Physics

Physics Portal

Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), "natural", and φύσις (physis), "nature") is
the science of the natural world, which deals with the fundamental particles the universe
is made of, the interactions between them and the interactions of objects composed of
them (nuclei, atoms, molecules, etc). Physicists study a wide range of physical
phenomena spanning all length scales: from the subatomic particles of which all ordinary
(i.e., baryonic) matter is made (particle physics) to the behavior of the material Universe
as a whole (cosmology). Because all laws of nature (and all forces of nature) originate
from mathematical symmetries of space and time then the study of these symmetries is
the main direction of modern physics.

Contents
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 1 Introduction
 2 Overview of physics research
o 2.1 Central theories
o 2.2 Major fields of physics
o 2.3 Related fields
o 2.4 Theoretical and experimental physics
o 2.5 Fringe theories
 3 History
 4 Future directions
 5 Notes
 6 Further reading
o 6.1 Popular Reading
o 6.2 University Level Textbooks
 6.2.1 Introductory
 6.2.2 Undergraduate
 6.2.3 Graduate
 6.2.4 History
 7 See also
 8 External links
o 8.1 General
o 8.2 Organizations

o 8.3 Forums

Introduction
Physics is the science of Nature. Nature manifests itself as matter and energy in space
and time. Thus, Physics is the science of development of 'matter and energy' in 'space
and time.'

Physics discoveries find applications throughout the other natural sciences as it studies
the basic constituents of the natural world. Some of the phenomena studied in physics,
such as the conservation of energy, are common to all material systems. These are often
referred to as laws of physics. Others, such as superconductivity, stem from these laws,
but are not laws themselves, because they only appear in some systems. Physics is
sometimes said to be the "fundamental science", because each of the other weaker
sciences (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) deals with particular types of material
systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of molecules
and the chemicals that they form in the bulk. The properties of a chemical are determined
by the properties of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics
such as quantum mechanics (called in this case quantum chemistry), thermodynamics,
and electromagnetism.

Physics is closely related to mathematics, which provides the logical framework in which
physical laws can be precisely formulated and their predictions quantified. Physical
definitions, models and theories are always expressed using mathematical relations. A
key difference between physics and mathematics is that because physics is ultimately
concerned with descriptions of the material world, it tests its theories by observations
(called experiments), whereas mathematics is concerned with abstract logical patterns not
limited by those observed in the real world (because the real world is limited in the
number of dimensions and in many other ways it does not have to correspond to richer
mathematical structures). The distinction, however, is not always clear-cut. There is a
large area of research intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as
mathematical physics.

Physics attempts to describe the natural world by the application of the scientific method.
Natural philosophy, its counterpart, is the study of the changing world by philosophy
which has been also called "physics" since classical times to at least up to its separation
from philosophy as a positive science in the 19th century. Mixed questions, of which
solutions can be attempted through the applications of both disciplines (e.g. the
divisibility of the atom) can involve natural philosophy in physics the science and vice
versa.

Overview of physics research

Central theories

While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that are
used by all physicists. Each of these theories is believed to be basically correct, within a
certain domain of validity. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately
describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and moving at
much less than the speed of light. These theories continue to be areas of active research;
for instance, a remarkable aspect of classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered
in the 20th century, three centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics
by Isaac Newton (1642—1727). These "central theories" are important tools for research
into more specialized topics, and any physicist, regardless of his or her specialization, is
expected to be well-versed in them.

Theory Major subtopics Concepts

Newton's laws of motion,

Lagrangian mechanics, Density, Dimension, Gravity, Space, Time,
Hamiltonian mechanics, Motion, Length, Position, Velocity,
Classical Kinematics, Statics, Acceleration, Mass, Momentum, Force,
mechanics Dynamics, Chaos theory, Energy, Angular momentum, Torque,
Acoustics, Fluid Conservation law, Harmonic oscillator,
dynamics, Continuum Wave, Work, Power
mechanics

Capacitance, Electric charge, Current,

Electrical conductivity, Electric field,
Electrostatics,
Electric permittivity, Electrical resistance,
Electrodynamics,
Electromagnetic field, Electromagnetic
Electromagnetism Electricity, Magnetism,
induction, Electromagnetic radiation,
Maxwell's equations,
Gaussian surface, Magnetic field,
Optics
Magnetic flux, Magnetic monopole,
Magnetic permeability

Boltzmann's constant, Conjugate variables,

Enthalpy, Entropy, Equation of state,
Equipartition theorem, First Law of
Thermodynamics, Free energy, Heat, Ideal
gas law, Internal energy, Irreversible
process, Partition function, Pressure,
Thermodynamics Reversible process, Second Law of
Heat engine, Kinetic
and Statistical Thermodynamics, Spontaneous process,
theory
mechanics State function, Statistical ensemble,
Temperature, Thermodynamic
equilibrium, Thermodynamic potential,
Thermodynamic processes,
Thermodynamic state, Thermodynamic
system, Third Law of Thermodynamics,
Viscosity, Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
 Adiabatic approximation, Correspondence
principle, Free particle, Hamiltonian,
Hilbert space, Identical particles, Matrix
Path integral formulation, Mechanics, Planck's constant, Operators,
Scattering theory, Quanta, Quantization, Quantum
Quantum Schrödinger equation, entanglement, Quantum harmonic
mechanics Quantum field theory, oscillator, Quantum number, Quantum
Quantum statistical tunneling, Schrödinger's cat, Spin,
mechanics Wavefunction, Wave mechanics, Wave-
particle duality, Zero-point energy, Pauli
Exclusion Principle, Heisenberg
Uncertainty Principle

Covariance, Einstein manifold,

Equivalence principle, Four-momentum,
Four-vector, General principle of
relativity, Geodesic motion, Gravity,
Gravitoelectromagnetism, Inertial frame of
reference, Invariance, Length contraction,
Special relativity, General Lorentzian manifold, Lorentz
Theory of relativity relativity, Einstein field transformation, Metric, Minkowski
equations diagram, Minkowski space, Principle of
Relativity, Proper length, Proper time,
Reference frame, Rest energy, Rest mass,
Relativity of simultaneity, Spacetime,
Special principle of relativity, Speed of
light, Stress-energy tensor, Time dilation,
Twin paradox, World line

Major fields of physics

Classification of physics fields by the types of effects that need to be accounted for

Contemporary research in physics is divided into several distinct fields that study
different aspects of the material world. Condensed matter physics, by most estimates the
largest single field of physics, is concerned with how the properties of bulk matter, such
as the ordinary solids and liquids we encounter in everyday life, arise from the properties
and mutual interactions of the constituent atoms. The field of atomic, molecular, and
optical physics deals with the behavior of individual atoms and molecules, and in
particular the ways in which they absorb and emit light. The field of particle physics, also
known as "high-energy physics", is concerned with the properties of submicroscopic
particles much smaller than atoms, including the elementary particles from which all
other units of matter are constructed. Finally, the field of astrophysics applies the laws of
physics to explain astronomical phenomena, ranging from the Sun and the other objects
in the solar system to the universe as a whole.

Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly
specialized, and nowadays it is not uncommon for physicists to work in a single field for
their entire careers. "Universalists" like Albert Einstein (1879—1955) and Lev Landau
(1908—1968), who were comfortable working in multiple fields of physics, are now very
rare.

