the actual value of the loop impedance (Zs) for
comparison with those maximum values, and it is conducted as follows:

a. Ensure that all main equipotential bonding is in place.

b. Connect the Loop Impedance Tester by the ‘flying leads’ to the line, the neutral, and earth
terminals at the remote end of the circuit being under test. (If a neutral is not available, e.g. in the
case of a three-phase motor, connect the neutral probe to earth.)

c. Press to test and record the value indicated (Zs)

Account must be taken to ambient temperature at the test time as well as the conductor maximum
operating temperature, which affect the conductor resistance. A correction factor is needed!

Instead of worrying about the correction factor and using appropriate formulas, which is time consuming
and is not commonly used, a rule of thumb may be applied, which simply requires the measured value of
Zs does not exceed 0.8 of the appropriate tabulated value. Table # 3 gives the 0.8 values of the tabulated
loop impedance for direct comparison with measured values.

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 Table # 3: Values of loop impedance for comparison with test readings

C.5) RCD/RCCB Operation

Where RCDs/RCCBs are fitted, it is essential that they operate within set parameters. The RCD
testers used are designed to do just this, and the basic tests required are as follows:
1- Set the test instrument to the rating of the RCD.
2- Set the test instrument to half rated trip.
3- Operate the instrument and the RCD should not trip.
4- Set the instrument to deliver the full rated tripping current of the RCD.
5- Operate the instrument and the RCD should trip out in the required time.
6- For 30mA RCDs used for additional protection, set the instrument to five times the tripping
current.
7- Operate the instrument and the RCD should trip out in no more than 40ms.

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