Field Subfields Major theories Concepts

Astrophysics Cosmology, Big Bang, Lambda- Black hole, Cosmic

Planetary science, CDM model, Cosmic background radiation,
 inflation, General Galaxy, Gravity,
plasma physics relativity, Law of Gravitational radiation,
universal gravitation Planet, Solar system, Star

Atomic physics, Atom, Molecule, Diffraction,

Atomic,
Molecular physics, Quantum optics, Electromagnetic radiation,
molecular, and
Chemical physics, Quantum chemistry Laser, Polarization, Spectral
optical physics
Optics, Photonics line

Fundamental force
(gravitational,
Accelerator physics, Standard Model, electromagnetic, weak,
Particle Nuclear physics, Supersymmetry, Grand strong), Elementary particle,
physics Particle physics unification theory, M- Antimatter, Spin,
phenomenology theory Spontaneous symmetry
breaking, Theory of
everything, Vacuum energy

Phases (gas, liquid, solid,

Bose-Einstein condensate,
BCS theory, Bloch superconductor, superfluid),
Solid state physics,
Condensed wave, Fermi gas, Electrical conduction,
Materials physics,
matter physics Fermi liquid, Many- Magnetism, Self-
Polymer physics
body theory organization, Spin,
Spontaneous symmetry
breaking

Related fields

There are many areas of research that mix physics with other disciplines. For example,
the wide-ranging field of biophysics is devoted to the role that physical principles play in
biological systems and the field of quantum chemistry studies how the theory of quantum
mechanics gives rise to the chemical behavior of atoms and molecules. Some of these
fields are listed below.

Acoustics - Astronomy - Agrophysics - Biophysics - Chemical physics - Computational

physics - Econophysics - Electronics - Engineering - Geophysics - Materials science -
Mathematical physics - Medical physics - Physical chemistry - Physics of computation -
Quantum chemistry - Quantum information science - Vehicle dynamics

Theoretical and experimental physics

The culture of physics research differs from the other sciences in the separation of theory
and experiment. Since the 20th century, most individual physicists have specialized in
either theoretical physics or experimental physics. The great Italian physicist Enrico
Fermi (1901—1954), who made fundamental contributions to both theory and
experiments in nuclear physics, was a notable exception. In contrast, almost all the
successful theorists in biology and chemistry have also been experimentalists. However,
in the last decades, quantum and computational chemistry became autonomous
disciplines straddling the border between theoretical chemistry and theoretical physics.
Many quantum chemists or theoretical molecular physicists are therefore often
considered as pure theorists.

Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop theories that can describe and interpret
existing experimental results and successfully predict future results through abstractions
and mathematical models, while experimentalists devise and perform experiments to
explore new phenomena and test theoretical predictions. Although theory and experiment
are developed separately, they are strongly dependent on each other. Progress in physics
frequently comes about when experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories
cannot account for, necessitating the formulation of new theories. Likewise, ideas arising
from theory often inspire new experiments. In the absence of experiment, theoretical
research can go in the wrong direction; this is one of the criticisms that has been leveled
against M-theory, a popular theory in high-energy physics for which no practical
experimental test has ever been devised.

Fringe theories

 Cold fusion
 Dynamic theory of gravity
 Luminiferous aether
 Steady state theory

History
Main article: History of physics
Further information: Famous physicists, Nobel Prize in physics
Sir Isaac Newton

Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of matter: why unsupported
objects drop to the ground, why different materials have different properties, and so forth.
Also a mystery was the character of the universe, such as the form of the Earth and the
behavior of celestial objects such as the Sun and the Moon. Several theories were
proposed, most of which were wrong. These theories were largely couched in
philosophical terms, and never verified by systematic experimental testing as is popular
today. The works of Ptolemy and Aristotle however, were also found to not always match
everyday observations. There were exceptions and there are anachronisms: for example,
Indian philosophers and astronomers gave many correct descriptions in atomism and
astronomy, and the Greek thinker Archimedes derived many correct quantitative
descriptions of mechanics and hydrostatics.

The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers eventually
resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific
Revolution of the late 17th century. The precursors to the scientific revolution can be
traced back to the important developments made in India and Persia, including the
elliptical model of the planets based on the heliocentric solar system of gravitation
developed by Indian mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata; the basic ideas of atomic
theory developed by Hindu and Jaina philosophers; the theory of light being equivalent to
energy particles developed by the Indian Buddhist scholars Dignāga and Dharmakirti; the
optical theory of light developed by Persian scientist Alhazen; the Astrolabe invented by
the Persian Mohammad al-Fazari; and the significant flaws in the Ptolemaic system
pointed out by Persian scientist Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.

As the influence of the Islamic Caliphate expanded to Europe, the works of Aristotle
preserved by the Arabs, and the works of the Indians and Persians, became known in
Europe by the 12th and 13th centuries. This eventually lead to the scientific revolution
which culminated with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia
Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton (1643-1727).

The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians (e.g., Howard Margolis) to have
begun in 1543, when the first printed copy of his book De Revolutionibus was brought
from Nuremberg to the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who had written most parts of it
years earlier but hesitated to publish.

Further significant advances were made over the following century by Galileo Galilei,
Christiaan Huygens, Johannes Kepler, and Blaise Pascal. During the early 17th century,
Galileo pioneered the use of experimentation to validate physical theories, which is the
key idea in modern scientific method. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several
results in dynamics, in particular the Law of Inertia. In 1687, Newton published the
Principia, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws
of motion, from which arise classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation,
which describes the fundamental force of gravity. Both theories agreed well with
experiment. The Principia also included several theories in fluid dynamics. Classical
mechanics was re-formulated and extended by Leonhard Euler, Joseph-Louis de
Lagrange, William Rowan Hamilton, and others, who produced new results in
mathematical physics. The law of universal gravitation initiated the field of astrophysics,
which describes astronomical phenomena using physical theories.

James Clerk Maxwell

After Newton defined classical mechanics, the next great field of inquiry within physics
was the nature of electricity. Observations in the 17th and 18th century by scientists such
as Robert Boyle, Stephen Gray, and Benjamin Franklin created a foundation for later
work. These observations also established our basic understanding of electrical charge
and current.

In 1821, Michael Faraday integrated the study of magnetism with the study of electricity.
This was done by demonstrating that a moving magnet induced an electric current in a
conductor. Faraday also formulated a physical conception of electromagnetic fields.
James Clerk Maxwell built upon this conception, in 1864, with an interlinked set of 20
equations that explained the interactions between electric and magnetic field. These 20
equations were later reduced, using vector calculus, to a set of four equations by Oliver
Heaviside.

Albert Einstein in 1905

In addition to other electromagnetic phenomena, Maxwell's equations also can be used to
describe light. Confirmation of this observation was made with the 1888 discovery of
radio by Heinrich Hertz and in 1895 when Wilhelm Roentgen detected X rays. The
ability to describe light in electromagnetic terms helped serve as a springboard for Albert
Einstein's publication of the theory of special relativity. This theory combined classical
mechanics with Maxwell's equations. The theory of special relativity unifies space and
time into a single entity, spacetime. Relativity prescribes a different transformation
between reference frames than classical mechanics; this necessitated the development of
relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low
(relative) velocities, the two theories agree. Einstein built further on the special theory by
including gravity into his calculations, and published his theory of general relativity in
1915.

One part of the theory of general relativity is Einstein's field equation. This describes how
the stress-energy tensor creates curvature of spacetime and forms the basis of general
relativity. Further work on Einstein's field equation produced results which predicted the
Big Bang, black holes, and the expanding universe. Einstein believed in a static universe
and tried (and failed) to fix his equation to allow for this. However, by 1929 Edwin
Hubble's astronomical observations suggested that the universe is expanding.

From the late 17th century onwards, thermodynamics was developed by Boyle, Young,
and many others. In 1733, Bernoulli used statistical arguments with classical mechanics
to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of statistical mechanics. In 1798,
Thompson demonstrated the conversion of mechanical work into heat, and in 1847 Joule
stated the law of conservation of energy, in the form of heat as well as mechanical
energy. Ludwig Boltzmann, in the 19th century, is responsible for the modern form of
statistical mechanics.

In 1895, Röntgen discovered X-rays, which turned out to be high-frequency

electromagnetic radiation. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel, and
further studied by Marie Curie, Pierre Curie, and others. This initiated the field of nuclear
physics.

In 1897, Joseph J. Thomson discovered the electron, the elementary particle which
carries electrical current in circuits. In 1904, he proposed the first model of the atom,
known as the plum pudding model. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in
1808 by John Dalton.)

These discoveries revealed that the assumption of many physicists that atoms were the
basic unit of matter was flawed, and prompted further study into the structure of atoms.
Ernest Rutherford

In 1911, Ernest Rutherford deduced from scattering experiments the existence of a

compact atomic nucleus, with positively charged constituents dubbed protons. Neutrons,
the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in 1932 by Chadwick. The equivalence
of mass and energy (Einstein, 1905) was spectacularly demonstrated during World War
II, as research was conducted by each side into nuclear physics, for the purpose of
creating a nuclear bomb. The German effort, led by Heisenberg, did not succeed, but the
Allied Manhattan Project reached its goal. In America, a team led by Fermi achieved the
first man-made nuclear chain reaction in 1942, and in 1945 the world's first nuclear
explosive was detonated at Trinity site, near Alamogordo, New Mexico.

In 1900, Max Planck published his explanation of blackbody radiation. This equation
assumed that radiators are quantized in nature, which proved to be the opening argument
in the edifice that would become quantum mechanics. Beginning in 1900, Planck,
Einstein, Niels Bohr, and others developed quantum theories to explain various
anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels. In 1925,
Heisenberg and 1926, Schrödinger and Paul Dirac formulated quantum mechanics, which
explained the preceding heuristic quantum theories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes
of physical measurements are inherently probabilistic; the theory describes the
calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small
distance scales. During the 1920s Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, and Max Born
were able to formulate a consistent picture of the chemical behavior of matter, a complete
theory of the electronic structure of the atom, as a byproduct of the quantum theory.
Richard Feynman

Quantum field theory was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be

consistent with special relativity. It was devised in the late 1940s with work by Richard
Feynman, Julian Schwinger, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, and Freeman Dyson. They formulated
the theory of quantum electrodynamics, which describes the electromagnetic interaction,
and successfully explained the Lamb shift. Quantum field theory provided the framework
for modern particle physics, which studies fundamental forces and elementary particles.

Chen Ning Yang and Tsung-Dao Lee, in the 1950s, discovered an unexpected asymmetry
in the decay of a subatomic particle. In 1954, Yang and Robert Mills then developed a
class of gauge theories which provided the framework for understanding the nuclear
forces. The theory for the strong nuclear force was first proposed by Murray Gell-Mann.
The electroweak force, the unification of the weak nuclear force with electromagnetism,
was proposed by Sheldon Lee Glashow, Abdus Salam and Steven Weinberg and
confirmed in 1964 by James Watson Cronin and Val Fitch. This led to the so-called
Standard Model of particle physics in the 1970s, which successfully describes all the
elementary particles observed to date.

Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for condensed matter physics,
whose largest branch is solid state physics. It studies the physical behavior of solids and
liquids, including phenomena such as crystal structures, semiconductivity, and
superconductivity. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include Bloch, who created
a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in
1928. The transistor was developed by physicists John Bardeen, Walter Houser Brattain
and William Bradford Shockley in 1947 at Bell Telephone Laboratories.

The two themes of the 20th century, general relativity and quantum mechanics, appear
inconsistent with each other. General relativity describes the universe on the scale of
planets and solar systems while quantum mechanics operates on sub-atomic scales. This
challenge is being attacked by string theory, which treats spacetime as composed, not of
points, but of one-dimensional objects, strings. Strings have properties like a common
string (e.g., tension and vibration). The theories yield promising, but not yet testable
results. The search for experimental verification of string theory is in progress.
The United Nations have declared the year 2005, the centenary of Einstein's annus
mirabilis, as the World Year of Physics.

Future directions
Main article: Unsolved problems in physics

Research in physics is progressing constantly on a large number of fronts, and is likely to

do so for the foreseeable future.

In condensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem is the explanation
for high-temperature superconductivity. Strong efforts, largely experimental, are being
put into making workable spintronics and quantum computers.

In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the
Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremost amongst these are indications that
neutrinos have non-zero mass. These experimental results appear to have solved the long-
standing solar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of massive neutrinos is
currently an area of active theoretical and experimental research. In the next several
years, particle accelerators will begin probing energy scales in the TeV range, in which
experimentalists are hoping to find evidence for the Higgs boson and supersymmetric
particles.

Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a single
theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have not yet borne
fruit. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum
gravity.

Many astronomical and cosmological phenomena have yet to be satisfactorily explained,

including the existence of ultra-high energy cosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the
acceleration of the universe and the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.

Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and astronomical
physics, many everyday phenomena, involving complexity, chaos, or turbulence are still
poorly understood. Complex problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever
application of dynamics and mechanics, such as the formation of sandpiles, nodes in
trickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surface tension catastrophes,
or self-sorting in shaken heterogeneous collections are unsolved. These complex
phenomena have received growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, not least
of which has been the availability of modern mathematical methods and computers which
enabled complex systems to be modeled in new ways. The interdisciplinary relevance of
complex physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in
aerodynamics or the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In 1932,
Horace Lamb correctly prophesized:
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on which I
hope for enlightenment. One is quantum electrodynamics, and the other is the turbulent
motion of fluids. And about the former I am rather optimistic.

Further reading
Popular Reading

 Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time, Bantam. ISBN

0553109537.
 Feynman, Richard (1994). Character of Physical Law, Random House.
ISBN 0679601279.
 Penrose, Roger (2004). Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of
the Universe, Knopf. ISBN 0-679-45443-8.
 Greene, Brian (2000). The Elegant Universe: Superstrings, Hidden
Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory, Vintage. ISBN 0375708111.
 Kaku, Michio (1995). Hyperspace : A Scientific Odyssey Through
Parallel Universes, Time Warps, and the 10th Dimension, Anchor. ISBN
0385477058.
 Walker, Jearl (1977). The Flying Circus of Physics, Wiley. ISBN
047102984X.
 Leggett, Anthony (1988). The Problems of Physics, Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0192891863.
 Rogers, Eric (1960). Physics for the Inquiring Mind: The Methods,
Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science, Princeton University Press. ISBN
069108016X.

University Level Textbooks

Introductory

 Feynman, Richard (1989). Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-

Wesley. ISBN 0201510030.
 Hewitt, Paul (2001). Conceptual Physics with Practicing Physics
Workbook (9th ed.), Addison Wesley. ISBN 0321052021.
 Giancoli, Douglas (2005). Physics: Principles with Applications (6th ed.),
Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130606200.
 Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2004). Physics for Scientists and
Engineers (6th ed.), Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0534408427.
 Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics,
Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.), W. H. Freeman. ISBN
0716708094.
 Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity,
Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.), W. H.
Freeman. ISBN 0716708108.
  Wilson, Jerry; Buffa, Anthony (2002). College Physics (5th ed.), Prentice
Hall. ISBN 0130676446.
 Resnick, Halliday, Walker. Fundamentals of Physics.
 Schiller, Christoph (2005). Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook.

Undergraduate

 Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2003). Classical Dynamics of

Particles and Systems (5th ed.), Brooks Cole. ISBN 0534408966.
 Hecht, Eugene (2001). Optics (4th ed.), Pearson Education. ISBN
0805385665.
 Wangsness, Roald K. (1986). Electromagnetic Fields (2nd ed.), Wiley.
ISBN 0471811866.
 Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.),
Prentice Hall. ISBN 013805326X.
 Griffiths, David J. (1987). Introduction to Elementary Particles, Wiley,
John & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0471603864.
 Griffiths, David J. (2004). Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.),
Prentice Hall. ISBN 013805326X.
 Schroeder, Daniel V. (1999). An Introduction to Thermal Physics,
Addison Wesley. ISBN 0201380277.
 Kroemer, Herbert; Kittel, Charles (1980). Thermal Physics (2nd ed.), W.
H. Freeman Company. ISBN 0716710889.
 Liboff, Richard L. (2002). Introductory Quantum Mechanics, Addison-
Wesley. ISBN 0805387145.
 Perkins, Donald H. (1999). Introduction to High Energy Physics,
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521621968.
 Schutz, Bernard F. (1984). A First Course in General Relativity,
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521277035.
 Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (1992). Spacetime Physics:
Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd ed.), W.H. Freeman. ISBN
0716723271.
 Taylor, Edwin F.; Wheeler, John Archibald (2000). Exploring Black
Holes: Introduction to General Relativity, Addison Wesley. ISBN
020138423X.
 Bergmann, Peter G. (1976). Introduction to the Theory of Relativity,
Dover Publications. ISBN 0486632822.
 Bohm, David (1989). Quantum Theory, Dover Publications. ISBN
0486659690.
 Eisberg, Robert; Resnick, Robert (1985). Quantum Physics of Atoms,
Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.), Wiley. ISBN 047187373X.
 Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern Physics (4th ed.), W. H.
Freeman. ISBN 0716743450.

Graduate
  Goldstein, Herbert (2002). Classical Mechanics, Addison Wesley.
ISBN 0201657023.
 Huang, Kerson (1990). Statistical Mechanics, Wiley, John & Sons,
Inc. ISBN 0471815187.
 Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.),
Wiley. ISBN 047130932X.
 Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1972). Mechanics and
Electrodynamics, Vol. 1, Franklin Book Company, Inc. ISBN
008016739X.
 Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1976). Course of Theoretical
Physics, Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0750628960.
 Joos, Georg; Freeman, Ira M. (1987). Theoretical Physics, Dover
Publications. ISBN 0486652270.
 Morse, Philip; Feshbach, Herman (2005). Methods of Theoretical
Physics, Feshbach Publishing. ISBN 0976202123.
 Arfken, George B.; Weber, Hans J. (2000). Mathematical Methods
for Physicists (5th ed.), Academic Press. ISBN 0120598256.
 Merzbacher, Eugen (1998). Quantum Mechanics, Wiley, John &
Sons, Inc. ISBN 0471887021.
 Peskin, Michael E.; Schroeder, Daniel V. (1994). Introduction to
Quantum Field Theory, Perseus Publishing. ISBN 0201503972.
 Wald, Robert M. (1984). General Relativity, University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0226870332.
 Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles W.; Wheeler, John Archibald
(1973). Gravitation, W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0716703440.
 Weinberg, Stephen (1972). Gravitation and Cosmology:
Principles and Applications of the General Theory of Relativity, Wiley,
John & Sons, Incorporated. ISBN 0471925675.

History

 Cropper, William H. (2004). Great Physicists  : The Life and Times

of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking, Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0195173244.
 Gamow, George (1988). The Great Physicists from Galileo to
Einstein, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486257673.
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Quantum mechanics

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

(Redirected from Quantum physics)

Jump to: navigation, search

   
A simple introduction to this subject is provided in Basics of quantum
mechanics.

Fig. 1: The wavefunctions of an electron in a hydrogen atom possessing definite energy

(increasing downward: n=1,2,3,...) and angular momentum (increasing across: s, p, d,...).
Brighter areas correspond to higher probability density for a position measurement.
Wavefunctions like these are directly comparable to Chladni's figures of acoustic modes
of vibration in classical physics and are indeed modes of oscillation as well: they possess
a sharp energy and thus a sharp frequency. The angular momentum and energy are
quantized, and only take on discrete values like those shown (as is the case for resonant
frequencies in acoustics).

Quantum mechanics is a fundamental branch of theoretical physics that replaces

Newtonian mechanics and classical electromagnetism at the atomic and subatomic levels.
It is the underlying framework of many fields of physics and chemistry, including
condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, and particle physics. Along with general
relativity, it is one of the pillars of modern physics.

Contents
[hide]
 1 Introduction
 2 Description of the theory
o 2.1 Quantum mechanical effects
o 2.2 Mathematical formulation
o 2.3 Interactions with other scientific theories
 3 Applications of quantum theory
 4 Philosophical consequences
 5 History
o 5.1 Founding experiments
 6 See also
 7 References
 8 Notes

 9 External links

Introduction
The term quantum (Latin, "how much") refers to discrete units that the theory assigns to
certain physical quantities, such as the energy of an atom at rest (see Figure 1, at right).
The discovery that waves could be measured in particle-like small packets of energy
called quanta led to the branch of physics that deals with atomic and subatomic systems
which we today call Quantum Mechanics. The foundations of quantum mechanics were
established during the first half of the 20th century by Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels
Bohr, Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul
Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli and others. Some fundamental aspects of the theory are still
actively studied.

Quantum mechanics is a more fundamental theory than Newtonian mechanics and

classical electromagnetism, in the sense that it provides accurate and precise descriptions
for many phenomena that these "classical" theories simply cannot explain on the atomic
and subatomic level. It is necessary to use quantum mechanics to understand the behavior
of systems at atomic length scales and smaller. For example, if Newtonian mechanics
governed the workings of an atom, electrons would rapidly travel towards and collide
with the nucleus. However, in the natural world the electron normally remains in a stable
orbit around a nucleus -- seemingly defying classical electromagnetism.

Quantum mechanics was initially developed to explain the atom, especially the spectra of
light emitted by different atomic species. The quantum theory of the atom developed as
an explanation for the electron's staying in its orbital, which could not be explained by
Newton's laws of motion and by classical electromagnetism.

Quantum mechanics uses complex number wave functions (sometimes referred to as

orbitals in the case of atomic electrons), and more generally, elements of a complex
vector space to explain such effects. These are related to classical physics largely through
probability. Probability in the context of quantum mechanics has to do with the likelihood
of finding a system in a particular state at a certain time, for example, finding an electron,
in a particular region around the nucleus at a particular time. Therefore, electrons cannot
be pictured as localized particles in space but rather should be thought of as "clouds" of
negative charge spread out over the entire orbit. These clouds represent the regions
around the nucleus where the probability of "finding" an electron is the largest. This
probability cloud obeys a quantum mechanical principle called Heisenberg's Uncertainty
Principle, which states that there is an uncertainty in the classical position of any
subatomic particle, including the electron; so instead of describing where an electron or
other particle is, the entire range of possible values is used, describing a probability
distribution. So in normal atoms with electrons in stationary states, the probability of the
electron being within the nucleus (or somewhere else in atom within similarly small
volume) is nearly zero according to the Uncertainty Principle (it is nearly zero as the
nucleus has a volume and is not a point). Therefore, quantum mechanics, translated to
Newton's equally deterministic description, leads to a probabilistic description of nature.

The other exemplar that led to quantum mechanics was the study of electromagnetic
waves such as light. When it was found in 1900 by Max Planck that the energy of waves
could be described as consisting of small packets or quanta, Albert Einstein exploited this
idea to show that an electromagnetic wave such as light could be described by a particle
called the photon with a discrete energy dependent on its frequency. This led to a theory
of unity between subatomic particles and electromagnetic waves called wave-particle
duality in which particles and waves were neither one nor the other, but had certain
properties of both. While quantum mechanics describes the world of the very small, it
also is needed to explain certain "macroscopic quantum systems" such as
superconductors and superfluids.

Broadly speaking, quantum mechanics incorporates four classes of phenomena that

classical physics cannot account for: (i) the quantization (discretization) of certain
physical quantities, (ii) wave-particle duality, (iii) the uncertainty principle, and (iv)
quantum entanglement. Each of these phenomena will be described in greater detail in
subsequent sections.

Most physicists believe that quantum mechanics provides a correct description for the
physical world under almost all circumstances. However, the effects of quantum
mechanics are generally not significant when considering the observable Universe as a
whole. This is because although atoms and subatomic particles are the building blocks of
matter, when analyzing the universe on large scales one finds that the dominant force
becomes gravity -- which is described using Einstein's general theory of relativity. In
some cases, both general relativity and quantum mechanics converge. As an example,
general relativity is unable to explain what will happen if a subatomic particle hits the
singularity of a black hole which is a phenomenon predicted by general relativity and
involves gravity in the macro world. Only quantum mechanics can provide the answer:
the particle's position will have an uncertainty that follows the Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle, such that it might not really reach the singularity and thus escape the possible
collapse to infinite density.

It is believed that the theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics, the two great
achievements of physics in the 20th century, contradict one another for two main reasons.
One is that the former is an essentially deterministic theory and the latter is essentially
indeterministic. Secondly, general relativity relies mainly on the force of gravity while
quantum mechanics relies mainly on the other three fundamental forces, those being the
strong, the weak, and the electromagnetic. The question of how to resolve this
contradiction remains an area of active research (see, for example, quantum gravity).

In certain situations, the laws of classical physics approximate the laws of quantum
mechanics to a high degree of precision. This is often expressed by saying that in case of
large quantum numbers quantum mechanics "reduces" to classical mechanics and
classical electromagnetism . This situation is called the correspondence, or classical limit.

Quantum mechanics can be formulated in either a relativistic or non-relativistic manner.

Relativistic quantum mechanics (quantum field theory) provides the framework for some
of the most accurate physical theories known. Still, non-relativistic quantum mechanics is
also used due to its simplicity and when relativistic effects are relatively small. We will
use the terms quantum mechanics, quantum physics, and quantum theory
synonymously, to refer to both relativistic and non-relativistic quantum mechanics. It
should be noted, however, that certain authors refer to "quantum mechanics" in the more
restricted sense of non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Also, in quantum mechanics, the
use of the term particle refers to an elementary or subatomic particle.

[edit]

Description of the theory

 Topics in Quantum theory
Mathematical formulation of quantum
mechanics

Bra-ket notation | Commutation relation |

There are a number of mathematically First quantization | Heisenberg picture |
equivalent formulations of quantum Schrödinger picture | Wavefunction |
mechanics. One of the oldest and most Measurement in quantum mechanics |
commonly used formulations is the Semiclassical | Path integral | WKB
transformation theory invented by Paul approximation | Quantum logic | Quantum
Dirac, which unifies and generalizes the operation | Quantum field theory |
two earliest formulations of quantum Wightman axioms | Statistical ensemble |
mechanics, matrix mechanics (invented Wigner quasi-probability distribution
by Werner Heisenberg) and wave Schrödinger equation
mechanics (invented by Erwin
Schrödinger). Matrix mechanics, Hamiltonian | Particle in
a box | Particle in a ring | Particle in a
In this formulation, the instantaneous spherically symmetric potential | Quantum
state of a quantum system encodes the harmonic oscillator | Hydrogen atom | Ring
probabilities of its measurable properties, wave guide | Particle in a one-dimensional
or "observables". Examples of lattice
observables include energy, position, Symmetry
momentum, and angular momentum.
Observables can be either continuous
Noether's theorem | Lorentz symmetry >
(e.g., the position of a particle) or
Rotational invariance > Rotational
discrete (e.g., the energy of an electron
symmetry > Rotation operator > Angular
bound to a hydrogen atom).
momentum Angular momentum operator |
Translational symmetry | Parity
Generally, quantum mechanics does not
transformation | Identical particles | Spin |
assign definite values to observables.
Isospin | Pauli matrices | Scale invariance |
Instead, it makes predictions about
Spontaneous symmetry breaking |
probability distributions; that is, the
Supersymmetry breaking
probability of obtaining each of the
possible outcomes from measuring an Quantum states
observable. Naturally, these probabilities
will depend on the quantum state at the Quantum number | Pauli exclusion
instant of the measurement. There are, principle | Quantum indeterminacy |
however, certain states that are Uncertainty principle | Wavefunction
associated with a definite value of a collapse | Zero-point energy | Bound state |
particular observable. These are known Coherent state > Squeezed coherent state |
as "eigenstates" of the observable Density state | Fock state, Fock space |
("eigen" meaning "own" in German). In Vacuum state | Quasinormal mode | No
the everyday world, it is natural and cloning theorem | Quantum entanglement
intuitive to think of everything being in Dirac equation
an eigenstate of every observable.
Everything appears to have a definite Spinor, Spinor group, Spinor bundle | Dirac
position, a definite momentum, and a sea | Spin foam | Poincaré group | Gamma
definite time of occurrence. However, matrices | Dirac adjoint | Wigner's
Quantum Mechanics does not pinpoint classification | Anyon | Fermion field
the exact values for the position or Interpretations of quantum mechanics
momentum of a certain particle in a
Wave-particle duality | Copenhagen | Many
worlds | Locality | Bell's theorem | Bell
loopholes | Bohr Einstein debate | CHSH |
Wigner-d'Espagnat inequality | Hidden
variable | Bohm int. | Tsirelson's bound
Quantum chemistry
given space in a finite time, but, rather, it only provides a range of probabilities of where
that particle might be. Therefore, it became necessary to use different words for a) the
state of something having an uncertainty relation and b) a state that has a definite value.
The latter is called the "eigenstate" of the property being measured.

A concrete example will be useful here. Let us consider a free particle. In quantum
mechanics, there is wave-particle duality so the properties of the particle can be described
as a wave. Therefore, its quantum state can be represented as a wave, of arbitrary shape
and extending over all of space, called a wavefunction. The position and momentum of
the particle are observables. The Uncertainty Principle of quantum mechanics states that
both the position and the momentum cannot simultaneously be known with infinite
precision at the same time. However, we can measure just the position alone of a moving
free particle creating an eigenstate of position with a wavefunction that is very large at a
particular position x, and zero everywhere else. If we perform a position measurement on
such a wavefunction, we will obtain the result x with 100% probability. In other words,
we will know the position of the free particle. This is called an eigenstate of position. If
the particle is in an eigenstate of position then its momentum is completely unknown. An
eigenstate of momentum, on the other hand, has the form of a plane wave. It can be
shown that the wavelength is equal to h/p, where h is Planck's constant and p is the
momentum of the eigenstate. If the particle is in an eigenstate of momentum then its
position is completely blurred out.

Usually, a system will not be in an eigenstate of whatever observable we are interested in.
However, if we measure the observable, the wavefunction will immediately become an
eigenstate of that observable. This process is known as wavefunction collapse. If we
know the wavefunction at the instant before the measurement, we will be able to compute
the probability of collapsing into each of the possible eigenstates. For example, the free
particle in our previous example will usually have a wavefunction that is a wave packet
centered around some mean position x0, neither an eigenstate of position nor of
momentum. When we measure the position of the particle, it is impossible for us to
predict with certainty the result that we will obtain. It is probable, but not certain, that it
will be near x0, where the amplitude of the wavefunction is large. After we perform the
measurement, obtaining some result x, the wavefunction collapses into a position
eigenstate centered at x.

Wave functions can change as time progresses. An equation known as the Schrödinger
equation describes how wave functions change in time, a role similar to Newton's second
law in classical mechanics. The Schrödinger equation, applied to our free particle,
predicts that the center of a wave packet will move through space at a constant velocity,
like a classical particle with no forces acting on it. However, the wave packet will also
spread out as time progresses, which means that the position becomes more uncertain.
This also has the effect of turning position eigenstates (which can be thought of as
infinitely sharp wave packets) into broadened wave packets that are no longer position
eigenstates.
Some wave functions produce probability distributions that are constant in time. Many
systems that are treated dynamically in classical mechanics are described by such "static"
wave functions. For example, a single electron in an unexcited atom is pictured
classically as a particle moving in a circular trajectory around the atomic nucleus,
whereas in quantum mechanics it is described by a static, spherically symmetric
wavefunction surrounding the nucleus (Fig. 1). (Note that only the lowest angular
momentum states, labeled s, are spherically symmetric).

The time evolution of wave functions is deterministic in the sense that, given a
wavefunction at an initial time, it makes a definite prediction of what the wavefunction
will be at any later time. During a measurement, the change of the wavefunction into
another one is not deterministic, but rather unpredictable, i.e., random.

The probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics thus stems from the act of measurement.
This is one of the most difficult aspects of quantum systems to understand. It was the
central topic in the famous Bohr-Einstein debates, in which the two scientists attempted
to clarify these fundamental principles by way of thought experiments. In the decades
after the formulation of quantum mechanics, the question of what constitutes a
"measurement" has been extensively studied. Interpretations of quantum mechanics have
been formulated to do away with the concept of "wavefunction collapse"; see, for
example, the relative state interpretation. The basic idea is that when a quantum system
interacts with a measuring apparatus, their respective wavefunctions become entangled,
so that the original quantum system ceases to exist as an independent entity. For details,
see the article on measurement in quantum mechanics.

[edit]

Quantum mechanical effects

As mentioned in the introduction, there are several classes of phenomena that appear
under quantum mechanics which have no analogue in classical physics. These are
sometimes referred to as "quantum effects".

The first type of quantum effect is the quantization of certain physical quantities.
Quantization first arose in the mathematical formulae of Max Planck in 1900 as discussed
in the introduction. Max Planck was analyzing how the radiation emitted from a body
was related to its temperature, in other words, he was analyzing the energy of a wave.
The energy of a wave could not be infinite, so Planck used the property of the wave we
designate as the frequency to define energy. Max Planck discovered a constant that when
multiplied by the frequency of any wave gives the energy of the wave. This constant is
referred to by the letter h in mathematical formulae. It is a cornerstone of physics. By
measuring the energy in a discrete non-continuous portion of the wave, the wave took on
the appearance of chunks or packets of energy. These chunks of energy resembled
particles. So energy is said to be quantized because it only comes in discrete chunks
instead of a continuous range of energies.
In the example we have given, of a free particle in empty space, both the position and the
momentum are continuous observables. However, if we restrict the particle to a region of
space (the so-called "particle in a box" problem), the momentum observable will become

discrete; it will only take on the values , where L is the length of the box, h is
Planck's constant, and n is an arbitrary nonnegative integer number. Such observables are
said to be quantized, and they play an important role in many physical systems. Examples
of quantized observables include angular momentum, the total energy of a bound system,
and the energy contained in an electromagnetic wave of a given frequency.

Another quantum effect is the uncertainty principle, which is the phenomenon that
consecutive measurements of two or more observables may possess a fundamental
limitation on accuracy. In our free particle example, it turns out that it is impossible to
find a wavefunction that is an eigenstate of both position and momentum. This implies
that position and momentum can never be simultaneously measured with arbitrary
precision, even in principle: as the precision of the position measurement improves, the
maximum precision of the momentum measurement decreases, and vice versa. Those
variables for which it holds (e.g., momentum and position, or energy and time) are
canonically conjugate variables in classical physics.

Another quantum effect is the wave-particle duality. It has been shown that, under certain
experimental conditions, microscopic objects like atoms or electrons exhibit particle-like
behavior, such as scattering. ("Particle-like" in the sense of an object that can be localized
to a particular region of space.) Under other conditions, the same type of objects exhibit
wave-like behavior, such as interference. We can observe only one type of property at a
time, never both at the same time.

Another quantum effect is quantum entanglement. In some cases, the wave function of a
system composed of many particles cannot be separated into independent wave functions,
one for each particle. In that case, the particles are said to be "entangled". If quantum
mechanics is correct, entangled particles can display remarkable and counter-intuitive
properties. For example, a measurement made on one particle can produce, through the
collapse of the total wavefunction, an instantaneous effect on other particles with which it
is entangled, even if they are far apart. (This does not conflict with special relativity
because information cannot be transmitted in this way.)

[edit]

Mathematical formulation

Main article: Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. See also the discussion
in Quantum logic.

In the mathematically rigorous formulation of quantum mechanics, developed by Paul

Dirac and John von Neumann, the possible states of a quantum mechanical system are
represented by unit vectors (called "state vectors") residing in a complex separable
Hilbert space (variously called the "state space" or the "associated Hilbert space" of the
system). The exact nature of this Hilbert space is dependent on the system; for example,
the state space for position and momentum states is the space of square-integrable
functions, while the state space for the spin of a single proton is just the product of two
complex planes. Each observable is represented by a densely defined Hermitian (or self-
adjoint) linear operator acting on the state space. Each eigenstate of an observable
corresponds to an eigenvector of the operator, and the associated eigenvalue corresponds
to the value of the observable in that eigenstate. If the operator's spectrum is discrete, the
observable can only attain those discrete eigenvalues.

The time evolution of a quantum state is described by the Schrödinger equation, in which
the Hamiltonian, the operator corresponding to the total energy of the system, generates
time evolution.

The inner product between two state vectors is a complex number known as a probability
amplitude. During a measurement, the probability that a system collapses from a given
initial state to a particular eigenstate is given by the square of the absolute value of the
probability amplitudes between the initial and final states. The possible results of a
measurement are the eigenvalues of the operator - which explains the choice of
Hermitian operators, for which all the eigenvalues are real. We can find the probability
distribution of an observable in a given state by computing the spectral decomposition of
the corresponding operator. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is represented by the
statement that the operators corresponding to certain observables do not commute.

The Schrödinger equation acts on the entire probability amplitude, not merely its absolute
value. Whereas the absolute value of the probability amplitude encodes information about
probabilities, its phase encodes information about the interference between quantum
states. This gives rise to the wave-like behavior of quantum states.

It turns out that analytic solutions of Schrödinger's equation are only available for a small
number of model Hamiltonians, of which the quantum harmonic oscillator and the
hydrogen atom are the most important representatives. Even the helium atom, which
contains just one more electron than hydrogen, defies all attempts at a fully analytic
treatment. There exist several techniques for generating approximate solutions. For
instance, in the method known as perturbation theory one uses the analytic results for a
simple quantum mechanical model to generate results for a more complicated model
related to the simple model by, for example, the addition of a weak potential energy.
Another method is the "semi-classical equation of motion" approach, which applies to
systems for which quantum mechanics produces weak deviations from classical behavior.
The deviations can be calculated based on the classical motion. This approach is
important for the field of quantum chaos.

An alternative formulation of quantum mechanics is Feynman's path integral formulation,

in which a quantum-mechanical amplitude is considered as a sum over histories between
initial and final states; this is the quantum-mechanical counterpart of action principles in
classical mechanics.
[edit]

Interactions with other scientific theories

The fundamental rules of quantum mechanics are very broad. They state that the state
space of a system is a Hilbert space and the observables are Hermitian operators acting
on that space, but do not tell us which Hilbert space or which operators. These must be
chosen appropriately in order to obtain a quantitative description of a quantum system.
An important guide for making these choices is the correspondence principle, which
states that the predictions of quantum mechanics reduce to those of classical physics
when a system becomes large. This "large system" limit is known as the classical or
correspondence limit. One can therefore start from an established classical model of a
particular system, and attempt to guess the underlying quantum model that gives rise to
the classical model in the correspondence limit.

Unsolved problems in physics: In the correspondence limit of quantum mechanics: Is there a preferred
interpretation of quantum mechanics? How does the quantum description of reality, which includes
elements such as the superposition of states and wavefunction collapse, give rise to the reality we
perceive?

When quantum mechanics was originally formulated, it was applied to models whose
correspondence limit was non-relativistic classical mechanics. For instance, the well-
known model of the quantum harmonic oscillator uses an explicitly non-relativistic
expression for the kinetic energy of the oscillator, and is thus a quantum version of the
classical harmonic oscillator.

Early attempts to merge quantum mechanics with special relativity involved the
replacement of the Schrödinger equation with a covariant equation such as the Klein-
Gordon equation or the Dirac equation. While these theories were successful in
explaining many experimental results, they had certain unsatisfactory qualities stemming
from their neglect of the relativistic creation and annihilation of particles. A fully
relativistic quantum theory required the development of quantum field theory, which
applies quantization to a field rather than a fixed set of particles. The first complete
quantum field theory, quantum electrodynamics, provides a fully quantum description of
the electromagnetic interaction.

The full apparatus of quantum field theory is often unnecessary for describing
electrodynamic systems. A simpler approach, one employed since the inception of
quantum mechanics, is to treat charged particles as quantum mechanical objects being
acted on by a classical electromagnetic field. For example, the elementary quantum
model of the hydrogen atom describes the electric field of the hydrogen atom using a
classical 1/r Coulomb potential. This "semi-classical" approach fails if quantum
fluctuations in the electromagnetic field play an important role, such as in the emission of
photons by charged particles.

Quantum field theories for the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force have been
developed. The quantum field theory of the strong nuclear force is called quantum
chromodynamics, and describes the interactions of the subnuclear particles: quarks and
gluons. The weak nuclear force and the electromagnetic force were unified, in their
quantized forms, into a single quantum field theory known as electroweak theory.

It has proven difficult to construct quantum models of gravity, the remaining fundamental
force. Semi-classical approximations are workable, and have led to predictions such as
Hawking radiation. However, the formulation of a complete theory of quantum gravity is
hindered by apparent incompatibilities between general relativity, the most accurate
theory of gravity currently known, and some of the fundamental assumptions of quantum
theory. The resolution of these incompatibilities is an area of active research, and theories
such as string theory are among the possible candidates for a future theory of quantum
gravity

[edit]

Applications of quantum theory

Quantum mechanics has had enormous success in explaining many of the features of our
world. The individual behavior of the subatomic particles that make up all forms of
matter - electrons, protons, neutrons, and so forth - can often only be satisfactorily
described using quantum mechanics.

Quantum mechanics is important for understanding how individual atoms combine to

form chemicals. The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is known as
quantum chemistry. Quantum mechanics can provide quantitative insight into chemical
bonding processes by explicitly showing which molecules are energetically favorable to
which others, and by approximately how much. Most of the calculations performed in
computational chemistry rely on quantum mechanics.

Much of modern technology operates at a scale where quantum effects are significant.
Examples include the laser, the transistor, the electron microscope, and magnetic
resonance imaging. The study of semiconductors led to the invention of the diode and the
transistor, which are indispensable for modern electronics.

Researchers are currently seeking robust methods of directly manipulating quantum

states. Efforts are being made to develop quantum cryptography, which will allow
guaranteed secure transmission of information. A more distant goal is the development of
quantum computers, which are expected to perform certain computational tasks
exponentially faster than classical computers. Another active research topic is quantum
teleportation, which deals with techniques to transmit quantum states over arbitrary
distances.
[edit]

Philosophical consequences
Main article: Interpretations of quantum mechanics

Since its inception, the many counter-intuitive results of quantum mechanics have
provoked strong philosophical debate and many interpretations. Even fundamental issues
such as Max Born's basic rules concerning probability amplitudes and probability
distributions took decades to be appreciated.

The Copenhagen interpretation, due largely to Niels Bohr, is the interpretation of

quantum mechanics most widely accepted amongst physicists. According to it, the
probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics predictions cannot be explained in terms of
some other deterministic theory, and does not simply reflect our limited knowledge.
Quantum mechanics provides probabilistic results because the physical universe is itself
probabilistic rather than deterministic.

Albert Einstein, himself one of the founders of quantum theory, disliked this loss of
determinism in measurement. He held that there should be a local hidden variable theory
underlying quantum mechanics and consequently the present theory was incomplete. He
produced a series of objections to the theory, the most famous of which has become
known as the EPR paradox. John Bell showed that the EPR paradox led to experimentally
testable differences between quantum mechanics and local hidden variable theories.
Experiments have been taken as confirming that quantum mechanics is correct and the
real world cannot be described in terms of such hidden variables. "Loopholes" in the
experiments, however, mean that the question is still not quite settled.

See the Bohr-Einstein debates

The Everett many-worlds interpretation, formulated in 1956, holds that all the
possibilities described by quantum theory simultaneously occur in a "multiverse"
composed of mostly independent parallel universes. This is not accomplished by
introducing some new axiom to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by removing the
axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the
measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a
real physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) quantum
superposition. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems
is called an entangled state.) While the multiverse is deterministic, we perceive non-
deterministic behavior governed by probabilities, because we can observe only the
universe, i.e. the consistent state contribution to the mentioned superposition, we inhabit.
Everett's interpretation is perfectly consistent with John Bell's experiments and makes
them intuitively understandable.

[edit]
History
In 1900, Max Planck introduced the idea that energy is quantized, in order to derive a
formula for the observed frequency dependence of the energy emitted by a black body. In
1905, Einstein explained the photoelectric effect by postulating that light energy comes in
quanta called photons. The idea that each photon had to consist of energy in terms of
quanta was a remarkable achievement as it effectively removed the possibility of black
body radiation attaining infinite energy if it were to be explained in terms of wave forms
only. In 1913, Bohr explained the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom, again by using
quantization, in his paper of July 1913 'On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules'. In
1924, Louis de Broglie put forward his theory of matter waves by stating that any matter
can exhibit wave characteristics and vice versa.

These theories, though successful, were strictly phenomenological: there was no rigorous
justification for quantization. They are collectively known as the old quantum theory.

The phrase "quantum physics" was first used in Johnston's Planck's Universe in Light of
Modern Physics.

Modern quantum mechanics was born in 1925, when Heisenberg developed matrix
mechanics and Schrödinger invented wave mechanics and the Schrödinger equation.
Schrödinger subsequently showed that the two approaches were equivalent.

Heisenberg formulated his uncertainty principle in 1927, and the Copenhagen

interpretation took shape at about the same time. Starting around 1927, Paul Dirac began
the process of unifying quantum mechanics with special relativity by discovering the
Dirac equation for the electron. He also pioneered the use of operator theory, including
the influential bra-ket notation, as described in his famous 1930 textbook. During the
same period, John von Neumann formulated the rigorous mathematical basis for quantum
mechanics as the theory of linear operators on Hilbert spaces, as described in his likewise
famous 1932 textbook. These, like many other works from the founding period still stand,
and remain widely used.

The field of quantum chemistry was pioneered by Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who
published a study of the covalent bond of the hydrogen molecule in 1927. Quantum
chemistry was subsequently developed by a large number of workers, including the
American chemist Linus Pauling.

Beginning in 1927, attempts were made to apply quantum mechanics to fields rather than
single particles, resulting in what are known as quantum field theories. Early workers in
this area included Dirac, Pauli, Weisskopf, and Jordan. This area of research culminated
in the formulation of quantum electrodynamics by Feynman, Dyson, Schwinger, and
Tomonaga during the 1940s. Quantum electrodynamics is a quantum theory of electrons,
positrons, and the electromagnetic field, and served as a role model for subsequent
quantum field theories.
The theory of quantum chromodynamics was formulated beginning in the early 1960s.
The theory as we know it today was formulated by Politzer, Gross and Wilzcek in 1975.
Building on pioneering work by Schwinger, Higgs, Goldstone, Glashow, Weinberg and
Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics
could be merged into a single electroweak force.

[edit]

Founding experiments

 Thomas Young's double-slit experiment demonstrating the wave nature of light

(c1805)
 Henri Becquerel discovers radioactivity (1896)
 Joseph John Thomson's cathode ray tube experiments (discovers the electron and
its negative charge) (1897)
 The study of black body radiation between 1850 and 1900, which could not be
explained without quantum concepts.
 The photoelectric effect: Einstein explained this in 1905 (and later received a
Nobel prize for it) using the concept of photons, particles of light with quantized
energy
 Robert Millikan's oil-drop experiment, which showed that electric charge occurs
as quanta (whole units), (1909)
 Ernest Rutherford's gold foil experiment disproved the plum pudding model of the
atom which suggested that the mass and positive charge of the atom are almost
uniformly distributed. (1911)
 Otto Stern and Walter Gerlach conduct the Stern-Gerlach experiment, which
demonstrates the quantized nature of particle spin (1920)
 Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer demonstrate the wave nature of the electron
1
in the Electron diffraction experiment (1927)
 Clyde L. Cowan and Frederick Reines confirm the existence of the neutrino in the
neutrino experiment (1955)
 Claus Jönsson`s double-slit experiment with electrons (1961)

See also
 Von Neumann's catastrophe
 Quantum electrochemistry
 Quantum information
 Measurement in quantum mechanics
 Basics of quantum mechanics

References
 P. A. M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics (1930) -- the beginning
chapters provide a very clear and comprehensible introduction
  David Griffiths, Introduction to Quantum Mechanics, Prentice Hall, 1995. ISBN
0-13-111892-7 -- A standard undergraduate level text written in an accessible
style.
 Richard P. Feynman, Robert B. Leighton and Matthew Sands (1965). The
Feynman Lectures on Physics, Addison-Wesley. Richard Feynman's original
lectures (given at CALTECH in early 1962) can also be downloaded as an MP3
file from www.audible.com[1]
 Albert Messiah, Quantum Mechanics, English translation by G. M. Temmer of
Mécanique Quantique, 1966, John Wiley and Sons, vol. I, chapter IV, section III.
 Richard P. Feynman, QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter -- a popular
science book about quantum mechanics and quantum field theory that contains
many enlightening insights that are interesting for the expert as well
 Marvin Chester, Primer of Quantum Mechanics, 1987, John Wiley, N.Y. ISBN
0486428788
 Hagen Kleinert, Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer
Physics, and Financial Markets, 3th edition, World Scientific (Singapore, 2004)
(also available online here)
 George Mackey (2004). The mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics.
Dover Publications. ISBN 0486435172.

Notes
 Note 1: The Davisson-Germer experiment, which demonstrates the wave nature
of the electron

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:

Quantum mechanics

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Quantum mechanics
 MIT OpenCourseWare: Chemistry. See 5.61, 5.73, and 5.74
 Quantum Mechanics (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
 Imperial College Quantum Mechanics Course to Download

 Spark Notes - Quantum Physics

 Quantum mechanics
 Everything you wanted to know about the quantum world — Provided by New
Scientist.
  A history of quantum mechanics
 David Mermin on the future directions of physics
 New developments in the understanding of the quantum-classical relation
 A Lazy Layman's Guide to Quantum Physics
 A short FAQ on quantum resonances
 A set of downloadable tutorials on Quantum Mechanics, Imperial College
 Introduction to Quantum Theory at Quantiki
 "Quantum Trickery: Testing Einstein's Strangest Theory", The New York Times,
December 27, 2005.
 Hinduism & Quantum Physics
 Three Lectures by Hans Bethe
 5 Quantum Articles

General subfields within physics

Atomic, molecular, and optical physics | Classical mechanics |

Condensed matter physics | Continuum mechanics | Electromagnetism
| Special relativity | General relativity | Particle physics | Quantum
field theory | Quantum mechanics | Statistical mechanics |
Thermodynamics
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"

Categories: Quantum mechanics | Mechanics

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